133-528: Turkey Party ( Türkiye Partisi , TP) was a conservative liberal party in Turkey , which was founded on 25 May 2009 by Abdüllatif Şener in Çankaya , Ankara . It had one seat in Turkish Grand National Assembly . Şener announced that the party was officially closed on August 27, 2012 due to difficulties to maintain the political goals outside the parliament. Turkey Turkey , officially
266-696: A charter member of the United Nations. In 1950 Turkey became a member of the Council of Europe . After fighting as part of the UN forces in the Korean War , Turkey joined NATO in 1952, becoming a bulwark against Soviet expansion into the Mediterranean . Military coups or memorandums, which happened in 1960 , 1971 , 1980 , and 1997 , complicated Turkey's transition to a democratic multiparty system . Between 1960 and
399-529: A civilian alternative to military service. Ottoman entry into World War I The Ottoman Empire 's entry into World War I began when two recently purchased ships of its navy, which were still crewed by German sailors and commanded by their German admiral, carried out the Black Sea Raid , a surprise attack against Russian ports, on 29 October 1914. Russia replied by declaring war on 1 November 1914. Russia's allies, Britain and France, declared war on
532-556: A global power . From 1789 onwards, the empire saw a major transformation , reforms , and centralization while its territory declined . In the 19th and early 20th centuries, persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction and in the Russian Empire resulted in large-scale loss of life and mass migration into modern-day Turkey from the Balkans , Caucasus , and Crimea . Under
665-698: A Code with principles similar to the German Penal Code and German law generally. Administrative law is based on the French equivalent and procedural law generally shows the influence of the Swiss, German and French legal systems. Islamic principles do not play a part in the legal system. Law enforcement in Turkey is carried out by several agencies under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Internal Affairs . These agencies are
798-729: A guide for developing "orthodox expressions of basic Christian teachings". The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire centered in Constantinople during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages . The eastern half of the Empire survived the conditions that caused the fall of the West in the 5th century AD, and continued to exist until
931-593: A joint note of protest, but the Austro-Hungarian and German ambassadors privately informed the Grand Vizier that they would not press the issue. On 1 October, the Ottoman government raised its customs duties, which had been controlled by the Ottoman Public Debt Administration , and closed all foreign post offices. On 28 September, the Ottoman government, in defiance of the 1841 treaty regulating
1064-490: A military solution for a full invasion, which the small occupation might become. If there was to be no solution by the naval occupation of Constantinople, the next option was to improve the Russian Caucasian Army . In supporting its army, Russia established local links to regional groups within the Empire and resolved that the army; navy; and the ministries of finance, trade and industry would work together to solve
1197-742: A mixture of " Turkish, Persian and Islamic influences ". In the latter half of the 11th century, the Seljuk Turks began penetrating into medieval Armenia and Anatolia. At the time, Anatolia was a diverse and largely Greek-speaking region after previously being Hellenized . The Seljuk Turks defeated the Byzantines at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, and later established the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum . During this period, there were also Turkish principalities such as Danishmendids . Seljuk arrival started
1330-556: A mutual interest in the Ottomans' neutrality in a European war. In 1908, the Young Turks seized power in Constantinople and installed Sultan Mehmed V as a figurehead in 1909. The new regime implemented a programme of reform to modernise the Ottoman political and economic system and to redefine its racial character. The Young Turks restored the Ottoman constitution of 1876 and reconvened
1463-644: A person. As an ethnonym , the etymology is still unknown. In addition to usage in languages such as Chinese in the 6th century, the earliest mention of Turk ( 𐱅𐰇𐰺𐰜 , türü̲k̲ ; or 𐱅𐰇𐰼𐰚 , türk/tẄrk ) in Turkic languages comes from the Second Turkic Khaganate . In Byzantine sources in the 10th century, the name Tourkia was used for defining two medieval states: Hungary ( Western Tourkia ); and Khazaria ( Eastern Tourkia ). The Mamluk Sultanate , with its ruling elite of Turkic origin,
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#17328557855821596-573: A pro-German faction, which was influenced by Enver Pasha , the former Ottoman military attaché in Berlin, opposed the pro-British majority in the Ottoman cabinet and tried to secure closer relations with Germany. In December 1913, the Germans sent General Otto Liman von Sanders and a military mission to Constantinople. The geographical position of the Ottoman Empire meant that Russia, France and Britain had
1729-633: A reassertion of the ancient, indigenous culture of the Hattian cities of Anatolia". Before 1200 BC, there were four Greek-speaking settlements in Anatolia, including Miletus . Around 1000 BC, Greeks started migrating to the west coast of Anatolia. These eastern Greek settlements played a vital role in shaping the Archaic Greek civilization; important cities included Miletus , Ephesus , Halicarnassus , Smyrna (now İzmir ) and Byzantium (now Istanbul ),
1862-570: A rich and diverse cuisine , Turkey is the fifth most visited country in the world. Turchia , meaning "the land of the Turks", had begun to be used in European texts for Anatolia by the end of the 12th century. As a word in Turkic languages , Turk may mean "strong, strength, ripe" or "flourishing, in full strength". It may also mean ripe as in for a fruit or "in the prime of life, young, and vigorous" for
1995-719: A trilateral (Ottoman–Greek–Romanian) neutrality pact. On 6 August 1914, at 1:00 a.m., Said Halim summoned the German ambassador to his office to inform him that the Cabinet had decided unanimously to open the Straits to the German battlecruiser Goeben and light cruiser Breslau , which were being pursued by ships of the Royal Navy, and to any Austro-Hungarian vessels accompanying them. Said then presented Wangenheim with six proposals, not conditions, which
2128-719: Is Syria, with which Turkey had cut its relations after the start of the Syrian civil war . There are disputes with Greece over maritime boundaries and with Cyprus . In 2018, the Turkish military and the Turkish-backed forces began an operation in Syria aimed at ousting US-backed YPG (which Turkey considers to be an offshoot of the outlawed PKK ) from the enclave of Afrin . Turkey has also conducted airstrikes in Iraqi Kurdistan , which
2261-522: Is a unitary presidential republic . Turkey is a founding member of the OECD , G20 , and Organization of Turkic States . With a geopolitically significant location, Turkey is a regional power and an early member of NATO . An EU candidate , Turkey is part of the EU Customs Union , CoE , OIC , and TURKSOY . Turkey has coastal plains, a high central plateau , and various mountain ranges; its climate
