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56-606: The name of the village comes from a Celtic language word "tyn", which means wall or fence, and which means that the history of Tyniec as a fortified settlement (see gord ) dates back to pre- Slavic times. Tyniec lies 12 km (7 mi) southwest of the centre of Kraków, on the right bank of the Vistula, among limestone Jurassic hills, called the Tyniec Hills, with the highest one being Wielogora (also called Guminek), 293 metres (961 feet) above sea level . Furthermore, Tyniec has

112-1007: A Gothic presbytery and a Baroque main nave. Several altars were created by an 18th-century Italian sculptor Francesco Placidi. The church also has a late Baroque pulpit by Franciszek Jozef Mangoldt. For more than a century, the abbey had remained unoccupied. Only in the last days of July 1939, a month before the outbreak of World War II, eleven Belgian monks moved into it. 50°00′39″N 19°49′13″E  /  50.01083°N 19.82028°E  / 50.01083; 19.82028 Celtic languages Pontic Steppe Caucasus East Asia Eastern Europe Northern Europe Pontic Steppe Northern/Eastern Steppe Europe South Asia Steppe Europe Caucasus India Indo-Aryans Iranians East Asia Europe East Asia Europe Indo-Aryan Iranian Indo-Aryan Iranian Others European The Celtic languages ( / ˈ k ɛ l t ɪ k / KEL -tik ) are

168-428: A Vistula canyon (called Tyniec Gate), a Skolczanka Nature Reserve (est. 1957), and a locally renowned water source, Zrodlo Swietojanskie, the only source of this kind in the city of Kraków. In ancient times the village was located along a merchant trade route from Kraków, via Oświęcim , to Moravia and Bohemia . The history of human settlement in the area of the village dates back to the paleolithic period. On top of

224-614: A branch of the Indo-European language family , descended from Proto-Celtic . The term "Celtic" was first used to describe this language group by Edward Lhuyd in 1707, following Paul-Yves Pezron , who made the explicit link between the Celts described by classical writers and the Welsh and Breton languages. During the first millennium BC, Celtic languages were spoken across much of Europe and central Anatolia . Today, they are restricted to

280-466: A common Italo-Celtic subfamily. This hypothesis fell somewhat out of favour after reexamination by American linguist Calvert Watkins in 1966. Irrespectively, some scholars such as Ringe, Warnow and Taylor and many others have argued in favour of an Italo-Celtic grouping in 21st century theses. Although there are many differences between the individual Celtic languages, they do show many family resemblances. Examples: The lexical similarity between

336-501: A contemporary nickname. Following the death of his father Casimir in 1058, Bolesław II, as the eldest son, inherited Greater and Lesser Poland as well as the Mazovian , Pomerelian , and Silesian lands. His younger brothers Władysław Herman and Mieszko became Governors of the remaining provinces. However Mieszko died relatively early, in 1065, at which point his lands came under the authority of Bolesław II. His father had left him

392-455: A course of action more characteristic of his nickname, "the Bold". Kadłubek categorically condemns the murder of Stanislaus as savage and unjust; meanwhile, Gallus Anonymus passes negative judgement on both the bishop, on account of his treason, and on Bolesław, for his shameful conduct in administering the punishment. Bolesław found refuge at the court of King Ladislaus , who also owed his crown to

448-481: A rich literary tradition . The earliest specimens of written Celtic are Lepontic inscriptions from the 6th century BC in the Alps. Early Continental inscriptions used Italic and Paleohispanic scripts. Between the 4th and 8th centuries, Irish and Pictish were occasionally written in an original script, Ogham , but Latin script came to be used for all Celtic languages. Welsh has had a continuous literary tradition from

504-453: A stabilised country; Bolesław II continued his foreign policy on surrounding his realm with allied kingdoms in order to prevail against the extensive Holy Roman Empire in the west; he aimed to have Poland eventually bordering only allied countries. This is said to be the main reason behind his numerous foreign interventions: in 1060–1063 he intervened in Hungary to aid his uncle King Béla I in

560-628: A summer evening in 1082, he reached the Benedictine Abbey at Ossiach in Carinthia , where he was received and did all kind of hard work until he finally was reconciled in the Sacrament of Penance and died. At the walls of Ossiach, there exists a tomb bearing the depiction of a horse and the inscription Rex Boleslaus Polonie occisor sancti Stanislai Epi Cracoviensis ("Bolesław, King of Poland, murderer of Saint Stanislaus, Bishop of Kraków"). In 1960, at

