The Twenty-one Conditions , officially the Conditions of Admission to the Communist International , are the conditions, most of which were suggested by Vladimir Lenin , to the adhesion of the socialist parties to the Third International (Comintern) created in 1919. The conditions were formally adopted by the Second Congress of the Comintern in 1920.
53-401: The conditions were: The periodical and other press and all the party’s publishing institutions must be subordinated to the party leadership, regardless of whether, at any given moment, the party as a whole is legal or illegal. The publishing houses must not be allowed to abuse their independence and pursue policies that do not entirely correspond to the policies of the party. In the columns of
106-659: A Liberal , became Prime Minister – accompanied by Giovanni Giolitti as the Minister of the Interior – Giolitti who would dominate Italian politics until 1915. This Liberal cabinet risked losing a vote in Parliament, with the possibility that a more conservative politician, Sidney Sonnino , would come to power; Turati urged that the Socialist deputies vote for the Zanardelli government. When
159-587: A decadent take on art, inspired mainly by Baudelaire and Poe. Emilio Praga and Igino Ugo Tarchetti are the authors who best represent the Scapigliatura and its aesthetic programme. They were the first in Italy to open up to foreign influences, starting a process of renewal in Italian culture. Synaesthesia , the theory based upon the correspondences among music, poetry and painting, was one of their innovations. They were also
212-552: A dramatic escape to France – aided by Riccardo Bauer , Carlo Rosselli , Ferruccio Parri , Sandro Pertini (the future President of the Italian Republic ) and Adriano Olivetti , of the eponymous typewriter company . In Paris, he was the soul of the non- Communist anti-fascist resistance, travelling across Europe and alerting democrats to the Fascist danger – which he saw as a phenomenon with far-reaching consequences. He died in
265-541: A line of a Boito's poem which spoke of "L'arte dell'avvenire" (The art of the future). The term Scapigliatura came in vogue later. Praga and Boito launched the Scapigliatura in earnest when they edited the paper Figaro in 1864. A year later saw the publishing of the first works by poet and novelist Iginio Ugo Tarchetti (1839–1869), who today is the best-known author of the Scapigliatura. They rebelled against late Romantic maudlin poets like Aleardo Aleardi and Giovanni Prati , Italian Catholic tradition and clericalism, and
318-494: A list of sources from Italian academic studies of the subject is included, as is a list of the authors' main works in Italian. The term Scapigliatura was derived from the novel La Scapigliatura e il 6 Febbraio by Cletto Arrighi, pen-name of Carlo Righetti (1830–1906), who was one of the forerunners of the movement. The main Italian inspiration of the Scapigliati was the writer and journalist Giuseppe Rovani (1818–1874), author of
371-747: A regular Congress of the Communist International or by the Executive Committee. Should the Executive Committee of the Communist International reject a party’s programme, the party in question has the right of appeal to the Congress of the Communist International. During the December 1920 Tours Congress of the French Section of the Workers' International (SFIO), the 21 conditions were rejected although
424-508: A situation where notorious opportunists, as represented by Turati , Modigliani , Kautsky , Hilferding , Hillquit , Longuet , MacDonald , etc., have the right to pass as members of the Communist International. This could only lead to the Communist International becoming something very similar to the wreck of the Second International . As a rule the programme of every party belonging to the Communist International must be ratified by
477-459: A text by Boito. It was on the lukewarm premiere of the former in 1863 that Faccio was fêted with a banquet where Boito read his ode All'arte italiana , which famously so offended Giuseppe Verdi that the composer refused to work with him when the publisher Ricordi first suggested a collaboration. The offending lines, Forse già nacque chi sovra l'altare / Rizzerà l'arte, verecondo e puro, / Su quel'altar bruttato come un muro / Di lupanare ("Perhaps
530-544: A type of civic poetry which spread the Republican ideals of Mazzini, a sort of Italian equivalent of Walt Whitman —who committed suicide in 1876 after falling in love with an English teenage girl. Another author who scandalized the country was Lorenzo Stecchetti with his poetry collection Postuma (1876), which in reality was the work of poet Olindo Guerrini who created the character of the young and doomed poet Stecchetti (based upon Tarchetti) for this specific purpose. Among