2394-620: Is divided into districts ( ilçe ), for a total of 973 districts. Turkey is also subdivided into 7 regions ( bölge ) and 21 subregions for geographic, demographic and economic measurements, surveys and classifications; this does not refer to an administrative division. Turkey is a presidential republic within a multi-party system . The current constitution was adopted in 1982 . In the Turkish unitary system, citizens are subject to three levels of government : national, provincial, and local. The local government 's duties are commonly split between municipal governments and districts, in which
2527-442: Is temperate with harsher conditions in the interior. Home to three biodiversity hotspots , Turkey is prone to frequent earthquakes and is highly vulnerable to climate change . Turkey has a universal healthcare system , growing access to education , and increasing levels of innovativeness . It is a leading TV content exporter. With 21 UNESCO World Heritage sites, 30 UNESCO intangible cultural heritage inscriptions, and
2660-466: Is the Main Opposition Leader . The last parliamentary and presidential elections were in 2023. The Constitutional Court can strip the public financing of political parties that it deems anti-secular or having ties to terrorism , or ban their existence altogether. The electoral threshold for political parties at national level is seven percent of the votes. Smaller parties can avoid
2793-573: The Kayı tribe of the Oghuz Turks . Ottomans started annexing the nearby Turkish beyliks (principalities) in Anatolia and expanded into the Balkans . Mehmed II completed Ottoman conquest of the Byzantine Empire by capturing its capital, Constantinople , on 29 May 1453. Selim I united Anatolia under Ottoman rule. Turkification continued as Ottomans mixed with various indigenous people in Anatolia and
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#17328557855822926-617: The 1913 coup d'état , the Three Pashas took control of the Ottoman government. The Ottoman Empire entered World War I on the side of the Central Powers and was ultimately defeated. During the war, the empire's Armenian subjects were deported to Syria as part of the Armenian genocide . As a result, an estimated 600,000 to more than 1 million, or up to 1.5 million Armenians were killed. The Turkish government has refused to acknowledge
3059-687: The Allies in the aftermath of World War I initiated the Turkish National Movement . Under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Pasha , a military commander who had distinguished himself during the Battle of Gallipoli , the Turkish War of Independence (1919–1923) was waged with the aim of revoking the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres (1920). The Turkish Provisional Government in Ankara , which had declared itself
3192-466: The Anglo-German naval arms race . Even with its technological superiority, Germany's energy infrastructure would be unable to support battleships in distant waters. Germany was weak relative to the other European colonial powers and sought a strategic alliance with the Ottomans. The Baghdad Railway would have advanced Germany's imperial ambitions, including the settlement of Germans in Anatolia, and given
3325-679: The Armistice of Mudanya on 11 October 1922. On 1 November 1922, the Turkish Parliament in Ankara formally abolished the Sultanate, thus ending 623 years of monarchical Ottoman rule. The Treaty of Lausanne of 24 July 1923, which superseded the Treaty of Sèvres, led to the international recognition of the sovereignty of the new Turkish state as the successor state of the Ottoman Empire. On 4 October 1923,
3458-717: The Cold War 's start. Following threats from the Soviet Union , Turkey sought to ally with the United States and joined NATO in 1952. Overall, Turkey aims for good relations with Central Asia , the Caucasus , Russia, the Middle East , and Iran. With the West, Turkey also aims to keep its arrangements. By trading with the east and joining the EU, Turkey pursues economic growth. Turkey joined
3591-581: The EEC in 1987, joined the European Union Customs Union in 1995 and started accession negotiations with the European Union in 2005. Customs Union had an important impact on the Turkish manufacturing sector. In 2014, prime minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan won Turkey's first direct presidential election . On 15 July 2016, an unsuccessful coup attempt tried to oust the government. According to
3724-471: The European Union Customs Union in 1995, but its EU accession talks are frozen as of 2024. Turkey has been called an emerging power, a middle power , and a regional power . Turkey has sought closer relations with the Central Asian Turkic states after the breakup of the Soviet Union. Closer relations with Azerbaijan , a culturally close country, was achieved. Turkey is a founding member of
3857-505: The Galatians . When Pergamon requested assistance in its conflict with the Seleucids, Rome intervened in Anatolia in the second century BC. Without an heir, Pergamum's king left the kingdom to Rome, which was annexed as province of Asia . Roman influence grew in Anatolia afterwards. Following Asiatic Vespers massacre, and Mithridatic Wars with Pontus , Rome emerged victorious. Around
3990-667: The General Directorate of Security , the Gendarmerie General Command and the Coast Guard Command . In the years of government by the Justice and Development Party and Erdoğan, particularly since 2013, the independence and integrity of the Turkish judiciary has increasingly been said to be in doubt by institutions, parliamentarians and journalists both within and outside of Turkey, because of political interference in
4123-598: The International Organization of Turkic Culture and Organization of Turkic States . It is also a member of Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe , Council of Europe , and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation . Following the Arab Spring , Turkey had problems with countries such as United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, and Egypt. Relations with these countries have improved since then. The exception
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4256-704: The Ionian School of philosophy , thereby laying the foundations of rationalism and Western philosophy . Cyrus attacked eastern Anatolia in 547 BC, and Achaemenid Empire eventually expanded into western Anatolia . In the east, the Armenian province was part of the Achaemenid Empire. Following the Greco-Persian Wars , the Greek city-states of the Anatolian Aegean coast regained independence, but most of
4389-565: The Ottoman Empire's name . In December 2021, President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan called for expanded official usage of Türkiye , saying that Türkiye "represents and expresses the culture, civilization, and values of the Turkish nation in the best way". In May 2022, the Turkish government requested the United Nations and other international organizations to use Türkiye officially in English;
4522-437: The Ottoman parliament , which effectively started the Second Constitutional Era . The Young Turk movement members, which was once underground, established (declared) political parties . Among them, the " Committee of Union and Progress " (CUP) and the " Freedom and Accord Party ," also known as the Liberal Union or Liberal Entente (LU), were major parties. A general election was held in October and November 1908 and CUP became
