The Transpacific Route Case was a major administrative law case argued before the Civil Aeronautics Board for much of the 1960s. Before the case, the only U.S. airlines permitted to fly transpacific routes were Pan Am and Northwest Orient . Continental Airlines also flew transpacific routes on military contract, but was not allowed to carry civilians.
188-444: President Dwight Eisenhower opened the case in 1959 in order to investigate opening the market up to further competition, but he closed the case shortly before leaving office. John F. Kennedy reopened the case in 1961. The CAB concluded the case in 1969, retaining Northwest and Pan Am's routes to Asia and making the following additional route awards: The award was a great victory for TWA, which had already established service from
376-432: A U.S. Senator from Illinois (1970–1981). His mother was Helen Davis Stevenson, and he had an older sister, Elizabeth Stevenson Ives, an author who was called "Buffie". Actor McLean Stevenson was a second cousin once removed . He was the nephew by marriage of novelist Mary Borden , and she assisted in the writing of some of his political speeches. Stevenson was raised in the city of Bloomington, Illinois ; his family
564-531: A containment policy to stop Soviet expansion. In June 1943, a visiting politician had suggested to Eisenhower that he might become president after the war. Believing that a general should not participate in politics, Merlo J. Pusey wrote that "figuratively speaking, [Eisenhower] kicked his political-minded visitor out of his office". As others asked him about his political future, Eisenhower told one that he could not imagine wanting to be considered for any political job "from dogcatcher to Grand High Supreme King of
752-598: A very bloody large-scale battle , and the Germans finally surrendered on May 7, 1945. Throughout 1945, the allied armies liberated numerous Nazi concentration camps throughout Europe. As the allies learned the full extend of the Holocaust , Eisenhower anticipated that, in the future, attempts to recharacterize Nazi crimes as propaganda ( Holocaust denial ) would be made, and took steps against it by demanding extensive photo and film documentation of Nazi death camps . Following
940-402: A Senate committee that traveled to several large cities and held televised hearings into organized crime. The hearings revealed connections between organized-crime syndicates and big-city Democratic political organizations, which led Truman and other Democratic leaders to oppose Kefauver's bid for the nomination: "a machine politician and proud of it, [Truman] had no use for reformers who blackened
1128-478: A U.S. Senator; Borden Stevenson, and John Fell Stevenson. In 1935, Adlai and Ellen purchased a 70-acre (28 ha) tract of land along the Des Plaines River near Libertyville, Illinois , a wealthy suburb of Chicago. They built a home on the property and it served as Stevenson's official residence for the rest of his life. Although he spent relatively little time there due to his career, Stevenson did consider
1316-629: A basic golf facility installed at Camp David, and he became close friends with the Augusta National Chairman Clifford Roberts , inviting Roberts to stay at the White House on numerous occasions. Roberts, an investment broker, also handled the Eisenhower family's investments. He began oil painting while at Columbia University, after watching Thomas E. Stephens paint Mamie's portrait. Eisenhower painted about 260 oils during
1504-505: A biographer to write that "Clearly, Adlai had carried the President in with him." Paul Douglas , a University of Chicago professor of economics, was elected senator on the same ticket. Principal among Stevenson's achievements as Illinois governor were reforming the state police by removing political considerations from hiring practices and instituting a merit system for employment and promotion, cracking down on illegal gambling, and improving
1692-835: A broken-down Tin Lizzie , loaded with paint, has been driven over it". Angels in the Outfield was Eisenhower's favorite movie. His favorite reading material for relaxation was the Western novels of Zane Grey . With his excellent memory and ability to focus, Eisenhower was skilled at cards. He learned poker, which he called his "favorite indoor sport", in Abilene. Eisenhower recorded West Point classmates' poker losses for payment after graduation and later stopped playing because his opponents resented having to pay him. A friend reported that after learning to play contract bridge at West Point, Eisenhower played
1880-464: A camp for thousands of troops and developing a full combat training schedule. After the war, Eisenhower reverted to his regular rank of captain and a few days later was promoted to major , a rank he held for 16 years. The major was assigned in 1919 to a transcontinental Army convoy to test vehicles and dramatize the need for improved roads. Indeed, the convoy averaged only 5 miles per hour (8.0 km/h) from Washington, D.C. to San Francisco; later
2068-477: A good and loyal American out of the governor". In the 1952 campaign, Stevenson also developed a strong dislike for Richard M. Nixon , then the GOP vice-presidential candidate. "Adlai literally loathed Nixon. No other person aroused such disgust; not even Joseph McCarthy...Friends who often wished he could be more of a hater were awed at the strength of his distaste for Nixon." A biographer wrote that "for Stevenson, Nixon
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#17328526955102256-640: A life-threatening stomach ailment but recovered fully. Eisenhower was promoted to the rank of permanent lieutenant colonel in 1936. He also learned to fly with the Philippine Army Air Corps at the Zablan Airfield in Camp Murphy under Capt. Jesus Villamor , making a solo flight over the Philippines in 1937, and obtained his private pilot's license in 1939 at Fort Lewis . Also around this time, he
2444-478: A man's character by the way he plays cards. Eisenhower is a calm and collected player and never whines at his losses. He is brilliant in victory but never commits the bridge player's worst crime of gloating when he wins." Bridge expert Oswald Jacoby frequently participated in the White House games and said, "The President plays better bridge than golf. He tries to break 90 at golf. At bridge, you would say he plays in
2632-533: A member of the American Whig-Cliosophic Society , a member of the Quadrangle Club , and received a B.A. degree in 1922 in literature and history. Under prodding from his father, he then went to Harvard Law School , but found law to be "uninteresting", and withdrew after failing several classes. He returned to Bloomington where he wrote for the family newspaper, The Daily Pantagraph , which
2820-473: A military mistake for him to attack Berlin and said orders to that effect would have to be explicit. The British backed down but then wanted Eisenhower to move into Czechoslovakia for political reasons. Washington refused to support Churchill's plan to use Eisenhower's army for political maneuvers against Moscow . The actual division of Germany followed the lines that Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin had previously agreed upon. The Soviet Red Army captured Berlin in
3008-555: A pessimistic assessment, stating he had an "uneasy feeling" about Chaney and his staff. On June 23, 1942, he returned to London as Commanding General, European Theater of Operations (ETOUSA), based in London and with a house in Coombe, Kingston upon Thames , and took over command of ETOUSA from Chaney. He was promoted to lieutenant general on July 7. In November 1942, Eisenhower was also appointed Supreme Commander Allied Expeditionary Force of
3196-409: A political candidate." During the campaign, a photograph revealed a hole in the sole of Stevenson's right shoe. This became a symbol of Stevenson's frugality and earthiness. The Eisenhower campaign attempted to use the symbol of the shoe with a hole to criticize Stevenson in advertising, to which Stevenson said, “Better a hole in the shoe than a hole in the head.” Photographer William M. Gallagher of
