Misplaced Pages

#8991

95-479: Trinovid is the protected model designation of a roof prism binoculars series from the company Leitz (optics) (since 1986 Leica Camera ) based in Wetzlar , a German centre for optics as well as an important location for the precision engineering industry. The Trinovid binoculars were introduced in 1958 based on a patent request filed in 1953 and featured: Because of these at the time three innovations in binoculars,

190-612: A convex objective and a concave eyepiece lens . The Galilean design has the advantage of presenting an erect image but has a narrow field of view and is not capable of very high magnification. This type of construction is still used in very cheap models and in opera glasses or theater glasses. The Galilean design is also used in low magnification binocular surgical and jewelers' loupes because they can be very short and produce an upright image without extra or unusual erecting optics, reducing expense and overall weight. They also have large exit pupils, making centering less critical, and

285-415: A "brighter" and sharper image than an 8×25, even though both enlarge the image an identical eight times. The larger front lenses in the 8×40 also produce wider beams of light (exit pupil) that leave the eyepieces. This makes it more comfortable to view with an 8×40 than an 8×25. A pair of 10×50 binoculars is better than a pair of 8×40 binoculars for magnification, sharpness and luminous flux. Objective diameter

380-458: A 2-axis pseudo-collimation and will only be serviceable within a small range of interpupillary distance settings, as conditional aligned binoculars are not collimated for the full interpupillary distance setting range. Some binoculars use image-stabilization technology to reduce shake at higher magnifications. This is done by having a gyroscope move part of the instrument, or by powered mechanisms driven by gyroscopic or inertial detectors, or via

475-515: A better sensation of depth. Porro prism designs have the added benefit of folding the optical path so that the physical length of the binoculars is less than the focal length of the objective. Porro prism binoculars were made in such a way to erect an image in a relatively small space, thus binoculars using prisms started in this way. Porro prisms require typically within 10 arcminutes ( ⁠ 1 / 6 ⁠ of 1 degree ) tolerances for alignment of their optical elements ( collimation ) at

570-464: A better type of Crown glass in 1888, and instrument maker Carl Zeiss resulted in 1894 in the commercial introduction of improved 'modern' Porro prism binoculars by the Carl Zeiss company . Binoculars of this type use a pair of Porro prisms in a Z-shaped configuration to erect the image. This results in wide binoculars, with objective lenses that are well separated and offset from the eyepieces , giving

665-404: A complex mix of factors like the quality of optical glass used and various applied optical coatings and not just the magnification and the size of objective lenses. The twilight factor for binoculars can be calculated by first multiplying the magnification by the objective lens diameter and then finding the square root of the result. For instance, the twilight factor of 7×50 binoculars is therefore

760-429: A complex production process. In binoculars with roof prisms the light path is split into two paths that reflect on either side of the roof prism ridge. One half of the light reflects from roof surface 1 to roof surface 2. The other half of the light reflects from roof surface 2 to roof surface 1. If the roof faces are uncoated, the mechanism of reflection is Total Internal Reflection (TIR). In TIR, light polarized in

855-492: A double convex singlet between them or may all be achromatic doublets. These eyepieces tend not to perform as well as Kellner eyepieces at high power because they suffer from astigmatism and ghost images. However they have large eye lenses, excellent eye relief, and are comfortable to use at lower powers. High-end binoculars often incorporate a field flattener lens in the eyepiece behind their prism configuration, designed to improve image sharpness and reduce image distortion at

950-468: A double image. Even slight misalignment will cause vague discomfort and visual fatigue as the brain tries to combine the skewed images. Alignment is performed by small movements to the prisms, by adjusting an internal support cell or by turning external set screws , or by adjusting the position of the objective via eccentric rings built into the objective cell. Unconditional aligning (3-axis collimation, meaning both optical axes are aligned parallel with

1045-413: A formula for the resolution limit of a microscope. In 1876, Abbe was offered a partnership by Zeiss and began to share in the considerable profits. Although the first theoretical derivations of Eq. 1 were published by others, it is fair to say that Abbe was the first to reach this conclusion experimentally. In 1878, he built the first homogenous immersion system for the microscope. The objectives that

SECTION 10

#1732854542009

1140-528: A given viewer). Binoculars can be generally used without eyeglasses by myopic (near-sighted) or hyperopic (far-sighted) users simply by adjusting the focus a little farther. Most manufacturers leave a little extra available focal-range beyond the infinity-stop/setting to account for this when focusing for infinity. People with severe astigmatism, however, will still need to use their glasses while using binoculars. Some binoculars have adjustable magnification, zoom binoculars , such as 7-21×50 intended to give