4655-475: The Proto-Turkic language originated in Central-East Asia. Initially, Proto- Turkic speakers were potentially both hunter-gatherers and farmers; they later became nomadic pastoralists . Early and medieval Turkic groups exhibited a wide range of both East Asian and West-Eurasian physical appearances and genetic origins, in part through long-term contact with neighboring peoples such as Iranic , Mongolic , Tocharian , Uralic , and Yeniseian peoples. During
4788-461: The Republic of Türkiye , is a country mainly located in Anatolia in West Asia , with a smaller part called East Thrace in Southeast Europe . It borders the Black Sea to the north; Georgia , Armenia , Azerbaijan , and Iran to the east; Iraq , Syria , and the Mediterranean Sea to the south; and the Aegean Sea , Greece , and Bulgaria to the west. Turkey is home to over 85 million people; most are ethnic Turks , while ethnic Kurds are
4921-431: The Second Balkan War (1913). In the 19th and early 20th centuries, persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction and in the Russian Empire resulted in estimated 5 million deaths, with more than 3 million in Balkans; the casualties included Turks. Five to seven or seven to nine million refugees migrated into modern-day Turkey from the Balkans , Caucasus , Crimea , and Mediterranean islands, shifting
5054-414: The Sheikh Said rebellion in 1925 and the Dersim rebellion in 1937. İsmet İnönü became the country's second president following Atatürk's death in 1938. In 1939, the Republic of Hatay voted in favor of joining Turkey with a referendum. Turkey remained neutral during almost all of World War II , but entered the war on the side of the Allies on 23 February 1945 . Later that year, Turkey became
5187-407: The Supreme Electoral Council lifted a rule that required each ballot to have an official stamp. The opposition parties claimed that as many as 2.5 million ballots without a stamp were accepted as valid. Turkey has a unitary structure in terms of public administration, and the provinces are subordinate to the central government in Ankara . In province centers the government is represented by
5320-406: The Turkification process in Anatolia; there were Turkic/Turkish migrations, intermarriages, and conversions into Islam. The shift took several centuries and happened gradually. Members of Islamic mysticism orders, such as Mevlevi Order , played a role in the Islamization of the diverse people of Anatolia. Seljuk expansion was one of the reasons for the Crusades . In 13th century, there
5453-407: The Yabgu Khaganate . In 1040, the Seljuks defeated the Ghaznavids at the Battle of Dandanaqan and established the Seljuk Empire in Greater Khorasan . Baghdad , the Abbasid Caliphate 's capital and center of the Islamic world , was taken by Seljuks in 1055. Given the role Khurasani traditions played in art, culture, and political traditions in the empire, the Seljuk period is described as
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5586-461: The Yemen Vilayet and the Hauran Druze Rebellion ) and continuous political unrest in the empire such as the 31 March Incident and coups in 1912 and 1913 . At the onset of the First World War, the Ottoman Army had thus already been involved in continuous fighting for three years. The international political climate in the early 20th century was a multipolar one, with no single or two states pre-eminent. Multipolarity had traditionally afforded
5719-598: The adoption of Christianity as the state religion , and the predominance of Greek instead of Latin , modern historians continue to make a distinction between the earlier Roman Empire and the later Byzantine Empire . In the early Byzantine Empire period, the Anatolian coastal areas were Greek speaking. In addition to natives, interior Anatolia had diverse groups such as Goths , Celts , Persians and Jews . Interior Anatolia had been "heavily Hellenized". Anatolian languages eventually became extinct after Hellenization of Anatolia. According to historians and linguists,
5852-493: The battlecruiser SMS Goeben and the light cruiser SMS Breslau . At the outbreak of the war, elements of the British Mediterranean Fleet pursued the German ships , which evaded the British fleet and arrived at Messina , in neutral Italy [ it ] , on 4 August 1914. The Italian authorities insisted for the Germans to depart within 24 hours, as required by international law . Admiral Souchon learned that Austria-Hungary would provide no naval aid in
5985-410: The earliest farming areas , present-day Turkey was inhabited by various ancient peoples . The Hattians were assimilated by the Anatolian peoples , such as the Hittites . Classical Anatolia transitioned into cultural Hellenization following the conquests of Alexander the Great ; Hellenization continued during the Roman and Byzantine eras. The Seljuk Turks began migrating into Anatolia in
6118-420: The fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453. During most of its existence, the empire remained the most powerful economic, cultural, and military force in the Mediterranean world . The term Byzantine Empire was only coined following the empire's demise; its citizens referred to the polity as the "Roman Empire" and to themselves as Romans . Due to the imperial seat's move from Rome to Byzantium ,
6251-438: The largest ethnic minority . Officially a secular state , Turkey has a Muslim-majority population. Ankara is Turkey's capital and second-largest city , while Istanbul is its largest city and economic and financial center. Other major cities include İzmir , Bursa , and Antalya . Turkey was first inhabited by modern humans during the Late Paleolithic . Home to important Neolithic sites like Göbekli Tepe and some of
6384-405: The right to vote and stand as a candidate at elections. Universal suffrage for both sexes has been applied throughout Turkey since 1934. In Turkey, turnout rates of both local and general elections are high compared to many other countries, which usually stands higher than 80%. President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan is currently serving as the head of state and head of government . Özgür Özel
6517-399: The 11th century, starting the Turkification process. The Seljuk Sultanate of Rum ruled Anatolia until the Mongol invasion in 1243, when it disintegrated into Turkish principalities . Beginning in 1299, the Ottomans united the principalities and expanded ; Mehmed II conquered Istanbul in 1453 . During the reigns of Selim I and Suleiman the Magnificent , the Ottoman Empire became
6650-516: The 1st century BC, Rome expanded into parts of Pontus and Bithynia , while turning rest of Anatolian states into Roman satellites. Several conflicts with Parthians ensued , with peace and wars alternating. According to Acts of the Apostles , early Christian Church had significant growth in Anatolia because of St Paul's efforts. Letters from St. Paul in Anatolia comprise the oldest Christian literature . Under Roman authority, ecumenical councils such as Council of Nicaea (Iznik) in 325 served as
6783-415: The 9th and 10th centuries CE, the Oghuz were a Turkic group that lived in the Caspian and Aral steppes. Partly due to pressure from the Kipchaks , the Oghuz migrated into Iran and Transoxiana . They mixed with Iranic-speaking groups in the area and converted to Islam . Oghuz Turks were also known as Turkoman . The Seljuks originated from the Kınık branch of the Oghuz Turks who resided in