3384-461: A presidential candidate. Historian John Frederick Martin says party leaders selected Stevenson because he was "more moderate on civil rights than Estes Kefauver , yet nonetheless acceptable to labor and urban machines—so a coalition of southern, urban, and labor leaders fell in behind his candidacy in Chicago". Stevenson's 1952 running mate was Senator John Sparkman of Alabama . Stevenson accepted
3572-469: A railroad mechanic and then at a creamery. By 1898, the parents made a decent living and provided a suitable home for their large family. Eisenhower was born David Dwight Eisenhower in Denison, Texas, on October 14, 1890, the third of seven sons born to Ida and David. His mother soon reversed his two forenames after his birth to avoid the confusion of having two Davids in the family. He was named Dwight after
3760-499: A serious heart attack. Although he recovered and eventually decided to run for a second term, concerns about his health led two prominent Democrats, Tennessee Senator Estes Kefauver and New York Governor Averell Harriman , to decide to challenge Stevenson for the Democratic nomination. After being told by his aides that he needed to enter and win several presidential primaries to defeat Kefauver and Harriman, Stevenson officially entered
3948-576: A unit that trained tank crews. Between the wars he served in staff positions in the US and the Philippines, reaching the rank of brigadier general shortly before the entry of the US into World War II in 1941. After further promotion Eisenhower oversaw the Allied invasions of North Africa and Sicily before supervising the invasions of France and Germany . After the war ended in Europe, he served as military governor of
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#17328526955104136-408: A voracious reader on the subject. Other favorite subjects early in his education were arithmetic and spelling. Eisenhower's parents set aside specific times at breakfast and at dinner for daily family Bible reading. Chores were regularly assigned and rotated among all the children, and misbehavior was met with unequivocal discipline, usually from David. His mother, previously a member (with David) of
4324-595: A woman whose son had experienced a similar tragedy. He wrote to her that she should tell her son that "he must now live for two", which Stevenson's friends took to be a reference to the shooting incident. Stevenson left Bloomington High School after his junior year and attended University High School in Normal, Illinois , Bloomington's "twin city", just to the north. He then went to boarding school in Connecticut at The Choate School (now Choate Rosemary Hall), where he played on
4512-471: Is named, married Richard Nixon 's daughter Julie in 1968. Eisenhower was a golf enthusiast later in life, and he joined the Augusta National Golf Club in 1948. He played golf frequently during and after his presidency and was unreserved in his passion for the game, to the point of golfing during winter; he ordered his golf balls painted black so he could see them better against snow. He had
4700-642: Is to give testimony in a court of law, to give it honestly and willingly, and it will be a very unhappy day for Anglo-Saxon justice when a man, even in public life, is too timid to state what he knows and what he has heard about a defendant in a criminal trial for fear that defendant might later be convicted. That would to me be the ultimate timidity." Early in 1952, while Stevenson was still governor of Illinois, President Harry S. Truman decided that he would not seek another term as president. Instead, Truman met with Stevenson in Washington and proposed that Stevenson seek
4888-597: The Chicago Daily News , but his syndicate was outbid by another party. In 1945, Stevenson took a temporary position in the State Department , as special assistant to US Secretary of State Edward Stettinius to work with Assistant Secretary of State Archibald MacLeish on a proposed world organization. Later that year, he went to London as Deputy United States Delegate to the Preparatory Commission of
5076-658: The Flint Journal won the 1953 Pulitzer prize on the strength of the image. Stevenson did not use television as effectively as his Republican opponent, war hero Dwight D. Eisenhower , and was unable to rally the New Deal voting coalition for one last hurrah. Historian Richard Aldous wrote "Occasionally persuasive, [Stevenson] was rarely compelling and, unlike Eisenhower, he lacked any kind of rapport or common touch with large crowds. He also failed to respond quickly enough to Eisenhower's pioneering use of TV. Both candidates resisted
5264-718: The 1960 Democratic National Convention in Los Angeles , Stevenson's admirers, led by Eleanor Roosevelt , Agnes Meyer , and such Hollywood celebrities as Dore Schary and Henry Fonda , vigorously promoted him for the nomination, even though he was not an announced candidate. JFK's campaign manager, his brother Robert F. Kennedy , reportedly threatened Stevenson in a meeting, telling him that unless he agreed to place his brother's name in nomination "you are through". Stevenson refused and ordered him out of his hotel room. In letters to friends, Stevenson described both John and Robert Kennedy as "cold and ruthless", referred to Robert Kennedy as
5452-651: The Allied forces 2 to 1. In December 1943, President Roosevelt decided that Eisenhower – not Marshall – would be Supreme Allied Commander in Europe. The following month, he resumed command of ETOUSA and the following month was officially designated as the Supreme Allied Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF), serving in a dual role until the end of hostilities in Europe in May 1945. He
5640-582: The American-occupied zone of Germany (1945), Army Chief of Staff (1945–1948), president of Columbia University (1948–1953), and as the first supreme commander of NATO (1951–1952). In 1952, Eisenhower entered the presidential race as a Republican to block the isolationist foreign policies of Senator Robert A. Taft , who opposed NATO . Eisenhower won that year's election and the 1956 election in landslides , both times defeating Adlai Stevenson II . Eisenhower's main goals in office were to contain
5828-777: The Army Industrial College in 1933 and later served on the faculty (it was later expanded to become the Industrial College of the Armed Services and is now known as the Dwight D. Eisenhower School for National Security and Resource Strategy). His primary duty was planning for the next war, which proved most difficult in the midst of the Great Depression . He then was posted as chief military aide to General Douglas MacArthur, Army Chief of Staff. In 1932, he participated in
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6016-500: The Bay of Pigs invasion . After hearing rumors that "a lot of refugees wanted to go back and overthrow Castro", Stevenson voiced his skepticism about an invasion, but "he was kept on the fringes of the operation, receiving...nine days before the invasion, only an unduly vague briefing by Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. " and the CIA. Senior CIA official Tracy Barnes told Stevenson and his staff that "there
6204-688: The Civil Rights Act of 1957 and sent Army troops to enforce federal court orders which integrated schools in Little Rock, Arkansas . His administration undertook the development and construction of the Interstate Highway System , which remains the largest construction of roadways in American history. In 1957, following the Soviet launch of Sputnik , Eisenhower led the American response which included
6392-527: The Command and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth , Kansas, where he graduated first in a class of 245 officers. During the late 1920s and early 1930s, Eisenhower's career stalled somewhat, as military priorities diminished; many of his friends resigned for high-paying business jobs. He was assigned to the American Battle Monuments Commission directed by General Pershing, and with