1235-421: A large drop in brightness at high zoom. Models also have to match the magnification for both eyes throughout the zoom range and hold collimation to avoid eye strain and fatigue. These almost always perform much better at the low power setting than they do at the higher settings. This is natural, since the front objective cannot enlarge to let in more light as the power is increased, so the view gets dimmer. At 7×,

1330-466: A lower reflectivity than silver. Using vacuum-vaporization technology, modern designs use either aluminum, enhanced aluminum (consisting of aluminum overcoated with a multilayer dielectric film) or silver. Silver is used in modern high-quality designs which are sealed and filled with nitrogen or argon to provide an inert atmosphere so that the silver mirror coating does not tarnish. Porro prism and Perger prism binoculars and roof prism binoculars using

1425-902: A mount designed to oppose and damp the effect of shaking movements. Stabilization may be enabled or disabled by the user as required. These techniques allow binoculars up to 20× to be hand-held, and much improve the image stability of lower-power instruments. There are some disadvantages: the image may not be quite as good as the best unstabilized binoculars when tripod-mounted, stabilized binoculars also tend to be more expensive and heavier than similarly specified non-stabilized binoculars. Binoculars housings can be made of various structural materials. Old binoculars barrels and hinge bridges were often made of brass . Later steel and relatively light metals like aluminum and magnesium alloys were used, as well as polymers like ( fibre-reinforced ) polycarbonate and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene . The housing can be rubber armored externally as outer covering to provide

1520-618: A non-slip gripping surface, absorption of undesired sounds and additional cushioning/protection against dents, scrapes, bumps and minor impacts. Because a typical binocular has 6 to 10 optical elements with special characteristics and up to 20 atmosphere-to-glass surfaces, binocular manufacturers use different types of optical coatings for technical reasons and to improve the image they produce. Lens and prism optical coatings on binoculars can increase light transmission, minimize detrimental reflections and interference effects, optimize beneficial reflections, repel water and grease and even protect

1615-455: A professor in Jena , he was hired by Carl Zeiss to improve the manufacturing process of optical instruments, which back then was largely based on trial and error. Abbe was the first to define the term numerical aperture , as the sine of the half angle multiplied by the refractive index of the medium filling the space between the cover glass and front lens. Abbe is credited by many for discovering

1710-402: A relatively narrow IPDs. Anatomic conditions like hypertelorism and hypotelorism can affect IPD and due to extreme IPDs result in practical impairment of using stereoscopic optical products like binoculars. The two telescopes in binoculars are aligned in parallel (collimated), to produce a single circular, apparently three-dimensional, image. Misalignment will cause the binoculars to produce

1805-415: A result, effective modern anti-reflective lens coatings consist of complex multi-layers and reflect only 0.25% or less to yield an image with maximum brightness and natural colors. These allow high-quality 21st century binoculars to practically achieve at the eye lens or ocular lens measured over 90% light transmission values in low light conditions. Depending on the coating, the character of the image seen in

1900-414: A roof prism for polychromatic light several phase-correction coating layers are superimposed, since every layer is wavelength and angle of incidence specific. The P-coating was developed in 1988 by Adolf Weyrauch at Carl Zeiss . Other manufacturers followed soon, and since then phase-correction coatings are used across the board in medium and high-quality roof prism binoculars. This coating suppresses

1995-528: A small scale, like the Perger prism that offers a significantly reduced axial offset compared to traditional Porro prism designs . Roof prism binoculars may have appeared as early as the 1870s in a design by Achille Victor Emile Daubresse. In 1897 Moritz Hensoldt began marketing pentaprism based roof prism binoculars. Most roof prism binoculars use either the Schmidt–Pechan prism (invented in 1899) or

SECTION 20

#1732854542009

2090-650: A student, Abbe gave private lessons to improve his income. His father's employer continued to fund him. Abbe was awarded his PhD in Göttingen on 23 March 1861. While at school, he was influenced by Bernhard Riemann and Wilhelm Eduard Weber , who also happened to be one of the Göttingen Seven . This was followed by two short assignments at the Göttingen observatory and at Physikalischer Verein in Frankfurt (an association of citizens interested in physics and chemistry that

2185-628: A vacuum chamber with maybe thirty or more different superimposed vapor coating layers deposits, making it a complex production process. Binoculars using either a Schmidt–Pechan roof prism , Abbe–Koenig roof prism or an Uppendahl roof prism benefit from phase coatings that compensate for a loss of resolution and contrast caused by the interference effects that occur in untreated roof prisms. Porro prism and Perger prism binoculars do not split beams and therefore they do not require any phase coatings. In binoculars with Schmidt–Pechan or Uppendahl roof prisms, mirror coatings are added to some surfaces of