583-476: Is Il Delitto e la Questione Sociale , in which he examines how social conditions affect crime. He met Anna Kulischov while working on a survey of social conditions in Naples . Kulischov was an exile from Russia who had become the companion of Andrea Costa , an Anarchist leader – when she converted to non-Anarchist Socialism, Costa followed, sending an important letter to his anarchist comrades in which he abandoned
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#1732855681456636-528: Is considered among the most significant historic songs of the Italian workers' movement. By this time, Turati was associated with the Milanese Socialist League, a supporting group of Costantino Lazzari 's Italian Workers' Party . Turati was reluctant to compose the anthem, but was persuaded by his mother, Adele. He was ashamed of the final text, and promised Lazzari, who commissioned it, that he would rewrite it, but Lazzari accepted it. The anthem
689-494: The March on Rome ). Filippo Turati and Anna Kulischov, who knew Mussolini well, were major opponents of fascism , and lived under constant surveillance and threats. In a series of prescient speeches, Turati argued that the new revolutionary program adopted by the PSI in 1919 would lead to disaster, and he advocated political alliances with other opponents of Fascism. This policy was rejected and
742-640: The PSI split in 1921, with the formation of the Communist Party of Italy . In 1922, Turati's group was expelled and a new group, the Unitary Socialist Party (PSU), was established. In 1924, Turati's disciple and Secretary of the PSU, Giacomo Matteotti , was assassinated by Mussolini's Ceka ; this seminal event prompted Mussolini to formalize his dictatorship between 1925 and 1926. In 1926, Turati fled Italy in
795-563: The Risorgimento period (1815–71). The movement included poets, writers, musicians, painters and sculptors. The term Scapigliatura is the Italian equivalent of the French "bohème" ( bohemian ), and "Scapigliato" literally means "unkempt" or "dishevelled". Most of these authors have never been translated into English, hence in most cases this entry cannot have and has no detailed references to specific sources from English books and publications. However,
848-618: The University of Bologna in 1877, and participated in the Scapigliatura movement with the most important artists of the period in Milan . Turati became interested in politics, being attracted to the democratic movement before joining the more specific socialist groups. In 1886, Turati wrote the words of the Workers' Hymn , a popular socialist anthem that was set to music by Amintore Galli , and
901-494: The 1860s and the 1880s, starting from Milan. Its main offshoot was in Turin and Piedmont, with followers such as Roberto Sacchetti , Giovanni Faldella , and playwright Giuseppe Giacosa . Giulio Pinchetti (1845–1870) was one of the younger and most promising poets, but committed suicide aged twenty-five after publishing his poetry collection Versi . A similar figure was the poet Giulio Uberti —a friend of Giuseppe Mazzini who wrote
954-563: The 1990s, when Tarchetti's Racconti Fantastici and Fosca were translated and published in the US by Lawrence Venuti as Fantastic Tales and Passion , respectively. Filmmaker Ettore Scola turned Tarchetti's Fosca into the film Passione d'Amore , which was released in 1982. Christine Donougher translated Camillo Boito's Senso and Other Stories in English in 1993. In 2005 Robert Caruso (Anglo-Italian rock singer and poet, not to be confused with
1007-545: The French capital in March 1932. After World War II, Turati's remains were transferred to Milan's Cimitero Monumentale , where he was buried next to Anna Kulischov. In the Florestano Vancini film The Assassination of Matteotti (1973), Turati is played by Gastone Moschin . Scapigliatura Scapigliatura ( Italian: [skapiʎːaˈtuːra] ) is the name of an artistic movement that developed in Italy after
1060-525: The Italian government's betrayal of the revolutionary roots of the Risorgimento period. Praga scandalized Italy with his second poetry collection Penombre (1864), reminiscent of Baudelaire 's Les Fleurs du Mal , and Tarchetti with his novel Una Nobile Follia (1867) in which he opposed the militarist culture of Italy under the reigning Savoy royal family and in which he propounded his anarchism derived from French philosopher Pierre-Joseph Proudhon . In
1113-571: The PSOE in the Communist International. Their trip lasted from 17 October to 13 December 1920. While in Moscow de los Ríos met Lenin, who answered a question by de los Ríos about the compatibility between personal freedom and the length of the dictatorship of the proletariat with the often-quoted answer, „Freedom, what for?“. De los Rios, who believed in a Fabian -humanist form of socialism, told his hosts in Russia that
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#17328556814561166-649: The PSOE should have the right to pick and choose from the Twenty-one Conditions, and should be completely independent of Moscow. This was completely unacceptable to the Bolsheviks . At the PSOE Extraordinary Congress in April 1921 Anguiano gave a positive report on the Moscow visit and de los Ríos gave a negative report. The congress voted to reject the Twenty-one Conditions demanded by Moscow. Supporters of