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#17328557855826916-412: The Allied occupation of Turkey ended with the withdrawal of the last Allied troops from Istanbul . The Turkish Republic was officially proclaimed on 29 October 1923 in Ankara, the country's new capital. The Lausanne Convention stipulated a population exchange between Greece and Turkey . Mustafa Kemal became the republic's first president and introduced many reforms . The reforms aimed to transform
7049-415: The Anatolian interior, which met resistance in some places. Following Alexander's death, the Seleucids ruled large parts of Anatolia, while native Anatolian states emerged in the Marmara and Black Sea areas. In eastern Anatolia, the kingdom of Armenia appeared. In third century BC, Celts invaded central Anatolia and continued as a major ethnic group in the area for around 200 years. They were known as
7182-400: The Balkans. The Ottoman Empire was a global power during the reigns of Selim I and Suleiman the Magnificent . In the 16th and 17th centuries, Sephardic Jews moved into Ottoman Empire following their expulsion from Spain. From the second half of the 18th century onwards, the Ottoman Empire began to decline . The Tanzimat reforms, initiated by Mahmud II in 1839, aimed to modernize
7315-402: The Black Sea and to fire upon any Russian vessel that they encountered. That was problematic in many ways. The directive, which went over the head of Cemal Pasha, the Navy Minister, was presumably issued by Enver as acting commander-in-chief although Souchon's place in the chain of command was unclear. Said Halim forced a cabinet vote on the issue of Enver's directive, and it was countermanded. At
7448-444: The Empire; we wished them well, and we would help them in their internal affairs by lending them men to organise customs, police, and so forth, if they wished them. In early 1914, in the aftermath of the Balkan Wars (1912–1913), the CUP became convinced that only an alliance with Britain and the Entente could guarantee the survival of what remained of the empire. Britain's response, Sir Louis Mallet, who became Britain's Ambassador to
7581-456: The French and Russian ambassadors. On 9 August, Enver Pasha assigned Liman von Sanders to First Army . Russia interpreted the assignment as improvement of Strait defences. In fact, Sanders was cut from high-level decision cycle by being in the First Army. In the middle of August, he officially requested to be released and return to Germany. He was completely surprised when his staff relayed the information regarding Battle of Odessa. On 3 August,
7714-407: The German emperor was the self-proclaimed "protector" of Islam. Increasingly-large numbers of Germans, both civilians and soldiers, began to arrive in Constantinople. As American ambassador Henry Morgenthau, Sr. reported, they filled all the cafes and marched through the streets "in the small hours of the morning, howling and singing German patriotic songs" while German officers were "rushing through
7847-403: The German military mission (mainly personal relation to Otto Liman von Sanders ) were not good. He put his faith in his soldiers and army and deeply resented German military intervention. Neither diplomat received the proposals with acceptance. Cemal Pasha was sent to Paris in July 1914 for that purpose and returned to Constantinople with French military decorations but no alliance. Initially,
7980-399: The Germans greater flexibility in transporting their troops to the Persian Gulf and then to British India . As soon as the railway was proposed, it became a point of tension between the Germans and the British since the latter considered southern Persia to their sphere of influence, and German power should not have been projected there. However, in June 1914, Berlin agreed not to construct
8113-452: The Grand Vizier requested for the Goeben to be transferred to Ottoman control "by means of a fictitious sale", but the government in Berlin refused. On the afternoon of 10 August, before any agreement had been reached, the German ships reached the entry of the Dardanelles, and Enver authorised their admittance into the Straits. The Vizier objected that the presence of the ships was premature and could trigger an Entente declaration of war before
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#17328557855828246-509: The Hittite kingdom was disintegrating, further waves of Indo-European peoples migrated from southeastern Europe, which was followed by warfare. The Thracians were also present in modern-day Turkish Thrace . It is not known if the Trojan war is based on historical events. Troy's Late Bronze Age layers matches most with Iliad 's story. Around 750 BC, Phrygia had been established, with its two centers in Gordium and modern-day Kayseri . Phrygians spoke an Indo-European language, which
8379-439: The Interior, Talaat Pasha , and President Halil Bey of the Chamber of Deputies signed the treaty on behalf of the Ottoman Empire, and Prime Minister Vasil Radoslavov signed on behalf of the Kingdom of Bulgaria . The Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria showed sympathy to each other because they suffered as a result of the territories lost with the conclusion of the Balkan Wars (1912–1913). They also held bitter relations with Greece. It
8512-499: The Islamic Caliphate . In the early 20th century, the Ottoman Empire had a reputation as the " sick man of Europe " after a century of slow relative decline. The Ottomans were weakened by political instability, military defeat, civil strife and uprisings by national minorities. The economic resources of the Ottoman Empire were depleted by the cost of the First Balkan War in 1912 and Second Balkan War in 1913. The French, British and Germans had offered financial aid during which
8645-456: The Mediterranean and that the Ottoman Empire was still neutral and therefore he should no longer make for Constantinople. Souchon chose to head for Constantinople anyway. On 6 August 1914, at 1:00 a.m., Grand Vizier Said Halim Pasha , summoned the German ambassador to his office to inform him that the Cabinet had decided unanimously to open the Straits to Goeben and Breslau and to any Austro-Hungarian vessels accompanying them. On 9 August,
8778-479: The Ottoman Empire in recent decades. There was collaboration in terms of finance, trade, railroads and military advice. Liman von Sanders in 1913 became the latest in a series of German generals working to modernise the Ottoman Army. When the war began, he would be given command of the defence of Gallipoli and defeat the Allies. Germany had harboured imperial ambitions since 1890, which had not borne fruit, and by 1909, it became clear that Germans would not prevail in
8911-424: The Ottoman Empire led to a rise in nationalist sentiment among its various subject peoples , leading to increased ethnic tensions which occasionally burst into violence, such as the Hamidian massacres of Armenians , which claimed up to 300,000 lives. Ottoman territories in Europe ( Rumelia ) were lost in the First Balkan War (1912–1913). Ottomans managed to recover some territory in Europe, such as Edirne , in