2280-477: A wider range of wavelengths and angles by using several superimposed layers with different refractive indices. The anti-reflective multi-coating Transparentbelag* (T*) used by Zeiss in the late 1970s consisted of six superimposed layers. In general, the outer coating layers have slightly lower index of refraction values and the layer thickness is adapted to the range of wavelengths in the visible spectrum to promote optimal destructive interference via reflection in

2375-471: Is interference between light from the two paths causing a distortion of the Point Spread Function and a deterioration of the image. Resolution and contrast significantly suffer. These unwanted interference effects can be suppressed by vapor depositing a special dielectric coating known as a phase-correction coating or P-coating on the roof surfaces of the roof prism. To approximately correct

2470-403: Is physical vapor deposition which includes evaporative deposition with maybe seventy or more different superimposed vapor coating layers deposits, making it a complex production process. This multilayer coating increases reflectivity from the prism surfaces by acting as a distributed Bragg reflector . A well-designed multilayer dielectric coating can provide a reflectivity of over 99% across

2565-441: Is important when looking at birds or game animals that move rapidly, or for a seafarer on the deck of a pitching vessel or observing from a moving vehicle. Narrow exit pupil binoculars also may be fatiguing because the instrument must be held exactly in place in front of the eyes to provide a useful image. Finally, many people use their binoculars at dawn, at dusk, in overcast conditions, or at night, when their pupils are larger. Thus,

2660-484: Is inversely proportional to the magnifying power. It is usually notated in a linear value, such as how many feet (meters) in width will be seen at 1,000 yards (or 1,000 m), or in an angular value of how many degrees can be viewed. Binoculars concentrate the light gathered by the objective into a beam, of which the diameter, the exit pupil , is the objective diameter divided by the magnifying power. For maximum effective light-gathering and brightest image, and to maximize

2755-435: Is the closest point that the binocular can focus on. This distance varies from about 0.5 to 30 m (2 to 98 ft), depending upon the design of the binoculars. If the close focus distance is short with respect to the magnification, the binocular can be used also to see particulars not visible to the naked eye. Binocular eyepieces usually consist of three or more lens elements in two or more groups. The lens furthest from

2850-401: Is the distance the observer must position his or her eye behind the eyepiece in order to see an unvignetted image. The longer the focal length of the eyepiece, the greater the potential eye relief. Binoculars may have eye relief ranging from a few millimeters to 25 mm or more. Eye relief can be particularly important for eyeglasses wearers. The eye of an eyeglasses wearer is typically farther from

2945-525: Is ultimately limited by the aperture of the optics, but also argued that depending on application there are other parameters that should be weighted over the aperture in the design of objectives. In Abbe's 1874 paper, titled "A Contribution to the Theory of the Microscope and the nature of Microscopic Vision", Abbe states that the resolution of a microscope is inversely dependent on its aperture, but without proposing

Trinovid - Misplaced Pages Continue

3040-446: Is usually expressed in millimeters. It is customary to categorize binoculars by the magnification × the objective diameter ; e.g., 7×50 . Smaller binoculars may have a diameter of as low as 22 mm; 35 mm and 50 mm are common diameters for field binoculars; astronomical binoculars have diameters ranging from 70 mm to 150 mm. The field of view of a pair of binoculars depends on its optical design and in general

3135-454: The Abbe number , a measure of any transparent material's variation of refractive index with wavelength and Abbe's criterion, which tests the hypothesis, that a systematic trend exists in a set of observations (in terms of resolving power this criterion stipulates that an angular separation cannot be less than the ratio of the wavelength to the aperture diameter, see angular resolution ). Already

3230-502: The Abbe sine condition . So monumental and advanced were Abbe's calculations and achievements that Frits Zernike based his phase contrast work on them, for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1953, and Hans Busch used them to work on the development of the electron microscope . During his association with Carl Zeiss ' microscope works, not only was he at the forefront of the field of optics but also labor reform. He founded

3325-491: The Abbe–Koenig prism (named after Ernst Karl Abbe and Albert König and patented by Carl Zeiss in 1905) designs to erect the image and fold the optical path. They have objective lenses that are approximately in a line with the eyepieces. Binoculars with roof prisms have been in use to a large extent since the second half of the 20th century. Roof prism designs result in objective lenses that are almost or totally in line with

3420-604: The Abbe–Koenig roof prism configuration do not use mirror coatings because these prisms reflect with 100% reflectivity using total internal reflection in the prism rather than requiring a (metallic) mirror coating. Dielectric coatings are used in Schmidt–Pechan and Uppendahl roof prisms to cause the prism surfaces to act as a dielectric mirror . This coating was introduced in 2004 in Zeiss Victory FL binoculars featuring Schmidt–Pechan prisms. Other manufacturers followed soon, and since then dielectric coatings are used across