6580-453: The Florida primary , but his support for racial segregation and opposition to civil rights for blacks made him unacceptable to Northern and Western Democrats. In the end, Stevenson, despite his reluctance to run, remained the most attractive candidate heading into the 1952 Democratic National Convention in Chicago. At the convention, Stevenson, as governor of the host state, was assigned to give
6768-500: The French armed forces . The Allied leaders were "thunderstruck" by this from a political standpoint, though none had offered Eisenhower guidance with the problem in planning the operation. Eisenhower was severely criticized for the move. Darlan was assassinated on December 24 by Fernand Bonnier de La Chapelle , a French antifascist monarchist. Eisenhower later appointed as High Commissioner General Henri Giraud , who had been installed by
6956-579: The Geneva Convention . Eisenhower followed the orders laid down by the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) in directive JCS 1067 but softened them by bringing in 400,000 tons of food for civilians and allowing more fraternization . In response to the devastation in Germany, including food shortages and an influx of refugees, he arranged distribution of American food and medical equipment. His actions reflected
7144-670: The Italian leader , had fallen in Italy, the Allies switched their attention to the mainland with Operation Avalanche . But while Eisenhower argued with President Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Churchill, who both insisted on unconditional surrender in exchange for helping the Italians, the Germans pursued an aggressive buildup of forces in the country. The Germans made the already tough battle more difficult by adding 19 divisions and initially outnumbering
7332-684: The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor , Eisenhower was assigned to the General Staff in Washington , where he served until June 1942 with responsibility for creating the major war plans to defeat Japan and Germany. He was appointed Deputy Chief in charge of Pacific Defenses under the Chief of War Plans Division (WPD), General Leonard T. Gerow , and then succeeded Gerow as Chief of the War Plans Division. Next, he
7520-644: The North African Theater of Operations (NATOUSA) through the new operational Headquarters Allied (Expeditionary) Force Headquarters (A(E)FHQ). The word "expeditionary" was dropped soon after his appointment for security reasons. The campaign in North Africa was designated Operation Torch and was planned in the underground headquarters within the Rock of Gibraltar . Eisenhower was the first non-British person to command Gibraltar in 200 years. French cooperation
7708-547: The Panama Canal Zone , where, joined by Mamie, he served until 1924. Under Conner's tutelage, he studied military history and theory (including Carl von Clausewitz 's On War ), and later cited Conner's enormous influence on his military thinking, saying in 1962 that "Fox Conner was the ablest man I ever knew." Conner's comment on Eisenhower was, "[He] is one of the most capable, efficient and loyal officers I have ever met." On Conner's recommendation, in 1925–1926 he attended
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7896-709: The River Brethren ( Brethren in Christ Church ) sect of the Mennonites , joined the International Bible Students Association , later known as Jehovah's Witnesses . The Eisenhower home served as the local meeting hall from 1896 to 1915, though Dwight never joined. His later decision to attend West Point saddened his mother, who felt that warfare was "rather wicked", but she did not overrule his decision. Speaking of himself in 1948, Eisenhower said he
8084-571: The Suez Crisis of 1956, he condemned the Israeli, British, and French invasion of Egypt, and he forced them to withdraw. He also condemned the Soviet invasion during the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 but took no action. He deployed 15,000 soldiers during the 1958 Lebanon crisis . Near the end of his term, a summit meeting with the Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev was cancelled when a US spy plane
8272-560: The Unitarian faith, and was a longtime member of Bloomington's Unitarian church. However, he also occasionally attended Presbyterian services in Libertyville, where a Unitarian church was not present, and as governor he became close friends with the Rev. Richard Graebel, the pastor of Springfield's First Presbyterian church. Graebel "acknowledged that Stevenson's Unitarian rearing had imbued him with
8460-581: The United Nations Organization, a position he held until February 1946. When the head of the delegation fell ill, Stevenson assumed his role. His work at the commission, and in particular his dealings with the representatives of the Soviet Union , resulted in appointments to the US delegations to the United Nations in 1946 and 1947. In 1948 , Stevenson was chosen by Jacob Arvey , leader of
8648-742: The creation of NASA and the establishment of a stronger, science-based education via the National Defense Education Act . The Soviet Union began to reinforce their own space program , escalating the Space Race . His two terms saw unprecedented economic prosperity except for a minor recession in 1958 . In his farewell address , he expressed his concerns about the dangers of massive military spending , particularly deficit spending and government contracts to private military manufacturers, which he dubbed "the military–industrial complex ". Historical evaluations of his presidency place him among
8836-500: The upper tier of American presidents . The Eisenhauer (German for "iron hewer" or "iron miner") family migrated from the German village of Karlsbrunn to the Province of Pennsylvania in 1741. Accounts vary as to how and when the German name Eisenhauer was anglicized . David Jacob Eisenhower, Eisenhower's father, was a college-educated engineer, despite his own father's urging to stay on
9024-408: The "Black Prince", and expressed his belief that JFK, "though bright and able, was too young, too unseasoned, to be President; he pushed too hard, was in too much of a hurry; he lacked the wisdom of humility...[Stevenson felt] that both Kennedy and the nation would benefit from a postponement of his ambition." The night before the balloting, Stevenson began working actively for the nomination, calling
9212-550: The 1952 and 1956 presidential elections, he was chosen as the Democratic nominee for president, but was defeated in a landslide by Republican Dwight D. Eisenhower both times. In 1960, he unsuccessfully sought the Democratic presidential nomination for a third time at the Democratic National Convention . After President John F. Kennedy was elected, he appointed Stevenson as the United States Ambassador to
9400-453: The 1952 campaign, Senator Nixon would claim that Stevenson's "defense of Hiss" reflected such "poor judgment" on his part that "doubt was cast about Adlai's capacity to govern." In a 1952 appearance on NBC's Meet the Press , Stevenson responded to a question about his deposition for Hiss by saying, "I'm a lawyer. I think that one of the most fundamental responsibilities... particularly of lawyers,
9588-533: The 1960 presidential campaign, and for Stevenson's relationships with both John and Robert Kennedy during President Kennedy's administration. Against the advice of many of his political advisers, Stevenson insisted on calling for an international ban to aboveground nuclear weapons tests, and for an end to the military draft. Despite strong criticism from President Eisenhower and other leading Republicans, such as Vice President Nixon and former New York Governor Thomas Dewey, that his proposals were naïve and would benefit