1219-539: The Radicali. The brotherhood of the scapigliati attempted to rejuvenate Italian culture through foreign influences, notably from German Romanticism ( Heine , Jean Paul and E.T.A. Hoffmann ), French bohemians Théophile Gautier and Gérard de Nerval and, above all, the poetry of Charles Baudelaire and the works of American writer Edgar Allan Poe . The group also helped with the introduction of Wagner 's music into Italy, with musician Franco Faccio (1840–1891) conducting
1272-436: The Scapigliati painters are Tranquillo Cremona , Daniele Ranzoni and Arnoldo Bocklin , and the best-known sculptor is Giuseppe Grandi . Their style would influence later painters such as Medardo Rosso , Mose' Bianchi and Giuseppe Amisani in the 1920s. Giacomo Puccini also took his first steps into the world of Scapigliatura with two librettos by Ferdinando Fontana , namely Le Villi and Edgar , and later composed
1325-422: The Scapigliatura's fundamental purpose was to remain ambiguous in order to achieve its goals; that is—to promote a new and modern Italian aesthetic that might compete more readily with growing international styles. Since ambiguity was a requisite feature of its policy, the language used by the "scapigliati" was intentionally obscure, therefore obscuring the authentic meaning of their works. Verdi's connection to
1378-408: The Scapigliatura, via his collaboration with Arrigo Boito (the most prominent 'scapigliato') has recently inspired the need for deeper scrutiny. While official culture in Italy has often forgotten the Scapigliati, the movement has had several revivals: during the counter-cultural climate of the late 1960s many of their works were back in print and there were exhibitions dedicated to them, and again in
1431-691: The Third International left the PSOE and formed the Spanish Communist Workers Party , which combined with the Spanish Communist Party to form the Communist Party of Spain . Filippo Turati Filippo Turati ( Italian: [fiˈlippo tuˈraːti] ; 26 November 1857 – 29 March 1932) was an Italian sociologist, criminologist , poet and socialist politician. Born in Canzo , province of Como , he graduated in law at
1484-497: The barracks of the Italian Army officers had bonfires with Tarchetti's books to give "the example" to many young soldiers who identified with Tarchetti's protests (Tarchetti had originally volunteered for the army, but changed his mind and was later discharged because of insubordination and also because of his failing health—after being sent to fight " brigandage " in the south, which he saw as a cruel colonialist war of Piedmont against
1537-714: The best examples for illustrating how the Scapigliati were somewhat ahead of their times and prophetic in terms of their vision. In Italian literature, fine arts and music, they are the equivalent of the German Idealists, the French and Russian Symbolists, the English Romantics and the American Transcendendalists. Reasons for the Scapigliatura not having been allotted as much attention in the musical arts include several controversial issues. Only three operas have been identified as belonging to this movement, which
1590-781: The conflict, and would oppose Italy's entrance into World War I – while Mussolini moved to an irredentist position (and came to be expelled from the PSI after arguing for Italy to join the Entente Powers ). Despite the fact that he was a pacifist in June 1918 he strongly supported the Italian Army that was fighting the Battle of Solstizio . Following World War I, Mussolini created the paramilitary Fasces of Revolutionary Action , then renamed Fasces of Italian Combat in 1919 and finally National Fascist Party in 1921, and he came to power in 1922 (after
1643-490: The first Italian performances of Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg . The major figures of the movement were the poet and painter Emilio Praga (1839–1875) and the poet and musician Arrigo Boito (1842–1918). The latter is memorable for the fact that he wrote both the libretto and the music (an instance which had no precedent in Italian opera) for his opera Mefistofele , which introduced elements of Wagner's music into Italian opera. Composer and orchestra director Franco Faccio
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1696-418: The first to promote the literature of Realism , opening the door for the Italian novelists of Verismo such as Giovanni Verga and Luigi Capuana . The influence of the supernatural stories of Poe and Hoffmann on Praga and Tarchetti was the foundation of Italian writers such as Antonio Fogazzaro , Luigi Pirandello and Dino Buzzati . The works of Praga, Tarchetti and poet Giovanni Camerana (1845–1905) mark