616-523: Is almost certainly an independent branch on the Celtic genealogical tree, one that became separated from the others very early." The Breton language is Brittonic, not Gaulish, though there may be some input from the latter, having been introduced from Southwestern regions of Britain in the post-Roman era and having evolved into Breton. In the P/Q classification schema, the first language to split off from Proto-Celtic

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672-562: Is an official language of Ireland and of the European Union . Welsh is the only Celtic language not classified as endangered by UNESCO . The Cornish and Manx languages became extinct in modern times but have been revived. Each now has several hundred second-language speakers. Irish, Manx and Scottish Gaelic form the Goidelic languages , while Welsh, Cornish and Breton are Brittonic . All of these are Insular Celtic languages , since Breton,

728-666: Is regarded as one of the most important events in the history of Tyniec. In 1259 the village was destroyed during the Mongol invasion of Poland , by Tatar hordes heading from Kraków towards Silesia . Complete destruction was brought again in the Swedish invasion of Poland . In 1771–1772, during the Bar Confederation , the village was defended by the Polish rebels, fighting the Russians: for example, in

784-591: Is still quite contested, and the main argument for Insular Celtic is connected with the development of verbal morphology and the syntax in Irish and British Celtic, which Schumacher regards as convincing, while he considers the P-Celtic/Q-Celtic division unimportant and treats Gallo-Brittonic as an outdated theory. Stifter affirms that the Gallo-Brittonic view is "out of favour" in the scholarly community as of 2008 and

840-518: The Gniezno Cathedral in the presence of a papal legate. King Henry's IV act of contrition at the Walk to Canossa in 1077 included also the imperial recognition of Bolesław II's royal title. Bolesław's new authority, along with his pride, however, caused the Polish magnates to rebel, as they feared the monarchy had started to grow too powerful. In 1077 Bolesław II's troops helped two pretenders to assume

896-529: The action of 20 May 1771 . After the Partitions of Poland , Tyniec, together with the abbey, was annexed by the Habsburg Empire , and remained in the province of Galicia from 1772 until late 1918. In 1816, Austrian authorities closed down the abbey, and the complex gradually began to turn into a ruin. In the 19th century, Tyniec was a large, yet poor village. Its houses were concentrated in two areas – around

952-537: The 2000s led to the reemergence of native speakers for both languages following their adoption by adults and children. By the 21st century, there were roughly one million total speakers of Celtic languages, increasing to 1.4 million speakers by 2010. Gaelainn / Gaeilig / Gaeilic Celtic is divided into various branches: Scholarly handling of Celtic languages has been contentious owing to scarceness of primary source data. Some scholars (such as Cowgill 1975; McCone 1991, 1992; and Schrijver 1995) posit that

1008-581: The 6th century AD. SIL Ethnologue lists six living Celtic languages, of which four have retained a substantial number of native speakers. These are: the Goidelic languages ( Irish and Scottish Gaelic , both descended from Middle Irish ) and the Brittonic languages ( Welsh and Breton , descended from Common Brittonic ). The other two, Cornish (Brittonic) and Manx (Goidelic), died out in modern times with their presumed last native speakers in 1777 and 1974 respectively. Revitalisation movements in

1064-797: The Baltic coast. Therefore, in either 1060 or 1066, Gdańsk Pomerania (Pomerelia) severed its ties to the Polish Kingdom. When Hildebrand of Sovana, an enemy of the German king, became Pope Gregory VII in 1073, Bolesław II saw in him a natural ally; he started to apply the Pope's reforms in the Archbishopric of Gniezno and commenced negotiations to obtain the royal crown. He spurred the ongoing revolt in Saxony , which had forced Henry IV to retreat from that region (he crushed

1120-690: The Benedictine abbey of Tyniec near Kraków. Before 1069 Bolesław II married Wyszesława (d. aft. 1089), who, according to the Chronicle of Jan Długosz (and supported by some sources), was a daughter of Grand Prince Sviatoslav II of Kiev by his first wife Kilikia, possibly a member of the House of Dithmarschen. They had one son, Mieszko (1069 – 1089), who was brought up in the Hungarian court by Ladislaus. Modern historians, led by Oswald Balzer (in 1895), refuted

1176-636: The Benedictines. The Cyrillo-Methodian tradition had begun in Moravia in the year 862. Brothers, Cyril and Methodius, were missionaries who established Christianity in the vernacular for Moravian Slavs. This practice quickly spread throughout the region and into the areas which are now in Poland. Tyniec monks performed the liturgy and read the psalms and Gospels in the Proto-Slavic tongue derived from this period. In 1096,

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1232-550: The Gallic and Brittonic languages are P-Celtic, while the Goidelic and Hispano-Celtic (or Celtiberian) languages are Q-Celtic. The P-Celtic languages (also called Gallo-Brittonic ) are sometimes seen (for example by Koch 1992) as a central innovating area as opposed to the more conservative peripheral Q-Celtic languages. According to Ranko Matasovic in the introduction to his 2009 Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic : "Celtiberian ...