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#17328526955109776-545: The 70s." Eisenhower served initially in logistics and then the infantry at various camps in Texas and Georgia until 1918. When the US entered World War I , he immediately requested an overseas assignment but was denied and assigned to Ft. Leavenworth, Kansas . In February 1918, he was transferred to Camp Meade in Maryland with the 65th Engineers . His unit was later ordered to France, but, to his chagrin, he received orders for
9964-600: The AFHQ to the SHAEF. Many thought that victory in Europe would come by summer's end, but the Germans did not capitulate for almost a year. From then until the end of the war in Europe on May 8, 1945, Eisenhower, through SHAEF, commanded all Allied forces, and through his command of ETOUSA had administrative command of all US forces on the Western Front north of the Alps . He was ever mindful of
10152-735: The Allied command, on December 20, 1944, he was promoted to General of the Army , equivalent to the rank of Field Marshal in most European armies. In this and the previous high commands he held, Eisenhower showed his great talents for leadership and diplomacy. Although he had never seen action himself, he won the respect of front-line commanders. He interacted adeptly with allies such as Winston Churchill , Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery and General Charles de Gaulle . He had serious disagreements with Churchill and Montgomery over questions of strategy, but these rarely upset his relationships with them. He dealt with Soviet Marshal Zhukov , his Russian counterpart, and they became good friends. In December 1944,
10340-470: The Allies from 1940 to 1941. As chairman, Stevenson worked to raise public support for military and economic aid to the United Kingdom and its allies in fighting Nazi Germany during the Second World War . Stevenson "believed Britain [was] America's first line of defense" and "argued for a repeal of the neutrality legislation" and support for President Roosevelt's Lend-Lease programme. His efforts earned strong criticism from Colonel Robert R. McCormick ,
10528-549: The Allies as Darlan's commander-in-chief. Operation Torch also served as a valuable training ground for Eisenhower's combat command skills; during the initial phase of Generalfeldmarschall Erwin Rommel 's move into the Kasserine Pass , Eisenhower created some confusion in the ranks by interference with the execution of battle plans by his subordinates. He also was initially indecisive in his removal of Lloyd Fredendall , commanding II Corps . He became more adroit in such matters in later campaigns. In February 1943, his authority
10716-490: The American people." "Adlai Stevenson ended the 1952 campaign with an adoring group of Stevensonites. Articulate and loyal...they would soon create the Stevenson legend and make the Man from Libertyville a counterhero to President Eisenhower, whom they would portray as inept and banal." Following his defeat, Stevenson in 1953 made a well-publicized world tour through Asia, the Middle East and Europe, writing about his travels for Look magazine. His political stature as head of
10904-413: The Bureau of Wildlife and Fisheries while hesitating to aid the gallant men and women who are resisting the real thing in the front lines of Europe and Asia...they are finally the men who seemingly believe that we can confound the Kremlin by frightening ourselves to death." In return, Senator McCarthy stated in a speech that "he would like to get on the Stevenson campaign trail with a club and thereby make
11092-465: The Cherbourg-Havre area have failed to gain a satisfactory foothold and I have withdrawn the troops. My decision to attack at this time and place was based on the best information available. The troops, the air and the Navy did all that bravery and devotion to duty could do. If any blame or fault attaches to the attempt, it is mine alone. Every ground commander seeks the battle of annihilation; so far as conditions permit, he tries to duplicate in modern war
11280-403: The Convention." In May 1960, Senator John F. Kennedy , who was actively campaigning for the Democratic nomination, visited Stevenson at his Libertyville home. Kennedy asked Stevenson for a public endorsement of his candidacy; in exchange Kennedy promised, if elected, to appoint Stevenson as his Secretary of State . Stevenson turned down the offer, which strained relations between the two men. At
11468-514: The Democratic Convention was something that Kennedy "couldn't forgive", with JFK telling a Stevenson supporter after the election, "I'm not going to give him anything." The prestigious post of Secretary of State went instead to the (then) little-known Dean Rusk . However, "although Jack and Bobby would have been just as happy to freeze Stevenson out of the administration, they felt compelled to offer him something" due to his continued support from progressive Democrats. President Kennedy offered Stevenson
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#173285269551011656-434: The Democratic Party gave him access to many foreign leaders and dignitaries. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1953. In the 1954 off-year elections, Stevenson took a leading role in campaigning for Democratic congressional and gubernatorial candidates around the nation. When the Democrats won control of both houses of Congress and picked up nine gubernatorial seats it "put Democrats around
11844-511: The Democratic Party under Presidents Franklin Roosevelt and Harry Truman, but noted "our Republican friends have said it was all a miserable failure. For almost a week pompous phrases marched over this landscape in search of an idea, and the only idea that they found was that the two great decades of progress...were the misbegotten spawn of bungling, of corruption, of socialism, of mismanagement, of waste and worse...after listening to this everlasting procession of epithets about our [party's] misdeeds I
12032-495: The Democratic nomination for president; Truman promised him his support if he did so. Stevenson at first hesitated, arguing that he was committed to running for a second gubernatorial term in Illinois. However, a number of his friends and associates (such as George Wildman Ball ) quietly began organizing a "draft Stevenson" movement for president; they persisted in their activity even when Stevenson (both publicly and privately) told them to stop. When Stevenson continued to state that he
12220-429: The Democratic nomination with an acceptance speech that, according to contemporaries, "electrified the delegates:" When the tumult and the shouting die, when the bands are gone and the lights are dimmed, there is the stark reality of responsibility in an hour of history haunted with those gaunt, grim specters of strife, dissension, and materialism at home, and ruthless, inscrutable, and hostile power abroad. The ordeal of
12408-463: The German unconditional surrender, Eisenhower was appointed military governor of the American-occupied zone of Germany, located primarily in Southern Germany , and headquartered in Frankfurt am Main . Upon discovery of the Nazi concentration camps , he ordered camera crews to document evidence for use in the Nuremberg Trials . He reclassified German prisoners of war (POWs) in US custody as Disarmed Enemy Forces (DEFs), who were no longer subject to
12596-435: The Germans launched a surprise counteroffensive, the Battle of the Bulge , which the Allies turned back in early 1945 after Eisenhower repositioned his armies and improved weather allowed the Army Air Force to engage. German defenses continued to deteriorate on both the Eastern Front with the Red Army and the Western Front with the Western Allies. The British wanted to capture Berlin , but Eisenhower decided it would be
12784-410: The Kennedy administration, with one historian noting "everyone knew that Stevenson's position was that of a bit player". Kennedy told his adviser Walt Rostow that "Stevenson wouldn't be happy as president. He thinks that if you talk long enough you get a soft option and there are very few soft options as president." In April 1961 Stevenson suffered the greatest humiliation of his diplomatic career in