3515-702: The Jena astronomical and meteorological observatory in 1878. In 1889, he became a member of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences and Humanities . He also was a member of the Saxon Academy of Sciences. He was relieved of his teaching duties at the University of Jena in 1891. Abbe died 14 January 1905 in Jena. He was an atheist. In 1866, he became a research director at the Zeiss Optical Works , and in 1868 he invented

3610-579: The apochromatic lens , a microscope lens which eliminates both the primary and secondary color distortion. By 1870, Abbe invented the Abbe condenser , used for microscope illumination. In 1871, he designed the first refractometer , which he described in a booklet published in 1874. He developed the laws of image of non-luminous objects by 1872. Zeiss Optical Works began selling his improved microscopes in 1872, by 1877 they were selling microscopes with homogenous immersion objective, and in 1886 his apochromatic objective microscopes were being sold. He created

3705-552: The interference method by Fizeau , in 1884. Abbe, Zeiss, Zeiss' son, Roderich Zeiss , and Otto Schott formed, in 1884, the Jenaer Glaswerk Schott & Genossen . This company, which in time would in essence merge with Zeiss Optical Works, was responsible for research and production of 44 initial types of optical glass. Working with telescopes , he built an image reversal system in 1895. In order to produce high quality objectives, Abbe made significant contributions to

3800-520: The social democratic Jenaische Zeitung (newspaper) in 1890 and in 1900, introduced the eight-hour workday , in remembrance of the 14-hour workday of his own father. In addition, he created a pension fund and a discharge compensation fund. In 1889, Ernst Abbe set up and endowed the Carl Zeiss Foundation for research in science. The aim of the foundation was "to secure the economic, scientific, and technological future and in this way to improve

3895-399: The visible light spectrum . This reflectivity is an improvement compared to either an aluminium mirror coating or silver mirror coating. Ernst Abbe Ernst Karl Abbe HonFRMS (23 January 1840 – 14 January 1905) was a German businessman, optical engineer, physicist, and social reformer. Together with Otto Schott and Carl Zeiss , he developed numerous optical instruments. He

Trinovid - Misplaced Pages Continue

3990-478: The 1890s to supersede them with better prism-based technology. Optical prisms added to the design enabled the display of the image the right way up without needing as many lenses, and decreasing the overall length of the instrument, typically using Porro prism or roof prism systems. The Italian inventor of optical instruments Ignazio Porro worked during the 1860s with Hofmann in Paris to produce monoculars using

4085-529: The 1947 book Schriften der Heidelberger Aktionsgruppe zur Demokratie und Zum Freien Sozialismus ( Writings of the Heidelberg Action Group on Democracy and Free Socialism ). The crater Abbe on the Moon was named in his honour. Abbe was a pioneer in optics, lens design, and microscopy, and an authority of his time. He left us with numerous publications of his findings, inventions, and discoveries. Below

4180-548: The 50mm front objective provides a 7.14 mm exit pupil, but at 21×, the same front objective provides only a 2.38 mm exit pupil. Also, the optical quality of a zoom binocular at any given power is inferior to that of a fixed power binocular of that power. Most modern binoculars are also adjustable via a hinged construction that enables the distance between the two telescope halves to be adjusted to accommodate viewers with different eye separation or " interpupillary distance (IPD)" (the distance measured in millimeters between

4275-582: The Abbe Zeiss collaboration were producing were of ideal ray geometry, allowing Abbe to find that the aperture sets the upper limit of microscopic resolution, not the curvature and placement of the lenses. Abbe's first publication of Eq. 1 occurred in 1882. In this publication, Abbe states that both his theoretical and experimental investigations confirmed Eq. 1 . Abbe's contemporary Henry Edward Fripp, English translator of Abbe's and Helmholtz's papers, puts their contributions on equal footing. He also perfected

4370-400: The accompanying more decisive exit pupil does not permit a practical determination of the low light capability of binoculars. Ideally, the exit pupil should be at least as large as the pupil diameter of the user's dark-adapted eyes in circumstances with no extraneous light. A primarily historic, more meaningful mathematical approach to indicate the level of clarity and brightness in binoculars

4465-616: The alignment of their optical elements by laser or interference (collimation) at an affordable price point is challenging. To avoid the need for later re-collimation, the prisms are generally aligned at the factory and then permanently fixed to a metal plate. These complicating production requirements make high-quality roof prism binoculars more costly to produce than Porro prism binoculars of equivalent optical quality and until phase correction coatings were invented in 1988 Porro prism binoculars optically offered superior resolution and contrast to non-phase corrected roof prism binoculars. In