9044-404: The Ottoman Empire on 5 November 1914. The reasons for the Ottoman action were not immediately clear. The Ottoman government had declared neutrality in the recently started war, and negotiations with both sides were underway. The decision would ultimately lead to the deaths of hundreds of thousands of Ottoman citizens, the Armenian genocide , the dissolution of the empire , and the abolition of
9177-437: The Ottoman Minister of War, had proposed an Ottoman–German alliance to Baron Hans Freiherr von Wangenheim , the German ambassador in Constantinople. Germany turned down the proposal since it considered that the Ottomans had nothing of value to offer. Grand Vizier Said Halim Pasha had made similar propositions to the Austro-Hungarian ambassador. Enver had been military attaché in Berlin from 1909 to 1911, but his relations with
9310-404: The Ottoman Navy, which would place him directly under the orders of Cemal Pasha. Also, Germans were forbidden to exercise in the Black Sea. On 24 September 1914, Admiral Souchon was commissioned in the Ottoman Navy with the rank of Vice Admiral and thus had direct command of instruments of war. Liman von Sanders never reached that level of independence. Souchon's allegiance to the Ottoman Empire
9443-454: The Ottoman Navy. The sailors put on the fez . In light of the British seizure of the Ottoman dreadnoughts, the "purchase" of the German ships was a propaganda coup for the Ottomans at home. Souchon's real title is unknown. As a German commander of a fleet in a foreign country, Souchon was under the aegis of Ambassador Wangenheim. Germany had a military mission under General Otto Liman von Sanders accredited to Turkey on 27 October 1913. Souchon
9576-567: The Ottoman government officially declared neutrality. On 5 August, Enver informed the Russians that he was willing to reduce the number of troops along the Russian frontier and to strengthen the garrison in eastern Thrace to prevent Bulgaria or Greece from thinking about joining the Central Powers. On 9 August, Said informed the Germans that Romania had approached Constantinople and Athens about forming
9709-478: The Ottoman government opened the Dardanelles to allow them passage to Constantinople, despite being required under international law, as a neutral party, to block military shipping. On 2 August 1914, the Ottoman Empire ordered general mobilization but announced that that it would remain neutral. The Ottoman authorities expected mobilization to be complete within four weeks. Said Halim wanted to have some time to see
9842-474: The Ottoman government, especially Minister of State Talaat Pasha , had advocated siding with the British. The British declined the offer. On 28 July 1914, Winston Churchill asked for the requisition of two modern warships being built by British shipyards for the Ottoman navy . They were Sultân Osmân-ı Evvel , which had been completed and was making preparations to leave, and Reşadiye . Despite questions about
9975-558: The Ottoman navy. Acting without orders from the Ottoman government, the German commander of the Dardanelles fortifications ordered the passage closed on 27 September, which added to the impression that the Ottomans were pro-German. The German naval presence and the success of the German armies in Europe gave the pro-German faction in the Ottoman government sufficient influence over the pro-British faction to declare war on Russia. On 14 September, Enver directed Souchon to take his ships into
10108-596: The Ottoman state in line with the progress that had been made in Western Europe. The Ottoman constitution of 1876 was the first among Muslim states, but was short-lived . As the empire gradually shrank in size, military power and wealth; especially after the Ottoman economic crisis and default in 1875 which led to uprisings in the Balkan provinces that culminated in the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) . The decline of
10241-711: The Ottomans the ability to play off one power against the others, which occurred a number of times with consummate skill, according to the author Michael Reynolds. Germany had supported Abdul Hamid II 's regime and acquired a strong foothold. Initially, the newly-formed CUP and LU turned to Britain. The Ottomans hoped to break France and Germany's hold and acquire greater autonomy for the Porte by encouraging Britain to compete against Germany and France. Hostility toward Germany increased when its ally, Austria-Hungary, annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908. The pro-CUP Tanin went so far as to suggest that Vienna's motive in carrying out this act
10374-631: The Porte in 1914, noted: Turkey's way of assuring her independence is by an alliance with us or by an undertaking with the Triple Entente. A less risky method [he thought] would be by a treaty or Declaration binding all the Powers to respect the independence and integrity of the present Turkish dominion, which might go as far as neutralization, and participation by all the Great Powers in financial control and
10507-589: The President, General Staff , Air Force , Naval Force , and Land Force usually report to the Minister of National Defence. The Gendarmerie General Command and the Coast Guard Command are under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of the Interior . Military service is required for 6–12 months for men, which is reduced to one month after paying a fee. Turkey does not recognize conscientious objection and does not offer
10640-642: The Republic, Turkey adopted a civil law legal system, replacing Sharia -derived Ottoman law . The Civil Code , adopted in 1926, was based on the Swiss Civil Code of 1907 and the Swiss Code of Obligations of 1911. Although it underwent a number of changes in 2002, it retains much of the basis of the original Code. The Criminal Code , originally based on the Italian Criminal Code , was replaced in 2005 by
10773-572: The Russian coast. On 29 October (1. wing), Souchon was on his preferred warship, the Goeben , and several destroyers accompanied him. He opened fire on shore batteries on Sevastopol , at 6h 30 (2. wing). The Breslau reached the Black Sea port of Theodosia exactly 6:30. He informed the local authorities that hostilities began in two hours. He shelled the port from 9 h until 22 h. Then he moved to Yalta and sank several small Russian vessels. At 10:50, he
10906-402: The Turkish government, there are 13,251 arrested or convicted people in jail as of 2024, related to the 2016 coup attempt. With a referendum in 2017 , the parliamentary republic was replaced by an executive presidential system . The office of the prime minister was abolished, and its powers and duties were transferred to the president. On the referendum day, while the voting was still underway,
11039-1075: The UN agreed. Present-day Turkey has been inhabited by modern humans since the late Paleolithic period and contains some of the world's oldest Neolithic sites. Göbekli Tepe is close to 12,000 years old. Parts of Anatolia include the Fertile Crescent , an origin of agriculture . Other important Anatolian Neolithic sites include Çatalhöyük and Alaca Höyük . Neolithic Anatolian farmers differed genetically from farmers in Iran and Jordan Valley . These early Anatolian farmers also migrated into Europe , starting around 9,000 years ago. Troy's earliest layers go back to around 4500 BC. Anatolia's historical records start with clay tablets from approximately around 2000 BC that were found in modern-day Kültepe . These tablets belonged to an Assyrian trade colony . The languages in Anatolia at that time included Hattian, Hurrian, Hittite , Luwian , and Palaic . Hattian