1749-735: The major Italian newspaper, was founded by the Scapigliato Eugenio Torelli-Violler , a friend of Tarchetti. The Scapigliati are now considered an important chapter in Italian cultural history, creating the archetype of the artistic avant-garde and are considered the forerunners of literary movements like Decadentism , Symbolism , and the Italian Poeti Crepuscolari of the 1920s and '30s. Praga's poetry collection Trasparenze , published posthumously in 1878, and his novel Memorie Del Presbiterio (left unfinished, completed by Roberto Sacchetti in 1881) are perhaps some of
1802-755: The majority, led by Fernand Loriot , Boris Souvarine , Marcel Cachin , and Ludovic Frossard , adhered to the Third International, creating the French Section of the Communist International (SFIC), which would later take the name of the French Communist Party (PCF). At the July 1920 PSOE congress Fernando de los Ríos proposed that the PSOE should join the Communist International only if defined conditions were met. He and Daniel Anguiano were appointed to visit Soviet Russia to discuss membership of
1855-558: The man is already born who, modest and pure, will restore art to its altar stained like a brothel's wall"). In later years, Boito wrote revisions to the libretto of Verdi's opera Simon Boccanegra and the original librettos for Otello and Falstaff . Boito is widely considered by most scholars as the best librettist with whom Verdi collaborated. The movement did not have formal manifestos, but developed organically, through its members sharing common aesthetic and political ideals. In their early days they were known as "Avveniristi", from
1908-558: The most instrumental intellectuals involved in the founding of the Italian Socialist Party (PSI) in 1892 (it took that name in 1895). They were reformists , believing that Socialism would come about gradually, primarily through action in the Italian Parliament , labour organization , and education, spreading their ideas through their journal Critica Sociale – a review founded by their friend Arcangelo Ghisleri under
1961-737: The movement. Kulischov and Costa had split by the time she met Turati. The two immediately fell in love, and lived together until her death in 1925. In France, Turati had a close relationship with the Italian lawyer Giuseppe Leti (1866–1939), former head of the Supreme Council of the Scottish Rite national Freemasonry who resided in France from 1929 to 1937. Leti was familiar with other Italian anti-fascist politicians such as Francesco Saverio Nitti , Alberto Cianca , Pietro Nenni , Emanuele Modigliani and Emilio Lussu . Turati and Anna Kulischov were
2014-608: The novel Cento Anni and the influential aesthetic theories of his essays Le Tre Arti , an anti-conformist and charismatic figure on the fringes of the literary world of Milan, the city where the movement first developed through literary 'cenacles' which met in taverns and cafes. It attracted attention and scandalized the more conservative and Catholic circles of Italy with many pamphlets, journals and magazines like Arrighi's Cronaca Grigia , Antonio Ghislanzoni 's Rivista Minima , Cesare Tronconi's Lo Scapigliato and Felice Cavallotti and Achille Bizzoni's Gazzettino Rosa , which challenged
2067-480: The opera La bohème . Orchestra director Arturo Toscanini was another famous figure who shared the ideals of the Scapigliatura. Other exponents of the movement were the writers Carlo Dossi (1849–1910) and Camillo Boito (1836–1914), older brother of Arrigo and a well-known art critic, who wrote the short story Senso , which later inspired Luchino Visconti 's film by the same title in 1954 and Tinto Brass ' film of 2002 . Il Corriere della Sera , to this day
2120-456: The party Directorate refused to sanction the vote, he convinced the deputies to do so anyway. The vote brought the incipient split in the party between right and left wings to a head, even if the Liberal government had allowed workers the right to strike , and despite the fact that the subsequent strike wave resulted in improved conditions in industry and on the land. Between 1901 and 1906, power in
2173-569: The party seesawed between the Turati-led reformists and the revolutionaries under various leaders. After 1906, splits surfaced among the reformists themselves. In 1912, as a result of the Socialist reaction against the Italo-Turkish War (1911–1912), revolutionaries took over the party. Benito Mussolini , one of their leaders, became editor of the party newspaper Avanti! ; Turati opposed Mussolini, but proved unable to dislodge him. He had opposed
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2226-461: The press, at public meetings, in the trades unions, in the co-operatives – wherever the members of the Communist International can gain admittance – it is necessary to brand not only the bourgeoisie but also its helpers, the reformists of every shade, systematically and pitilessly. The Communist International unconditionally and categorically demands the carrying out of this break in the shortest possible time. The Communist International cannot tolerate