12972-444: The Navy on committees, toured the various theaters of war, and handled many administrative duties. Since Knox was largely a figurehead, there were few major roles for Stevenson. However, in early 1944 he joined a mission to Sicily and Italy for the Foreign Economic Administration to report on the country's economy. After Knox died in April 1944, Stevenson returned to Chicago where he attempted to purchase Knox's controlling interest in
13160-497: The Pacific. Eisenhower also insisted that the British give him exclusive command over all strategic air forces to facilitate Overlord, to the point of threatening to resign unless Churchill relented, which he did. Eisenhower then designed a bombing plan in France in advance of Overlord and argued with Churchill over the latter's concern with civilian casualties; de Gaulle interjected that the casualties were justified, and Eisenhower prevailed. He also had to skillfully manage to retain
13348-416: The Philippines, which was denied; because of the ongoing Mexican Revolution , he was posted to Fort Sam Houston in San Antonio , Texas, under the command of General Funston. In 1916, while stationed at Fort Sam Houston, Funston convinced him to become the football coach for Peacock Military Academy ; he later became the coach at St. Louis College, now St. Mary's University , and was an honorary member of
13536-614: The Sigma Beta Chi fraternity there. While Eisenhower was stationed in Texas, he met Mamie Doud of Boone, Iowa . They were immediately taken with each other. He proposed to her on Valentine's Day in 1916. A November wedding date in Denver was moved up to July 1 due to the impending American entry into World War I ; Funston approved 10 days of leave for their wedding. The Eisenhowers moved many times during their first 35 years of marriage. The Eisenhowers had two sons. In late 1917 while he
13724-591: The Soviet Union in the Cold War , Stevenson held his ground and said in various speeches that "Earth's atmosphere is contaminated from week to week by exploding hydrogen bombs...We don't want to live forever in the shadow of a radioactive mushroom cloud... [and] growing children are the principal potential sufferers" of increased strontium 90 in the atmosphere. In the end, Stevenson's push to ban atmospheric nuclear bomb tests "cost him dearly in votes," but "Adlai finally won
13912-419: The Soviet offer, telling Menshikov that he "considered the offer of such assistance highly improper, indiscreet and dangerous to all concerned". Stevenson then reported the incident directly to President Eisenhower. At the United Nations, Stevenson worked hard to support U.S. foreign policy , even when he personally disagreed with some of President Kennedy's actions. However, he was often seen as an outsider in
14100-414: The U.S. government; when this claim was proven to be false Stevenson complained that "I took this job on the understanding that I would be consulted and kept fully informed on everything. Now my credibility has been compromised and therefore my usefulness." When he told his friend Harlan Cleveland that his own government had "deliberately tricked" him into believing there was no direct American involvement in
14288-492: The U.S. to Europe, connecting onward as far east as Hong Kong . The case gave TWA a "round the world route" and allowed it to serve South and Southeast Asia in both westbound and eastbound directions. Initially, Continental Airlines was awarded routes to Australia and New Zealand with stops. However, President Nixon, upon taking office set aside the international route awards. The rights previously given to Continental Airlines were later given to American Airlines. One loser in
14476-587: The United Nations from 1961 until his death in 1965. He previously served as the 31st governor of Illinois from 1949 to 1953 and was the Democratic nominee for president of the United States in 1952 and 1956 , losing both elections to Dwight D. Eisenhower in landslides . Stevenson was the grandson of Adlai Stevenson , the 23rd vice president of the United States. He was raised in Bloomington, Illinois and
14664-670: The United Nations. Two major events Stevenson dealt with during his time as UN ambassador were the Bay of Pigs Invasion of Cuba in April 1961 and the Cuban Missile Crisis in October 1962. He was still serving as UN ambassador when he suffered a heart attack during a visit to London on July 14, 1965, dying later that day at the age of 65. He is buried in Evergreen Cemetery in his hometown of Bloomington, Illinois. Adlai Ewing Stevenson II
14852-824: The Universe", and another that he could not serve as Army Chief of Staff if others believed he had political ambitions. In 1945, Truman told Eisenhower during the Potsdam Conference that if desired, the president would help the general win the 1948 election , and in 1947 he offered to run as Eisenhower's running mate on the Democratic ticket if MacArthur won the Republican nomination. As the election approached, other prominent citizens and politicians from both parties urged Eisenhower to run. In January 1948, after learning of plans in New Hampshire to elect delegates supporting him for
15040-462: The baseball team at West Point was one of the greatest disappointments of my life, maybe my greatest". He made the varsity football team and was a starter at halfback in 1912, when he tried to tackle the legendary Jim Thorpe of the Carlisle Indians . Eisenhower suffered a torn knee while being tackled in the next game, which was the last he played; he reinjured his knee on horseback and in
15228-610: The bill and sent this public message regarding the veto: "It is in the nature of cats to do a certain amount of unescorted roaming... the problem of cat versus bird is as old as time. If we attempt to solve it by legislation who knows but what we may be called upon to take sides as well in the age old problem of dog versus cat, bird versus bird, or even bird versus worm. In my opinion, the State of Illinois and its local governing bodies already have enough to do without trying to control feline delinquency. For these reasons, and not because I love birds
15416-402: The blow was softened by former first lady Eleanor Roosevelt 's continued enthusiastic support. Stevenson easily defeated Harriman on the first ballot, winning his second Democratic presidential nomination. He was aided by strong support from younger delegates, who were said to form the core of the " New Politics " movement. In a bid to raise enthusiasm for the Democratic ticket, Stevenson made
15604-456: The boxing ring, so he turned to fencing and gymnastics. Eisenhower later served as junior varsity football coach and cheerleader, which caught the attention of General Frederick Funston . He graduated from West Point in the middle of the class of 1915, which became known as " the class the stars fell on ", because 59 members eventually became general officers . After graduation in 1915, Second Lieutenant Eisenhower requested an assignment in
15792-544: The campaign and he destroyed it all." Kennedy voted for Eisenhower in November. For their part, Stevenson and many of his aides resented Kennedy's attitude during his stay with the campaign; Stevenson friend and aide George W. Ball recalled "My impression was that Bobby was a very surly and arrogant young man...he wasn't doing any good for Adlai. I don't know why we had him along." The tension that developed between Stevenson and Robert Kennedy would have significant consequences for
15980-631: The case was American, which had petitioned long and hard for rights to serve Japan: it did not want the South Pacific routes, and it ended up trading those routes to Pan Am. United Airlines was the biggest loser of all: it received no transpacific routes, besides some Hawaiian routes that were added in the early 1960s. This aviation -related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Dwight Eisenhower Dwight David Eisenhower (born David Dwight Eisenhower ; October 14, 1890 – March 28, 1969), also known by his nickname Ike ,