11172-491: The age of 65. Turkish politics have become increasingly associated with democratic backsliding , being described as a competitive authoritarian system. Elections in Turkey are held for six functions of government: presidential (national), parliamentary (national), municipality mayors (local), district mayors (local), provincial or municipal council members (local), and muhtars (local). Referendums are also held occasionally. Every Turkish citizen who has turned 18 has
11305-530: The ambassador immediately accepted and which were signed later that day: The German government later gave its approval to the proposals since it appeared that they would come into play only in the event that Germany was in a position to dictate terms at the peace conference. Wangenheim, on the behalf of the German government, secretly purchased Ikdam , the empire's largest newspaper, and its new ownership began to abuse Britain, France and Russia continuously as Islam's greatest enemies and to remind its readers that
11438-570: The application of reform. The CUP could not possibly accept such proposals since it felt betrayed by what it considered was the European Powers ' bias against the Ottomans during the Balkan Wars and so it had no faith in Great Power declarations regarding the Empire's independence and integrity in the abstract. The termination of European financial control and administrative supervision was one of
11571-530: The cabinet was isolated because the British ambassador had taken leave until 18 August. As the crisis deepened in Europe, the Ottomans had a policy to obtain a guarantee of territorial integrity and potential advantages and were unaware that the British might enter a European war. On 30 July 1914, two days after the outbreak of the war in Europe, the Ottoman leaders agreed to form a secret Ottoman-German Alliance against Russia , but that did not require them to undertake military action. On 22 July, Enver Pasha ,
11704-484: The center of the Ottoman Empire to Anatolia. In addition to a small number of Jews, the refugees were overwhelmingly Muslim; they were both Turkish and non-Turkish people, such as Circassians and Crimean Tatars . Paul Mojzes has called the Balkan Wars an "unrecognized genocide", where multiple sides were both victims and perpetrators. Circassian refugees included the survivors of the Circassian genocide . Following
11837-415: The control of the Three Pashas , the Ottoman Empire entered World War I in 1914, during which the Ottoman government committed genocides against its Armenian , Greek , and Assyrian subjects. Following Ottoman defeat, the Turkish War of Independence resulted in the abolition of the sultanate and the signing of the Treaty of Lausanne . The Republic was proclaimed on 29 October 1923, modelled on
11970-417: The development of events before any more engagements with Germany. He wanted to see the conclusion of the negotiations with Romania, Bulgaria and Greece. Said Halim took two decisions. Firstly, he directed for the German ambassador not to interfere with military affairs and the German commander, General Liman von Sanders, not to interfere with politics. Secondly, he directed for negotiations to be reopened with
12103-492: The electoral threshold by forming an alliance with other parties. Independent candidates are not subject to an electoral threshold. On the right side of the Turkish political spectrum , parties like the Democrat Party , Justice Party , Motherland Party , and Justice and Development Party became the most popular political parties in Turkey, winning numerous elections. Turkish right-wing parties are more likely to embrace
12236-538: The end of the 20th century, the prominent leaders in Turkish politics who achieved multiple election victories were Süleyman Demirel , Bülent Ecevit and Turgut Özal . PKK started a "campaign of terrorist attacks on civilian and military targets" in the 1980s. It is designated as a terrorist organization by Turkey, the United States, and the European Union. Tansu Çiller became the first female prime minister of Turkey in 1993. Turkey applied for full membership of
12369-496: The events as genocide and states that Armenians were only "relocated " from the eastern war zone. Genocidal campaigns were also committed against the empire's other minority groups such as the Assyrians and Greeks . Following the Armistice of Mudros in 1918, the victorious Allied Powers sought the partition of the Ottoman Empire through the 1920 Treaty of Sèvres . The occupation of Istanbul (1918) and İzmir (1919) by
12502-650: The executive and legislative officials are elected by a plurality vote of citizens by district. The government comprises three branches: first is the legislative branch, which is Grand National Assembly of Turkey ; second is the executive branch, which is the President of Turkey ; and third is the judicial branch, which includes the Constitutional Court , the Court of Cassation and Court of Jurisdictional Disputes . The Parliament has 600 seats, distributed among
12635-738: The interior stayed part of the Achaemenid Empire. Two of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World , the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, and the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus , were located in Anatolia. Following the victories of Alexander in 334 BC and 333 BC , the Achaemenid Empire collapsed and Anatolia became part of the Macedonian Empire . This led to increasing cultural homogeneity and Hellenization of
12768-495: The latter founded by colonists from Megara in the seventh century BCE. These settlements were grouped as Aeolis , Ionia , and Doris , after the specific Greek groups that settled them. Further Greek colonization in Anatolia was led by Miletus and Megara in 750–480 BC. The Greek cities along the Aegean prospered with trade, and saw remarkable scientific and scholarly accomplishments. Thales and Anaximander from Miletus founded
12901-666: The legality of such a seizure, the request was granted at a Cabinet meeting on 31 July, together with an offer to the Ottomans to pay for the ships. On 2 August, the British requisitioned them, which alienated pro-British elements in Constantinople. Enver Pasha, knowing that the Ottomans would lose them, had offered to sell the ships to Germany in a renewed attempt at obtaining a treaty of alliance. After Enver's 22 July approach to Germany had been rejected, Kaiser Wilhelm II ordered for it to be reconsidered. Renewed negotiations started on 28 July, involving Enver, Talaat and Said Halim Pasha. In
13034-521: The legitimate government of the country on 23 April 1920 , started to formalize the legal transition from the old Ottoman into the new Republican political system. The Ankara Government engaged in armed and diplomatic struggle. In 1921–1923, the Armenian, Greek, French, and British armies had been expelled. The military advance and diplomatic success of the Ankara Government resulted in the signing of
13167-541: The line south of Baghdad and to recognise Britain's preponderant interest in the region. The issue was resolved to the satisfaction of both sides and did not play a role in causing the war. During the July Crisis over the murder of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in 1914, German diplomats offered the Ottomans an anti-Russian alliance and territorial gains in Caucasia, north-western Iran and Trans-Caspia . The pro-British faction in