4560-400: The amount of "lost" light present inside the binocular which would otherwise make the image appear hazy (low contrast). A pair of binoculars with good optical coatings may yield a brighter image than uncoated binoculars with a larger objective lens, on account of superior light transmission through the assembly. The first transparent interference-based coating Transparentbelag (T) used by Zeiss

4655-402: The axis of the hinge used to select various interpupillary distance settings) binoculars requires specialized equipment. Unconditional alignment is usually done by a professional, although the externally mounted adjustment features can usually be accessed by the end user. Conditional alignment ignores the third axis (the hinge) in the alignment process. Such a conditional alignment comes down to

4750-459: The beams reflected from the interfaces, and constructive interference in the corresponding transmitted beams. There is no simple formula for the optimal layer thickness for a given choice of materials. These parameters are therefore determined with the help of simulation programs. Determined by the optical properties of the lenses used and intended primary use of the binoculars, different coatings are preferred, to optimize light transmission dictated by

4845-407: The binoculars series was named Trinovid. They included both larger and smaller (compact) binoculars and were initially practically unsuitable for people who wear glasses and weatherproof, but not waterproof. The binoculars series was updated and modified several times throughout its production history and switched to Schmidt-Pechan roof prism systems around 1990, which also brought a new series onto

SECTION 50

#1732854542009

4940-488: The binoculars under normal daylight can either look "warmer" or "colder" and appear either with higher or lower contrast. Subject to the application, the coating is also optimized for maximum color fidelity through the visible spectrum , for example in the case of lenses specially designed for bird watching. A common application technique is physical vapor deposition of one or more superimposed anti-reflective coating layer(s) which includes evaporative deposition , making it

5035-401: The board in medium and high-quality Schmidt–Pechan and Uppendahl roof prism binoculars. The non-metallic dielectric reflective coating is formed from several multilayers of alternating high and low refractive index materials deposited on a prism's reflective surfaces. The manufacturing techniques for dielectric mirrors are based on thin-film deposition methods. A common application technique

5130-441: The centers of the pupils of the eyes). Most are optimized for the interpupillary distance (typically about 63 mm) for adults. Interpupillary distance varies with respect to age, gender and race. The binoculars industry has to take IPD variance (most adults have IPDs in the 50–75 mm range) and its extrema into account, because stereoscopic optical products need to be able to cope with many possible users, including those with

5225-475: The daytime exit pupil is not a universally desirable standard. For comfort, ease of use, and flexibility in applications, larger binoculars with larger exit pupils are satisfactory choices even if their capability is not fully used by day. Before innovations like anti-reflective coatings were commonly used in binoculars, their performance was often mathematically expressed. Nowadays, the practically achievable instrumentally measurable brightness of binoculars rely on

5320-403: The diagnosis and correction of optical aberrations , both spherical aberration and coma aberration , which is required for an objective to reach the resolution limit of Eq. 1 . In addition to spherical aberration, Abbe discovered that the rays in optical systems must have constant angular magnification over their angular distribution to produce a diffraction limited spot, a principle known as

5415-460: The difference in phase shift between s- and p- polarization so both paths have the same polarization and no interference degrades the image. In this way, since the 1990s, roof prism binoculars have also achieved resolution values that were previously only achievable with Porro prisms. The presence of a phase-correction coating can be checked on unopened binoculars using two polarization filters. Dielectric phase-correction prism coatings are applied in

5510-403: The early 2020s in high-quality binoculars practically became irrelevant. At high-quality price points, similar optical performance can be achieved with every commonly applied optical system. This was 20–30 years earlier not possible, as occurring optical disadvantages and problems could at that time not be technically mitigated to practical irrelevancy. Relevant differences in optical performance in

5605-774: The early 2020s, the commercial offering of Schmidt-Pechan designs exceeds the Abbe-Koenig design offerings and had become the dominant optical design compared to other prism-type designs. Alternative roof prism-based designs like the Uppendahl prism system composed of three prisms cemented together were and are commercially offered on a small scale. The optical system of modern binoculars consists of three main optical assemblies: Although different prism systems have optical design-induced advantages and disadvantages when compared, due to technological progress in fields like optical coatings, optical glass manufacturing, etcetera, differences in

5700-557: The entry-level binoculars series offered by Leica. Binoculars Unlike a ( monocular ) telescope, binoculars give users a three-dimensional image : each eyepiece presents a slightly different image to each of the viewer's eyes and the parallax allows the visual cortex to generate an impression of depth . Almost from the invention of the telescope in the 17th century the advantages of mounting two of them side by side for binocular vision seems to have been explored. Most early binoculars used Galilean optics ; that is, they used