16168-442: The center and south of the front (respectively). Eisenhower worked tirelessly to address the demands of the rival commanders to optimize Allied forces, often by giving them tactical latitude; many historians conclude this delayed the Allied victory in Europe. However, due to Eisenhower's persistence, the pivotal supply port at Antwerp was successfully, albeit belatedly, opened in late 1944 . In recognition of his senior position in
16356-499: The choice of becoming ambassador to Britain, attorney general (a post that eventually went to Robert Kennedy), or United States Ambassador to the United Nations . Stevenson accepted the UN position. Many years later, it was revealed that during the campaign Stevenson was approached by Soviet Ambassador Menshikov who offered Soviet financial and public relations help to assist him in getting elected if he decided to run. Stevenson flatly rejected
16544-475: The classic example of Cannae . Once the coastal assault had succeeded, Eisenhower insisted on retaining personal control over the land battle strategy and was immersed in the command and supply of multiple assaults through France on Germany. Field Marshal Montgomery insisted priority be given to his 21st Army Group 's attack being made in the north, while Generals Bradley ( 12th US Army Group ) and Devers ( Sixth US Army Group ) insisted they be given priority in
16732-678: The clearing of the Bonus March encampment in Washington, D.C. Although he was against the actions taken against the veterans and strongly advised MacArthur against taking a public role in it, he later wrote the Army's official incident report, endorsing MacArthur's conduct. In 1935, he accompanied MacArthur to the Philippines, where he served as assistant military adviser to the Philippine government in developing their army. MacArthur allowed Eisenhower to handpick an officer whom he thought would contribute to
16920-471: The contest of ideas that afflicts the world not by suppressing those rights, but by their triumph." Stevenson proved to be a popular public speaker and gained a national reputation as an intellectual, with a self-deprecating sense of humor to match. One example came when the Illinois legislature passed a bill (supported by bird lovers) declaring that cats roaming unescorted was a public nuisance. Stevenson vetoed
17108-560: The country in Stevenson's debt and greatly strengthened his position as his party's leader." Unlike 1952, Stevenson was an announced, active candidate for the Democratic presidential nomination in 1956. Initially, with polls showing Eisenhower headed for a landslide re-election, few Democrats wanted the 1956 nomination, and Stevenson hoped that he could win the nomination without a serious contest, and without entering any presidential primaries. However, on September 24, 1955, Eisenhower suffered
17296-532: The curve." On election day, Eisenhower won the national popular vote by 55% to 45%. Stevenson lost heavily outside the Solid South ; he carried only nine states and lost the Electoral College vote 442 to 89. In his concession speech on election night, Stevenson said: "Someone asked me...how I felt, and I was reminded of a story that a fellow townsman of ours used to tell – Abraham Lincoln. He said he felt like
17484-450: The delegation. Stevenson then "asked if this meant no support in fact or no support because the delegates thought he was not a candidate. Daley replied that Stevenson had no support." According to Stevenson's biographer John Bartlow Martin , the phone conversation with Daley "was the real end of the [1960] Stevenson candidacy...if he could not get the support of his home state his candidacy was doomed". However, Stevenson continued to work for
17672-471: The discussion it led to his humiliation". Unaware that the anti-Castro Cuban exiles landing at the Bay of Pigs were being armed and assisted directly by the CIA and US Navy, and that American pilots were participating in bombing raids of Cuban targets, Stevenson unwittingly "repeated a CIA cover story in a speech before the UN General Assembly". He argued that the rebels were not assisted in any way by
17860-441: The discussions over whether to invade Cuba, told Schlesinger that "the integrity and credibility of Adlai Stevenson constitute one of our great national assets. I don't want to do anything to jeopardize that", and he asked Schlesinger to let Stevenson know that the president was shielding him from many of the details to protect him in case the clandestine operation failed. Instead, as Robert Dallek has written, "by leaving him out of
18048-499: The effect of removing the structural limitations on the growth of government in the state. Stevenson's governorship coincided with the Second Red Scare , and during his term, the Illinois state legislature passed a bill that would have "made it a felony to belong to any subversive group", and would have required "a loyalty oath of public employees and candidates for office." Stevenson vetoed the bill. In his public message regarding
18236-525: The election to Eisenhower by a landslide. Stevenson's views on racial progress were described after his death by his long-time companion Marietta Tree as: "He thought of all Negroes as being loveable old family retainers and not as individuals like you and me who were longing to get educated and who had aspirations and dreams just like the rest of us. I think this took him a long time to get over--the fact that they really indeed not only were created equal; they wanted equality of opportunity and wanted it now. It
18424-434: The estate to be his home, and in the 1950s, he was often called "The Man from Libertyville" by the national news media. Stevenson also purchased a farm in northwestern Illinois, just outside Galena , where he frequently rode horses and kept some cattle. On December 12, 1949, Adlai and Ellen were divorced; their son Adlai III later recalled that "There hadn't been a good relationship for a long time. I remember her [Ellen] as
18612-439: The evangelist Dwight L. Moody . All of the boys were nicknamed "Ike", such as "Big Ike" ( Edgar ) and "Little Ike" (Dwight); the nickname was intended as an abbreviation of their last name. By World War II, only Dwight was still called "Ike". In 1892, the family moved to Abilene, Kansas, which Eisenhower considered his hometown. As a child, he was involved in an accident that cost his younger brother Earl an eye, for which he
18800-658: The family farm. Eisenhower's mother, Ida Elizabeth (Stover) Eisenhower , of predominantly German Protestant ancestry, moved to Kansas from Virginia. She married David on September 23, 1885, in Lecompton, Kansas , on the campus of their alma mater, Lane University . David owned a general store in Hope, Kansas , but the business failed due to economic conditions and the family became impoverished. The Eisenhowers lived in Texas from 1889 until 1892, and later returned to Kansas, with $ 24 (equivalent to $ 814 in 2023) to their name. David worked as
18988-515: The first to use such a weapon." Initially, Eisenhower hoped for cooperation with the Soviets. He even visited Warsaw in 1945. Invited by Bolesław Bierut and decorated with the highest military decoration , he was shocked by the scale of destruction in the city. However, by mid-1947, as east–west tensions over economic recovery in Germany and the Greek Civil War escalated, Eisenhower agreed with
19176-417: The forthcoming Republican National Convention , Eisenhower stated through the Army that he was "not available for and could not accept nomination to high political office"; "life-long professional soldiers", he wrote, "in the absence of some obvious and overriding reason, [should] abstain from seeking high political office". Eisenhower maintained no political party affiliation during this time. Many believed he