13300-590: The majority party. Germany, an enthusiastic supporter of the new regime, provided investment capital. German diplomats gained influence and German officers assisted in training and re-equipping the Ottoman Army, but Britain remained the predominant power in the region. The Ottoman Army faced many challenges including the Italo-Turkish War (1911), the Balkan Wars (1912–1913), unrest on the periphery (such as in
13433-640: The navy minister and the commander-in-chief of the Ottoman fleet, had close contact with British through the British Military Mission to help the Ottomans to improve the Ottoman Navy . The head of the British mission was Admiral Arthur Limpus since April 1912. Admiral Wilhelm Anton Souchon commanded the Mediterranean squadron of the Kaiserliche Marine (German "Imperial Navy"), consisting of
13566-438: The necessary agreement with Bulgaria had been reached. He renewed his request for a fictitious sale. On 11 August 1914, Souchon's ships arrived at Constantinople and had escaped the British. Winston Churchill stated about the escape of the ships: Admiral Souchon was cruising irresolutely about the Greek islands endeavoring to make sure that he would be admitted by the Turks to the Dardanelles. He dallied 36 hours at Denusa and
13699-543: The old religion-based and multi-communal Ottoman monarchy into a Turkish nation state that would be governed as a parliamentary republic under a secular constitution . Women gained the right to vote nationally in 1934. With the Surname Law , the Turkish Parliament bestowed upon Kemal the honorific surname "Atatürk" ( Father Turk ). Atatürk's reforms caused discontent in some Kurdish and Zaza tribes leading to
13832-460: The principal aims of CUP's movement. Sir Louis Mallet, Ambassador , seemed totally oblivious to that. Russia's expanding economy was quickly becoming uncomfortably dependent on the Ottoman Straits for exports. Indeed, a quarter of Russian products passed through the Straits. Control of the Straits and of Constantinople were high priorities for Russian diplomatic and military planning. During
13965-468: The principles of political ideologies such as conservatism , nationalism or Islamism . On the left side of the spectrum, parties like the Republican People's Party , Social Democratic Populist Party and Democratic Left Party once enjoyed the largest electoral success. Left-wing parties are more likely to embrace the principles of socialism , Kemalism or secularism . With the founding of
14098-408: The promotion of judges and prosecutors and in their pursuit of public duty. Turkey's constant foreign policy goal is to pursue its national interests. These interests are mainly growing the economy, and maintaining security from internal terrorist and external threats. After the establishment of the Republic, Atatürk and İnönü followed the " peace at home, peace in the world " principle until
14231-453: The province governors ( vali ) and in towns by the governors ( kaymakam ). Other senior public officials are also appointed by the central government, except for the mayors ( belediye başkanı ) who are elected by the constituents. Turkish municipalities have local legislative bodies ( belediye meclisi ) for decision-making on municipal issues. Turkey is subdivided into 81 provinces ( il or vilayet ) for administrative purposes. Each province
14364-445: The provinces proportionally to the population . The Parliament and the president serve a five-year terms, with elections on the same day. The president is elected by direct vote and cannot run for re-election after two terms, unless the parliament calls early presidential elections during the second term. The Constitutional Court is composed of 15 members, elected for single 12-year terms. They are obliged to retire when they are over
14497-586: The public disorders of the Young Turk Revolution and 31 March Incident , Russia considered landing troops in Constantinople. In May 1913, the German military mission assigned Otto Liman von Sanders to help train and reorganise the Ottoman army. That was intolerable for St. Petersburg, and Russia developed a plan for invading and occupying the Black Sea port of Trabzon or the eastern Anatolian town of Bayezid in retaliation. Russia could not then find
14630-420: The reforms initiated by the country's first president, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk . Turkey remained neutral during most of World War II , but was involved in the Korean War . Several military interventions interfered with the transition to a multi-party system. Turkey is an upper-middle-income and emerging country ; its economy is the world's 17th-largest by nominal and 12th-largest by PPP-adjusted GDP . It
14763-487: The resulting secret defensive treaty, signed on 1 August, Germany undertook to defend the Ottomans' territory if it was threatened, and they would join with Germany if German treaty obligations with Austria forced it into war but not actually fight on Germany's side unless Bulgaria also did so. The German government offered SMS Goeben and SMS Breslau to the Ottoman Navy as replacements to gain influence. The British Pursuit of Goeben and Breslau failed when
14896-427: The same time, Souchon wanted to "conduct training cruises". Souchon complained to Wangenheim, who authorised him to approach the Ottoman government directly. Talks between the German admiral and Said Halim were held on 18 September. Said Halim, who was also assured by Wangenheim, was unhappy about this request. Said Halim feared that neither Souchon nor and his ships were under Ottoman control. The British naval mission
15029-442: The streets every day in huge automobiles". On 9 August 1914, following Said Halim Pasha's 2 August decision, Enver was communicating with Russian Ambassador Mikhail Nikolayevich von Giers . The talks reached to a point that Enver proposed an Ottoman-Russian Alliance that day. Historians have developed two positions on Enver's proposal. One group believes proposal was a ruse to hide the German alliance. The other group believes Enver
15162-504: The transport problem, achieve naval supremacy and increase the number of men and artillery pieces assigned to amphibious operations, which the Russian Army would need to achieve during mobilisation. They also attempted to expand Russia's Caucasian rail network toward the Ottoman Empire. Russia was then demanding the implementation of an Armenian reform package . More than any other country, Germany had been paying favourable attention to
15295-538: The use of the Turkish Straits, linking the Black Sea to the Mediterranean, closed the Turkish straits to international shipping. That caused an immense blow to the Russian economy since Straits were vital for Russian commerce and for communications between the Western Allies and Moscow. On 2 October, the British cabinet decided to drop its century-long support for the Ottomans against Russian threats. The decision
15428-626: Was a language indigenous to Anatolia, with no known modern-day connections. Hurrian language was used in northern Syria . Hittite, Palaic, and Luwian languages were "the oldest written Indo-European languages ", forming the Anatolian sub-group . Hattian rulers were gradually replaced by Hittite rulers. The Hittite kingdom was a large kingdom in Central Anatolia, with its capital of Hattusa . It co-existed in Anatolia with Palaians and Luwians , approximately between 1700 and 1200 BC. As