5795-601: The exit pupil of a 7×21 binocular. Much larger 7×50 binoculars will produce a (7.14 mm) cone of light bigger than the pupil it is entering, and this light will, in the daytime, be wasted. An exit pupil that is too small also will present an observer with a dimmer view, since only a small portion of the light-gathering surface of the retina is used. For applications where equipment must be carried (birdwatching, hunting), users opt for much smaller (lighter) binoculars with an exit pupil that matches their expected iris diameter so they will have maximum resolution but are not carrying

SECTION 60

#1732854542009

5890-435: The eye piece which necessitates a longer eye relief in order to avoid vignetting and, in the extreme cases, to conserve the entire field of view. Binoculars with short eye relief can also be hard to use in instances where it is difficult to hold them steady. Eyeglasses wearers who intend to wear their glasses when using binoculars should look for binoculars with an eye relief that is long enough so that their eyes are not behind

5985-750: The eyepieces, creating an instrument that is narrower and more compact than Porro prisms and lighter. There is also a difference in image brightness. Porro prism and Abbe–Koenig roof-prism binoculars will inherently produce a brighter image than Schmidt–Pechan roof prism binoculars of the same magnification, objective size, and optical quality, because the Schmidt-Pechan roof-prism design employs mirror-coated surfaces that reduce light transmission . In roof prism designs, optically relevant prism angles must be correct within 2 arcseconds ( ⁠ 1 / 1,800 ⁠ of 1 degree) to avoid seeing an obstructive double image. Maintaining such tight production tolerances for

6080-563: The factory. Sometimes Porro prisms binoculars need their prisms set to be re-aligned to bring them into collimation. Good-quality Porro prism design binoculars often feature about 1.5 millimetres (0.06 in) deep grooves or notches ground across the width of the hypotenuse face center of the prisms, to eliminate image quality reducing abaxial non-image-forming reflections. Porro prism binoculars can offer good optical performance with relatively little manufacturing effort and as human eyes are ergonomically limited by their interpupillary distance

6175-430: The first number in a binocular description (e.g., 7 ×35, 10 ×50), magnification is the ratio of the focal length of the objective divided by the focal length of the eyepiece. This gives the magnifying power of binoculars (sometimes expressed as "diameters"). A magnification factor of 7, for example, produces an image 7 times larger than the original seen from that distance. The desirable amount of magnification depends upon

6270-440: The human eye luminous efficiency function variance. Maximal light transmission around wavelengths of 555 nm ( green ) is important for obtaining optimal photopic vision using the eye cone cells for observation in well-lit conditions. Maximal light transmission around wavelengths of 498 nm ( cyan ) is important for obtaining optimal scotopic vision using the eye rod cells for observation in low light conditions. As

6365-546: The image the right way up. In aprismatic binoculars with Keplerian optics (which were sometimes called "twin telescopes"), each tube has one or two additional lenses ( relay lens ) between the objective and the eyepiece. These lenses are used to erect the image. The binoculars with erecting lenses had a serious disadvantage: they are too long. Such binoculars were popular in the 1800s (for example, G. & S. Merz models). The Keplerian "twin telescopes" binoculars were optically and mechanically hard to manufacture, but it took until

6460-497: The intended application, and in most binoculars is a permanent, non-adjustable feature of the device (zoom binoculars are the exception). Hand-held binoculars typically have magnifications ranging from 7× to 10×, so they will be less susceptible to the effects of shaking hands. A larger magnification leads to a smaller field of view and may require a tripod for image stability. Some specialized binoculars for astronomy or military use have magnifications ranging from 15× to 25×. Given as

6555-498: The job security of their employees." He made it a point that the success of an employee was based solely on their ability and performance, not on their origin, religion, or political views. In 1896, he reorganized the Zeiss optical works into a cooperative with profit-sharing. His social views were so respected as to be used by the Prussian state as a model and idealized by Alfred Weber in

6650-840: The lens from scratches. Modern optical coatings are composed of a combination of very thin layers of materials such as oxides, metals, or rare earth materials. The performance of an optical coating is dependent on the number of layers, manipulating their exact thickness and composition, and the refractive index difference between them. These coatings have become a key technology in the field of optics and manufacturers often have their own designations for their optical coatings. The various lens and prism optical coatings used in high-quality 21st century binoculars, when added together, can total about 200 (often superimposed) coating layers. Anti-reflective interference coatings reduce light lost at every optical surface through reflection at each surface. Reducing reflection via anti-reflective coatings also reduces

6745-463: The magnification, so compared to 7× binoculars, 10× binoculars offer about half (7² ÷ 10² = 0.49) the depth of field. However, not related to the binoculars optical system, the user perceived practical depth of field or depth of acceptable view performance is also dependent on the accommodation ability (accommodation ability varies from person to person and decreases significantly with age) and light conditions dependent effective pupil size or diameter of