19364-527: The funds. They made a pact to take alternate years at college while the other worked to earn the tuitions. Edgar took the first turn at school, and Dwight was employed as a night supervisor at the Belle Springs Creamery. When Edgar asked for a second year, Dwight consented. At that time, a friend Edward "Swede" Hazlett was applying to the Naval Academy and urged Dwight to apply, since no tuition
19552-409: The game six nights a week for five months. Eisenhower continued to play bridge throughout his military career. While stationed in the Philippines, he played regularly with President Manuel Quezon , earning him the nickname the "Bridge Wizard of Manila". An unwritten qualification for an officer's appointment to Eisenhower's staff during World War II was the ability to play bridge. He played even during
19740-432: The hazing, though he willingly accepted it as a plebe. He was also a regular violator of the more detailed regulations and finished school with a less than stellar discipline rating. Academically, Eisenhower's best subject by far was English. Otherwise, his performance was average, though he thoroughly enjoyed the typical emphasis of engineering on science and mathematics. In athletics, Eisenhower later said that "not making
19928-594: The help of his brother Milton Eisenhower , then a journalist at the Agriculture Department , he produced a guide to American battlefields in Europe. He then was assigned to the Army War College and graduated in 1928. After a one-year assignment in France, Eisenhower served as executive officer to General George V. Moseley , Assistant Secretary of War , from 1929 to February 1933. Major Eisenhower graduated from
20116-561: The improvement of highways became a signature issue for Eisenhower as president. He assumed duties again at Camp Meade , Maryland, commanding a battalion of tanks, where he remained until 1922. His schooling continued, focused on the nature of the next war and the role of the tank. His new expertise in tank warfare was strengthened by a close collaboration with George S. Patton , Sereno E. Brett , and other senior tank leaders. Their leading-edge ideas of speed-oriented offensive tank warfare were strongly discouraged by superiors, who considered
20304-400: The inevitable loss of life and suffering that would be experienced by the troops under his command and their families. This prompted him to make a point of visiting every division involved in the invasion. Eisenhower's sense of responsibility was underscored by his draft of a statement to be issued if the invasion failed. It has been called one of the great speeches of history: Our landings in
20492-508: The invasion, Cleveland replied "I feel as betrayed as you do." Stevenson seriously considered resigning, but was convinced by his friends and President Kennedy to stay. During the Cuban Missile Crisis in October 1962, Stevenson gave a presentation at an emergency session of the Security Council . In his presentation, which attracted national television coverage, he forcefully asked Soviet UN representative Valerian Zorin if his country
20680-511: The kind of politician who would cut down a redwood tree, and then mount the stump and make a speech for [tree] conservation". Journalist David Halberstam later wrote that "Stevenson [was] an elegant campaigner who raised the political discourse" and that in 1952 "Stevenson reinvigorated [the Democratic Party] and made it seem an open and exciting place for a generation of younger Americans who might otherwise never have thought of working for
20868-470: The last 20 years of his life. The images were mostly landscapes but also portraits of subjects such as Mamie, their grandchildren, General Montgomery, George Washington , and Abraham Lincoln . Wendy Beckett stated that Eisenhower's paintings, "simple and earnest", caused her to "wonder at the hidden depths of this reticent president". A conservative in both art and politics, Eisenhower in a 1962 speech denounced modern art as "a piece of canvas that looks like
21056-465: The law again after talking to Supreme Court Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. When he returned home to Bloomington, he decided to finish his degree at Northwestern University School of Law , attending classes during the week and returning to Bloomington on the weekends to write for the Pantagraph . Stevenson received his J.D. degree from Northwestern in 1926 and passed the Illinois state bar examination
21244-455: The leaders of several state delegations to ask for their support. The key call went to Chicago Mayor Richard J. Daley , the leader of the Illinois delegation. The delegation had already voted to give Kennedy 59.5 votes to Stevenson's 2, but Stevenson told Daley that he now wanted the Democratic nomination, and asked him if the "delegates' vote might merely indicate they thought he was not a candidate". Daley told Stevenson that he had no support in
21432-648: The legitimate government of China, and he won congressional approval of the Formosa Resolution . His administration provided major aid to help the French fight off Vietnamese Communists in the First Indochina War . After the French left, he gave strong financial support to the new state of South Vietnam . He supported regime-changing military coups in Iran and Guatemala orchestrated by his own administration. During
21620-564: The less or cats the more, I veto and withhold my approval from Senate Bill No. 93." On June 2, 1949, Stevenson privately gave a sworn deposition as a character witness for Alger Hiss , a former State Department official who was later found to be a spy for the Soviet Union. Stevenson had infrequently worked with Hiss, first in the legal division of the Agricultural Adjustment Administration in 1933 and then in 1945, 1946, and 1947 on various United Nations projects, but he
21808-576: The little boy who had stubbed his toe in the dark. He said that he was too old to cry, but it hurt too much to laugh." Biographer Jean H. Baker summarized Stevenson's 1952 campaign: "Uncomfortable with the carnival side of elections, Stevenson tried to be a man for the people, not of them; a man of reason talking sense, not manipulation or sentiment." "Liberals...were attracted to the Illinois governor because he firmly opposed McCarthyism , [and] they also appreciated Stevenson because of his style...he had clearly dissociated himself, as did many Americans, from
21996-447: The means of translating religious and ethical values into civic issues". According to one historian, "religion never disappeared entirely from his public messages – it was indeed part of his appeal". In July 1933, Stevenson took a job opportunity as special attorney and assistant to Jerome Frank , the general counsel of the Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA), a part of President Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal . Following
22184-673: The mission. Hence he chose James Ord , a classmate of his at West Point. Having been brought up in Mexico, which inculcated into him the Spanish culture which influenced both Mexico and the Philippines, Ord was deemed the right pick for the job. Eisenhower had strong philosophical disagreements with MacArthur regarding the role of the Philippine Army and the leadership qualities that an American army officer should exhibit and develop in his subordinates. The antipathy between Eisenhower and MacArthur lasted
22372-449: The names of fellow Democrats." Truman favored U.S. diplomat W. Averell Harriman , but he had never held elected office and was inexperienced in national politics. Truman next turned to his vice-president, Alben Barkley , but at 74 years of age he was dismissed as being too old by labor union leaders. Senator Richard Russell Jr. of Georgia was popular in the South and his campaign easily won