15561-474: Was a second significant wave of Turkic migration, as people fled Mongol expansion. Seljuk sultanate was defeated by the Mongols at the Battle of Köse Dağ in 1243 and disappeared by the beginning of the 14th century. It was replaced by various Turkish principalities. Based around Söğüt , Ottoman Beylik was founded by Osman I in the early 14th century. According to Ottoman chroniclers, Osman descended from
15694-538: Was acting along the decision of Said Halim, and they were still sincerely trying to find a viable solution to keep the Ottomans out of war. It is clear that no Ottoman leaders were committed to war, but they were trying to maximise their options. On 19 August 1914, an Ottoman–Bulgarian alliance was signed in Sofia during the opening month of the First World War although both signatories were then neutral. The Minister of
15827-505: Was at Novorossisysk , informed the locals, fired on shore batteries and laid 60 mines. Seven ships in the port were damaged and one sunk (3. wing). Two destroyers engaged the Battle of Odessa (1914) at 6:30 a.m. They sank two gunboats and damaged granaries . On 29 October, the Allies presented a note to Grand Vizier Said Halim Pasha to indicate that they had made an agreement with Egypt and that any hostility towards Egypt would be treated as
15960-614: Was called the "State of the Turks" ( Dawlat at-Turk , or Dawlat al-Atrāk , or Dawlat-at-Turkiyya ). Turkestan, also meaning the "land of the Turks", was used for a historic region in Central Asia . Middle English usage of Turkye or Turkeye is found in The Book of the Duchess (written in 1369–1372) to refer to Anatolia or the Ottoman Empire . The modern spelling Turkey dates back to at least 1719. The bird called turkey
16093-429: Was closer to Greek than Anatolian languages. Phrygians shared Anatolia with Neo-Hittites and Urartu . Luwian-speakers were probably the majority in various Anatolian Neo-Hittite states. Urartians spoke a non-Indo-European language and their capital was around Lake Van . Urartu and Phrygia fell in seventh century BC. They were replaced by Carians , Lycians and Lydians . These three cultures "can be considered
16226-609: Was criticized by Iraq for violating its sovereignty and killing civilians. Diplomatic relations with Israel were damaged after the Gaza flotilla raid , normalized in 2016, and cut again following the Israeli invasion of the Gaza Strip . In 2024, Turkey stopped trading with Israel. Turkish Armed Forces is responsible for defense against foreign threats. While the Commander-in-Chief is
16359-422: Was entitled to issue orders. Cemal Pasha did not write why he gave the order in his memoir. Souchon at his commission to Ottoman Navy agreed on not to exercise in the Black Sea. In October, Souchon took his heavily-flagged and bedecked ships out to the Black Sea. On 25 October, Enver instructed Souchon to manoeuvre in the Black Sea and to attack the Russian fleet "if a suitable opportunity presented itself". That
16492-554: Was forced to use his telltale wireless on several occasions. It was not until the evening of the 10th that he entered the Dardanelles, and the Curse descended irrevocably upon Ottoman Empire and the East. On 16 August, Cemal Pasha presided over the formal commissioning of the Goeben and the Breslau , which were renamed Yavuz Sultan Selim and Midilli respectively, and their officers and crews into
16625-412: Was named as such due to trade of guineafowl from Turkey to England. The name Turkey has been used in international treaties referring to the Ottoman Empire. With the Treaty of Alexandropol , the name Türkiye entered international documents for the first time. In the treaty signed with Afghanistan in 1921, the expression Devlet-i Âliyye-i Türkiyye ("Sublime Turkish State") was used, likened to
16758-458: Was natural and beneficial for them to work for the development of policies that enabled them to gain better positions within the region. The Ottoman–Bulgarian alliance may have been a prerequisite for Bulgaria's joining the Central Powers after Turkey entered the war. On 9 September 1914, the Porte unilaterally abrogated the capitulations granted to foreign powers. The British, French, Russian, Italian, Austro-Hungarian and German ambassadors signed
16891-467: Was not part of the military mission and had little to do with Sanders. At that point, Said Halim feared that neither Souchon nor his ships were under Ottoman control. In September 1914, the British naval mission to the Ottomans since 1912 was recalled because of the increasing concern that the Ottomans would enter the war. Rear Admiral Wilhelm Souchon of the Imperial German Navy took command of
17024-632: Was not passed through the normal chain of command, and the Ministry of Navy ignored it. The Ottoman cabinet, including Sait Halim, was not informed. On 26 October, the Ottoman Navy received orders for the supplying the ships stationed at the Hydarpasha. Ships were declared to be leaving for a reconnaissance exercise. There was also a sealed order from Souchon. On 28 October, the Ottoman fleet reorganised in four combat wings. Each went to separate locations along
17157-464: Was questionable, but through him, Germany could use the Ottoman war machine independently. Said Halim brought Souchon and his ships "somewhat" under Ottoman control. There was an ineffective command relationship between the Ottomans and Souchon. Navy Minister Ahmet Cemal Pasha appropriately ignored those events in his memoir. Cemal Pasha also paused his memories between 12 and 30 October. In October, Cemal Pasha instructed senior officials that Souchon
17290-528: Was that the Russian alliance was more important. The key decision was to keep Russia out of Prague, Vienna, Budapest, Belgrade, Bucharest and Sofia by giving it Constantinople after the Ottomans were defeated. Russia had always wanted control of Constantinople and the Straits, primarily so that it could have free access to the Mediterranean Sea, and so it agreed to these terms in November. Ahmet Cemal Pasha ,
17423-427: Was to strike a blow against the constitutional regime and provoke a reaction in order to bring about its fall. Two prominent CUP members, Ahmed Riza and Dr. Nazim, were sent to London to discuss the possibility of cooperation with Sir Edward Grey ( British Foreign Secretary ) and Sir Charles Hardinge (a senior Foreign Office official). Our habit was to keep our hands free, though we made ententes and friendships. It
17556-626: Was true that we had an alliance with Japan , but it was limited to certain distant questions in the Far East. The [Ottoman delegate] replied that Empire was the Japan of the Near East (alluding to Meiji Restoration period which spanned from 1868 to 1912), and that we already had the Cyprus Convention which was still in force. I said that they had our entire sympathy in the good work they were doing in
17689-413: Was vacated by Admiral Limpus on 15 September; it was proposed that Souchon should take over the departing admiral's role. In early September, a German naval mission, comprising about 700 sailors and coastal defence specialists under Admiral Guido von Usedom , arrived to bolster the defences of the Straits. As per the naval mission headed by Guido von Usedom, Souchon was to receive a one-year commission in
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