6840-682: The market. These binoculars, which have been on the market for high-quality compact binoculars for a long time, had the optical parameters 8×20 and 10×25. The "B" designation added to updated models means that there is sufficient eye relief for eyeglasses [ Brille in German] wearers. The Trinovid series were supplemented in 2004 by the Ultravid series and in 2016 by the Noctivid series with higher-quality optical glass, better optical coatings and completely recalculated optical imaging qualities, but are still available as

6935-488: The narrow field of view works well in those applications. These are typically mounted on an eyeglass frame or custom-fit onto eyeglasses. An improved image and higher magnification are achieved in binoculars employing Keplerian optics , where the image formed by the objective lens is viewed through a positive eyepiece lens (ocular). Since the Keplerian configuration produces an inverted image, different methods are used to turn

7030-418: The offset and separation of big (60 mm wide) diameter objective lenses and the eyepieces becomes a practical advantage in a stereoscopic optical product. In the early 2020s, the commercial market share of Porro prism-type binoculars had become the second most numerous compared to other prism-type optical designs. There are alternative Porro prism-based systems available that find application in binoculars on

7125-514: The outer regions of the field of view. Binoculars have a focusing arrangement which changes the distance between eyepiece and objective lenses or internally mounted lens elements. Normally there are two different arrangements used to provide focus, "independent focus" and "central focusing": With increasing magnification, the depth of field – the distance between the nearest and the farthest objects that are in acceptably sharp focus in an image – decreases. The depth of field reduces quadratic with

7220-402: The plane of incidence (p-polarized) and light polarized orthogonal to the plane of incidence (s-polarized) experience different phase shifts. As a consequence, linearly polarized light emerges from a roof prism elliptically polarized. Furthermore, the state of elliptical polarization of the two paths through the prism is different. When the two paths recombine on the retina (or a detector) there

7315-564: The point of focus (also called the eyepoint). Else, their glasses will occupy the space where their eyes should be. Generally, an eye relief over 16 mm should be adequate for any eyeglass wearer. However, if glasses frames are thicker and so significantly protrude from the face, an eye relief over 17 mm should be considered. Eyeglasses wearers should also look for binoculars with twist-up eye cups that ideally have multiple settings, so they can be partially or fully retracted to adjust eye relief to individual ergonomic preferences. Close focus distance

7410-484: The resolution limit of the microscope, and the formula (published in 1873) although in a publication in 1874, Helmholtz states this formula was first derived by Joseph Louis Lagrange , who had died 61 years prior. Helmholtz was so impressed as to offer a professorship at the University of Berlin , which he refused due to his ties to Zeiss. Abbe was in the camp of the wide aperturists, arguing that microscopic resolution

7505-615: The roof prism because the light is incident at one of the prism's glass-air boundaries at an angle less than the critical angle so total internal reflection does not occur. Without a mirror coating most of that light would be lost. Roof prism aluminum mirror coating ( reflectivity of 87% to 93%) or silver mirror coating (reflectivity of 95% to 98%) is used. In older designs silver mirror coatings were used but these coatings oxidized and lost reflectivity over time in unsealed binoculars. Aluminum mirror coatings were used in later unsealed designs because they did not tarnish even though they have

7600-594: The same prism configuration used in modern Porro prism binoculars. At the 1873 Vienna Trade Fair German optical designer and scientist Ernst Abbe displayed a prism telescope with two cemented Porro prisms. The optical solutions of Porro and Abbe were theoretically sound, but the employed prism systems failed in practice primarily due to insufficient glass quality. Porro prism binoculars are named after Ignazio Porro, who patented this image erecting system in 1854. The later refinement by Ernst Abbe and his cooperation with glass scientist Otto Schott , who managed to produce

7695-436: The second number in a binocular description (e.g., 7× 35 , 10× 50 ), the diameter of the objective lens determines the resolution (sharpness) and how much light can be gathered to form an image. When two different binoculars have equal magnification, equal quality, and produce a sufficiently matched exit pupil (see below), the larger objective diameter produces a "brighter" and sharper image. An 8×40, then, will produce

7790-404: The sharpness, the exit pupil should at least equal the diameter of the pupil of the human eye: about 7 mm at night and about 3 mm in the daytime, decreasing with age. If the cone of light streaming out of the binoculars is larger than the pupil it is going into, any light larger than the pupil is wasted. In daytime use, the human pupil is typically dilated about 3 mm, which is about

7885-552: The smallest and largest IPDs. Children and adults with narrow IPDs can experience problems with the IPD adjustment range of binocular barrels to match the width between the centers of the pupils in each eye impairing the use of some binoculars. Adults with average or wide IPDs generally experience no eye separation adjustment range problems, but straight barreled roof prism binoculars featuring over 60 mm diameter objectives can dimensionally be problematic to correctly adjust for adults with