2279-430: The recently annexed south of Italy). Boito produced the poetry collection Il Libro Dei Versi , the musical fable Re Orso and memorable short-stories like L'Alfier Nero . In the late 1860s he detached himself from the movement, moved on to more conservative positions and was even made Senator of The Kingdom of Italy in 1914, while Faccio suffered a nervous breakdown and ended in the same mental institution where his father
2332-421: The status quo artistically, socially and politically. A wing of the movement became politically active, and known as Scapigliatura Democratica was central to the development of both the Socialist and Anarchist movements, with leaders such as the poet Felice Cavallotti who entered the Italian parliament on the extreme left, and whose libertarian ideals attracted much popular support for his political group, known as
2385-470: The target of a conservative backlash against their movement and its ideals. Praga died an alcoholic aged thirty-five in 1875. Tarchetti died aged twenty-nine in 1869 of tuberculosis and typhoid fever while completing his novel Fosca , practically destitute, in the house of his friend and follower Salvatore Farina . Camerana committed suicide in 1905. Precursors Rovani and Arrighi died both through alcohol abuse. The movement developed throughout Italy between
2438-487: The title Cuore e Critica . It was the most influential Marxist review in Italy before World War I. Shut down by Benito Mussolini 's Fascist regime , it was reestablished after World War II and is still in print. In the years following the party's foundation, the Italian government attempted to suppress it. Turati advocated alliances with other Italian democratic forces, meant to defeat the government's reactionary policies, and to advance left-wing causes. In 1898 Turati
2491-412: The transition from Romanticism to Decadentism, with their Romantic themes of love and death, Gothic imagery, sexuality and narcotics, and the supernatural. Praga was the first poet to imbue his works with the technics of Impressionism , and Camerana's poetry is characterized by a dark Existentialism . The conflict between the lonely artist totally committed to his ideals and the values of bourgeois society
2544-503: Was an inmate. The manifestos of these young and rebellious writers were the works themselves: poems like Praga's Preludio ( Prelude ), which opened Penombre striking against Catholicism, and the many mediocre followers of the main Italian novelist of the time, Alessandro Manzoni , author of the classic historical novel I Promessi Sposi ( The Betrothed ). Another such manifesto was Arrigo Boito's poem Dualismo ( Dualism ), which challenged common values and sense of decency by espousing
2597-457: Was another important figure for the movement. The three of them volunteered with guerrilla leader Giuseppe Garibaldi 's redshirts to fight the Austrian Empire for the annexation of Venice to the newly formed Kingdom of Italy in 1866. Franco Faccio was also responsible for two of the three Scapigliatura operas: I profughi fiamminghi (with a libretto by Emilio Praga) and Amleto , set to
2650-482: Was another theme found in the Scapigliati's works. The Scapigliati are also famous for erasing any difference between art and life, and lived their lives of anti-conformism, anarchist idealism and a desire for transcendence to the full. Like Baudelaire and Poe, and French Symbolist poets Arthur Rimbaud and Paul Verlaine after them, they often recurred to the aid of alcohol and drugs. Their lives were also characterized by poverty and financial failure, and they were also
2703-439: Was arrested and charged with being the inspirator of the popular riot that broke out in the whole country against the rise of the bread price. He was freed the following year. Under Prime Minister Luigi Pelloux , the country was governed by highly conservative politicians who were met with stiff resistance from the left, and in 1899 they were defeated thanks in large part to the PSI's policies. In 1901, Giuseppe Zanardelli ,
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#17328556814562756-487: Was published on 7 March 1886 in Milanese newspaper La Farfalla , crediting Turati. Despite the anthem's success, Turati later called the anthem "a juvenile poetic sin", retorting in his 1898 trial: They have put me on trial so many times for those verses as incitements for class hatred. Instead, they should have sentenced me to death for inciting a crime against Poetry. His most important sociological work of this period
2809-428: Was thought of as a pseudo-Wagnerian attempt in Italian opera. This has proven to be a fallacy by the operatic scholar, Dr. Mary-Lou Vetere, who has "identified that the Scapigliatura was actually an independent movement between Verdi and Verismo, born to counteract Wagner's growing presence and to protect Italian operatic supremacy." She has defined the movement with its own set of aesthetic principles and revealed that
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