1288-800: The Generous ( Szczodry Polish ) was Duke of Poland from 1058 to 1076 and King of Poland from 1076 to 1079. He was the eldest son of Duke Casimir I the Restorer and Maria Dobroniega of Kiev . Bolesław II is considered to have been one of the most capable of the Piast rulers. In 1075 he re-established the Archdiocese of Gniezno (consecrated in 1064) and founded the Diocese of Płock . He established Benedictine monasteries in Mogilno , Lubin and Wrocław . Bolesław II

1344-541: The Gora Klasztorna hill traces of a neolithic settlement were found. It had a ceramics work, there also was a mint, which manufactured silver Celtic coins. Probably in the early 10th century, Tyniec was settled by the Vistulans , which some time ca. 1000 became part of the early Kingdom of Poland . The village was a royal property, and the decision of King Casimir the Restorer to locate a Benedictine abbey here (ca. 1040)

1400-485: The Insular Celtic hypothesis "widely accepted". When referring only to the modern Celtic languages, since no Continental Celtic language has living descendants, "Q-Celtic" is equivalent to "Goidelic" and "P-Celtic" is equivalent to "Brittonic". How the family tree of the Celtic languages is ordered depends on which hypothesis is used: " Insular Celtic hypothesis " " P/Q-Celtic hypothesis " Eska evaluates

1456-461: The Insular Celtic languages were probably not in great enough contact for those innovations to spread as part of a sprachbund . However, if they have another explanation (such as an SOV substratum language), then it is possible that P-Celtic is a valid clade, and the top branching would be: Within the Indo-European family, the Celtic languages have sometimes been placed with the Italic languages in

1512-575: The Kievan origin and name of Bolesław II's wife and expounded the theory that his wife was the queen named Agnes whose obituary is recorded in Zwiefalten . She may have belonged to the Přemyslid dynasty . Bolesław's reluctance to marry, being still single at 25, has led his critics to accuse him of homosexuality, most notably by Jan Długosz for the "sin of sodomy "; this was motivated more likely by politics as

1568-487: The Larzac piece of lead (1983), the analysis of which reveals another common phonetical innovation -nm- > -nu (Gaelic ainm / Gaulish anuana , Old Welsh enuein 'names'), that is less accidental than only one. The discovery of a third common innovation would allow the specialists to come to the conclusion of a Gallo-Brittonic dialect (Schmidt 1986; Fleuriot 1986). The interpretation of this and further evidence

1624-528: The Monks of Tyniec were expelled and the Roman Catholic approved Slavonic Rite Mass suppressed. These expulsions coincided with the rule of Polish Duke Władysław I Herman, who attributed the birth of his first boy to the help of the Benedictines of Saint Gilles in southern France to whom he had earlier sent great riches asking for intercession for the birth of a healthy child. The expulsions paralleled events in almost

1680-454: The P-/Q-Celtic hypothesis. Proponents of each schema dispute the accuracy and usefulness of the other's categories. However, since the 1970s the division into Insular and Continental Celtic has become the more widely held view (Cowgill 1975; McCone 1991, 1992; Schrijver 1995), but in the middle of the 1980s, the P-/Q-Celtic theory found new supporters (Lambert 1994), because of the inscription on

1736-546: The Restorer is speculated to have re-established the Abbey in 1040 during his rebuilding of the newly established Kingdom of Poland, after a Pagan rebellion and a disastrous raid of Duke Bretislaus I (1039). The Benedictines , invited to Tyniec by King Casimir the Restorer, were tasked with restoring order as well as cementing the position of the State and the Church. The first Tyniec Abbot

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1792-532: The abbey into their fortress. In 1816, Austrian authorities liquidated the abbey, and in 1821–1826, it was the seat of the Bishop of Tyniec, Gregorius Thomas Ziegler former monk in Tyniec. The monks, however, did not return to the abbey until 1939, and in 1947, remodelling of the neglected complex was initiated. In 1968, the Church of St. Peter and Paul was once again named the seat of the abbot. The church itself consists of

1848-424: The bishop or, according to Master Wincenty Kadłubek , carried out the deed himself. Kadłubek wrote his account nearly 100 years after Gallus Anonymus and a century and a half after the actual affair. His account as well as artistic tradition holds that this took place during the celebration of Mass. Though the bishop had privately and then publicly warned the king to repent of adultery and other vices, Bolesław chose