7980-445: The square root of 7 × 50: the square root of 350 = 18.71. The higher the twilight factor, mathematically, the better the resolution of the binoculars when observing under dim light conditions. Mathematically, 7×50 binoculars have exactly the same twilight factor as 70×5 ones, but 70×5 binoculars are useless during twilight and also in well-lit conditions as they would offer only a 0.14 mm exit pupil. The twilight factor without knowing

8075-447: The sub-high-quality price categories can still be observed with roof prism-type binoculars today because well-executed technical problem mitigation measures and narrow manufacturing tolerances remain difficult and cost-intensive. Binoculars are usually designed for specific applications. These different designs require certain optical parameters which may be listed on the prism cover plate of the binoculars. Those parameters are: Given as

8170-422: The user the flexibility of having a single pair of binoculars with a wide range of magnifications, usually by moving a "zoom" lever. This is accomplished by a complex series of adjusting lenses similar to a zoom camera lens . These designs are noted to be a compromise and even a gimmick since they add bulk, complexity and fragility to the binocular. The complex optical path also leads to a narrow field of view and

8265-484: The user's eyes. There are "focus-free" or "fixed-focus" binoculars that have no focusing mechanism other than the eyepiece adjustments that are meant to be set for the user's eyes and left fixed. These are considered to be compromise designs, suited for convenience, but not well suited for work that falls outside their designed hyperfocal distance range (for hand held binoculars generally from about 35 m (38 yd) to infinity without performing eyepiece adjustments for

8360-419: The viewer's eye is called the field lens or objective lens and that closest to the eye the eye lens or ocular lens . The most common Kellner configuration is that invented in 1849 by Carl Kellner . In this arrangement, the eye lens is a plano-concave/ double convex achromatic doublet (the flat part of the former facing the eye) and the field lens is a double-convex singlet. A reversed Kellner eyepiece

8455-436: The weight of wasted aperture. A larger exit pupil makes it easier to put the eye where it can receive the light; anywhere in the large exit pupil cone of light will do. This ease of placement helps avoid, especially in large field of view binoculars, vignetting , which brings to the viewer an image with its borders darkened because the light from them is partially blocked, and it means that the image can be quickly found, which

8550-596: Was able to attend secondary school and to obtain the general qualification for university entrance with fairly good grades, at the Eisenach Gymnasium, which he graduated from in 1857. By the time he left school, his scientific talent and his strong will had already become obvious. Thus, in spite of the family's strained financial situation, his father decided to support Abbe's studies at the Universities of Jena (1857–1859) and Göttingen (1859–1861). During his time as

8645-451: Was also a co-owner of Carl Zeiss AG , a German manufacturer of scientific microscopes, astronomical telescopes, planetariums, and other advanced optical systems. Abbe was born 23 January 1840 in Eisenach , Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach , to Georg Adam Abbe and Elisabeth Christina Barchfeldt. He came from a humble home – his father was a foreman in a spinnery. Supported by his father's employer, Abbe

8740-473: Was developed in 1975 and in it the field lens is a double concave/ double convex achromatic doublet and the eye lens is a double convex singlet. The reverse Kellner provides 50% more eye relief and works better with small focal ratios as well as having a slightly wider field. Wide field binoculars typically utilize some kind of Erfle configuration , patented in 1921. These have five or six elements in three groups. The groups may be two achromatic doublets with

8835-499: Was founded by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe in 1824 and still exists today). On 8 August 1863 he qualified as a university lecturer at the University of Jena. In 1870, he accepted a contract as an associate professor of experimental physics , mechanics and mathematics in Jena. In 1871, he married Else Snell, daughter of the mathematician and physicist Karl Snell, one of Abbe's teachers, with whom he had two daughters. He attained full professor status by 1879. He became director of

8930-415: Was invented in 1935 by Olexander Smakula . A classic lens-coating material is magnesium fluoride , which reduces reflected light from about 4% to 1.5%. At 16 atmosphere to optical glass surfaces passes, a 4% reflection loss theoretically means a 52% light transmission ( 0.96 = 0.520) and a 1.5% reflection loss a much better 78.5% light transmission ( 0.985 = 0.785). Reflection can be further reduced over

9025-415: Was relative brightness. It is calculated by squaring the diameter of the exit pupil. In the above 7×50 binoculars example, this means that their relative brightness index is 51 (7.14 × 7.14 = 51). The higher the relative brightness index number, mathematically, the better the binoculars are suited for low light use. Eye relief is the distance from the rear eyepiece lens to the exit pupil or eye point. It

#8991