1904-530: The break-up much earlier at 3200 BC ± 1500 years. They support the Insular Celtic hypothesis. The early Celts were commonly associated with the archaeological Urnfield culture , the Hallstatt culture , and the La Tène culture , though the earlier assumption of association between language and culture is now considered to be less strong. There are legitimate scholarly arguments for both the Insular Celtic hypothesis and

1960-456: The cause of his son Géza I against the German troops of Henry IV, who finally installed Solomon on the Hungarian throne. In 1069 Grand Prince Iziaslav I of Kiev and his wife Gertruda , Bolesław's aunt, were overthrown. A Polish military campaign re-established them in power in Kiev. In 1071 Bolesław II attacked Bohemia again. As he refused any attempt at arbitration by King Henry IV, the question

2016-548: The conflict with the Přemyslid duke Vratislaus II by refusing to pay the annual homage for Silesia and spurring the Bohemian nobility to revolt. In 1063, Bolesław II unsuccessfully besieged the then- Moravian town of Hradec nad Moravicí and was forced to retreat. In the end, relations with Vratislaus II were settled to a certain extent when the latter married Princess Świętosława , Bolesław II's sister. Meanwhile, in 1063, King Béla I of Hungary died. Bolesław II could not defend

2072-522: The country. According to the chronicler Gallus Anonymus , during his reign he was called largus ("the Generous" in English, "Szczodry" in Polish) as he founded many churches and monasteries throughout Poland. The nickname "the Bold" ( Śmiały ) was only given to Bolesław II for the first time in the later Chronicle of the Polish kings , although it was considered by historiography of the 19th and 20th centuries as

2128-401: The deposed king. However, according to Gallus Anonymus, Bolesław II's atrocious conduct towards his Hungarian hosts caused his premature death in 1081 or 1082 at the hands of an assassin, probably by poisoning. He was about 40 years old. A popular legend holds that Bolesław proceeded to Rome to beg forgiveness from Pope Gregory, who imposed on him to wander incognito as a mute repentant. On

2184-472: The different Celtic languages is apparent in their core vocabulary , especially in terms of actual pronunciation . Moreover, the phonetic differences between languages are often the product of regular sound change (i.e. lenition of /b/ into /v/ or Ø). Boleslaw II the Generous Bolesław II the Bold ( Polish : Bolesław II Śmiały ; c. 1042 – 2/3 April 1081 or 1082), also known as

2240-458: The direction of Countess Karolina Lanckorońska , the tomb was opened and indeed revealed male bones and the remains of a Polish knight's armor dating from the 11th century. The legend, however, dates from centuries after the king's death (it was first mentioned by the chronicler Maciej Miechowita in 1499). His burial place actually remains unknown. Another popular hypothesis about the fate of his remains claims that in 1086 they were transferred to

2296-474: The evidence as supporting the following tree, based on shared innovations , though it is not always clear that the innovations are not areal features . It seems likely that Celtiberian split off before Cisalpine Celtic, but the evidence for this is not robust. On the other hand, the unity of Gaulish, Goidelic, and Brittonic is reasonably secure. Schumacher (2004, p. 86) had already cautiously considered this grouping to be likely genetic, based, among others, on

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2352-540: The inheritance conflict with his nephew Solomon , who was backed by his brother-in-law King Henry IV of Germany . As a result, Béla, in 1061, with the support of Polish troops, gained power. In Hungary, Bolesław II pursued the policy of cooperation with the anti-Imperial faction, which allowed him to gain political independence from the Empire but put him in conflict with the Duchy of Bohemia , an Imperial ally. Moreover, he escalated

2408-475: The king for his infidelity . From historical records it appears that Bishop Stanislaus was involved with the barons' opposition movement, plotting to remove the King and to place his brother Władysław Herman on the throne. Bolesław II unilaterally declared Stanislaus guilty of treason – Gallus Anonymus uses the word " traditor " meaning traitor. On 11 April 1079 Bolesław either ordered the death and dismemberment of

2464-547: The monastery, and along the ancient Kraków – Oświęcim road. Its residents supported themselves by transporting people and goods through the Vistula in their boats and small ferries. In 1973 Tyniec was annexed by the city of Kraków. Historically, and prior to the arrival of the Roman Catholics, the monks at Tyniec were part of the Cyrillo-Methodian Christian tradition. The Cyrillo-Methodian monks were succeeded by

2520-455: The northwestern fringe of Europe and a few diaspora communities . There are six living languages: the four continuously living languages Breton , Irish , Scottish Gaelic and Welsh , and the two revived languages Cornish and Manx . All are minority languages in their respective countries, though there are continuing efforts at revitalisation . Welsh is an official language in Wales and Irish

2576-407: The only living Celtic language spoken in continental Europe, is descended from the language of settlers from Britain. There are a number of extinct but attested continental Celtic languages , such as Celtiberian , Galatian and Gaulish . Beyond that there is no agreement on the subdivisions of the Celtic language family. They may be divided into P-Celtic and Q-Celtic . The Celtic languages have

2632-461: The primary distinction is between Continental Celtic and Insular Celtic , arguing that the differences between the Goidelic and Brittonic languages arose after these split off from the Continental Celtic languages. Other scholars (such as Schmidt 1988) make the primary distinction between P-Celtic and Q-Celtic languages based on the replacement of initial Q by initial P in some words. Most of

2688-561: The revolt at the Battle of Langensalza soon thereafter); the Polish king seized the occasion to launch an invasion against Henry IV's vassal, Vratislaus II of Bohemia, alongside an ally from Grand Prince Vladimir II Monomakh of Kiev. Thanks to his support of the papal cause during the investiture controversy in the Holy Roman Empire, Bolesław II gained the royal crown of Poland: on Christmas Day of 1076 Archbishop Bogumił crowned him in

2744-693: The same year throughout the region, most notably at the Sazava Monastery where the Slavonic Rite Mass was also still in use as in Tyniec. There, the Cyrillo-Methodian Sazawa monks were also expelled and replaced with monks of the Latin rite. These expulsions at Sazawa coincided with the rule of the Duke of Bohemia, Bretislaus II. It is not known when exactly the Benedictine abbey was founded. King Casimir

2800-487: The shared reformation of the sentence-initial, fully inflecting relative pronoun *i̯os, *i̯ā, *i̯od into an uninflected enclitic particle. Eska sees Cisalpine Gaulish as more akin to Lepontic than to Transalpine Gaulish. Eska considers a division of Transalpine–Goidelic–Brittonic into Transalpine and Insular Celtic to be most probable because of the greater number of innovations in Insular Celtic than in P-Celtic, and because

2856-505: The throne: Ladislaus I of Hungary , another son of Béla I, and again Iziaslav in Kiev. In 1078, while returning from the latter campaign, the Polish troops conquered Red Ruthenia . In 1079, however, the conflict with the Polish nobles culminated into open revolt and Bolesław was deposed and banished from the country. The circumstances that led to the King's banishment hinge on the person of Bishop Stanislaus of Kraków , who had excommunicated

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2912-402: Was Aaron, who became the Bishop of Kraków. Since there is no conclusive evidence to support the foundation date as of 1040, some historians claim that the current abbey was founded by Casimir the Restorer's son, King Boleslaw II the Generous . In the second half of the 11th century, a complex of Romanesque buildings was completed, consisting of a basilica and the abbey. In the 14th century, it

2968-711: Was Gaelic. It has characteristics that some scholars see as archaic, but others see as also being in the Brittonic languages (see Schmidt). In the Insular/Continental classification schema, the split of the former into Gaelic and Brittonic is seen as being late. The distinction of Celtic into these four sub-families most likely occurred about 900 BC according to Gray & Atkinson but, because of estimation uncertainty, it could be any time between 1200 and 800 BC. However, they only considered Gaelic and Brythonic. A controversial paper by Forster & Toth included Gaulish and put

3024-457: Was also the first Polish monarch to produce his own coinage in quantity great enough to replace the foreign coins prevalent in the country during the reigns of the first Piast kings. He established royal mints in Kraków and Wrocław and reformed the coinage, which brought considerable revenue into the royal coffers. All these efforts had an enormous influence on the economic and cultural development of

3080-608: Was destroyed in Tatar and Czech raids, and in the 15th century it was rebuilt in Gothic style. Further reconstruction took place in the 17th and 18th centuries, first in Baroque , then in Rococo style. The abbey was partly destroyed in the Swedish invasion of Poland , and soon after it was rebuilt, with a new library. Further destruction took place during the Bar Confederation , when Polish rebels turned

3136-467: Was settled by an armistice between the two belligerents; however, Bolesław II, ignoring the treaty, renewed his attack in 1072 and refused to pay the tributes for Silesia to the Holy Roman Empire. Henry IV prepared for a campaign against Poland, but was hit by the outbreak of the Saxon rebellion in 1073. Due to his involvement in Hungarian, Bohemian and Kievan affairs, Bolesław II neglected Poland's interests on

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