22560-529: The nation three times before the election in November. Robert F. Kennedy traveled with the Stevenson campaign, hoping to "take home some lessons on how to manage a presidential campaign". Kennedy was deeply disillusioned by Stevenson's campaign, later saying that "I thought it was ghastly. It was poorly organized...my feeling was that he had no rapport with his audience – no comprehension of what campaigning required, no ability to make decisions...In 1952 I had been crazy about him...Then I spent six weeks with him on
22748-508: The nation's academic community, the Republicans and some working-class Democrats ridiculed what they perceived as his indecisive, aristocratic air. During the 1952 campaign Stewart Alsop , a powerful Connecticut Republican, labeled Stevenson an "egghead", based on his baldness and intellectual air. His brother, the influential newspaper columnist Joe Alsop , used the word to underscore Stevenson's difficulty in attracting working-class voters, and
22936-485: The new tank corps , where he was promoted to brevet lieutenant colonel in the National Army . He commanded a unit that trained tank crews at Camp Colt – his first command. Though Eisenhower and his tank crews never saw combat, he displayed excellent organizational skills as well as an ability to accurately assess junior officers' strengths and make optimal placements of personnel. His spirits were raised when
23124-477: The new American attitudes of the German people as Nazi victims not villains, while aggressively purging the ex-Nazis. In November 1945, Eisenhower returned to Washington to replace Marshall as Chief of Staff of the Army . His main role was the rapid demobilization of millions of soldiers, which was delayed by lack of shipping. Eisenhower was convinced in 1946 that the Soviet Union did not want war and that friendly relations could be maintained; he strongly supported
23312-651: The new United Nations and favored its involvement in the control of atomic bombs. However, in formulating policies regarding the atomic bomb and relations with the Soviets, Truman was guided by the State Department and ignored Eisenhower and the Pentagon . Indeed, Eisenhower had opposed the use of the atomic bomb against the Japanese, writing, "First, the Japanese were ready to surrender and it wasn't necessary to hit them with that awful thing. Second, I hated to see our country be
23500-467: The new approach too radical and preferred to continue using tanks in a strictly supportive role for the infantry. Eisenhower was even threatened with court-martial for continued publication of these proposed methods of tank deployment, and he relented. From 1920, Eisenhower served under a succession of talented generals – Fox Conner , John J. Pershing , Douglas MacArthur and George Marshall . He first became executive officer to General Conner in
23688-470: The new law firm included Willard Wirtz , William McCormick Blair Jr. , and Newton N. Minow ; each of these men later served in the Kennedy and Johnson administrations. He also accepted an appointment, along with other prominent Democrats, to the new Democratic Advisory Council, which "pursued an aggressive line in attacking the [Republican] Eisenhower administration and in developing new Democratic policies". He
23876-472: The new medium at first, but Ike relented sooner. He used "Mad Men" advertising executive Rosser Reeves of the Ted Bates agency to create brilliant thirty-second TV spots. Ironically, Stevenson came across well on TV, but his arrogant nature caused him to minimize it in the campaign. "This is the worst thing I've ever heard of," he scoffed, "selling the presidency like breakfast cereal!" That attitude left him behind
24064-595: The next most difficult campaign against the Germans—a beach landing assault. His first struggles, however, were with Allied leaders and officers on matters vital to the success of the Normandy invasion; he argued with Roosevelt over an essential agreement with De Gaulle to use French resistance forces in covert operations against the Germans in advance of Operation Overlord. Admiral Ernest J. King fought with Eisenhower over King's refusal to provide additional landing craft from
24252-463: The nickname stuck. Stevenson himself made fun of his "egghead" nickname; in one speech he joked " eggheads of the world unite , you have nothing to lose but your yolks!" In his campaign speeches Stevenson strongly criticized the Communist-hunting tactics of Senator Joseph McCarthy, labeling "McCarthy's kind of patriotism" as "a disgrace" and ridiculing right-wing Republicans "who hunt Communists in
24440-688: The nomination on the first ballot with 806 delegate votes; Stevenson finished in fourth place with 79.5 votes. Once Kennedy won the nomination, Stevenson, always an enormously popular public speaker, campaigned actively for him. Due to his two presidential nominations and previous United Nations experience, Stevenson perceived himself an elder statesman and the natural choice for Secretary of State. However, according to historian Robert Dallek , "neither Jack nor Bobby [Kennedy] thought all that well of Stevenson...they saw him as rather prissy and ineffective. [Stevenson] never met their standard of tough-mindedness." Stevenson's refusal to publicly endorse Kennedy before
24628-404: The nomination the next day, fulfilling what he felt were obligations to old friends and supporters such as Eleanor Roosevelt and Agnes Meyer. Senator Eugene McCarthy of Minnesota delivered an impassioned nominating speech for Stevenson, urging the convention to not "reject the man who has made us proud to be Democrats. Do not leave this prophet without honor in his own party." However, Kennedy won
24816-432: The nomination. Truman told Stevenson "I have been trying since January to get you to say that. Why should it embarrass me?" Kefauver led on the first ballot, but was well below the vote total he needed to win. Stevenson gradually gained strength until he was nominated on the third ballot. The 1952 Democratic National Convention was the last political convention of either major party to require more than one ballot to nominate
25004-399: The party's presidential nomination in 1956, urged the government to "proceed gradually" on school desegregation in deference to the South's long-held "traditions". Stevenson backed integration but opposed using armed personnel to enforce Brown.... It certainly helped. Stevenson carried most of Dixie in the fall campaign but received just 61 percent of the black vote, low for a Democrat, and lost
25192-416: The planned air strikes to destroy Castro's air force. Kennedy Library historian Sheldon Stern interviewed Ambassador Charles W. Yost , Stevenson's deputy, who attended the meeting and confirmed that Yost had been suspicious of the story from the start. Yost agreed that this was another one of the CIA's "clumsy tricks". Assistant Secretary of State Harlan Cleveland , who attended the briefing, felt that Barnes
25380-544: The plebians. Stevenson dramatized the complex feelings of educated elites, some of whom came to adore him not because he was a liberal, but because he was not...he spoke a language that set apart from average Americans an increasingly college-educated population. His approach to voters as rational participants in a process that depended on weighing the issues attracted reformers, intellectuals, and middle-class women with time and money (the "Shakespeare vote", joked one columnist). Or as one enthralled voter wrote "You were too good for
25568-400: The powerful Chicago Democratic political organization, to be the Democratic candidate in the Illinois gubernatorial race against the incumbent Republican, Dwight H. Green . In an upset, Stevenson defeated Green by 572,067 votes, a record margin in Illinois gubernatorial elections. President Truman carried Illinois by only 33,612 votes against his Republican opponent, Thomas E. Dewey , leading
25756-531: The powerful, isolationist publisher of the Chicago Tribune , and a leading member of the non-interventionist America First Committee . In 1940, Major Frank Knox , newly appointed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt as Secretary of the Navy , offered Stevenson a position as Principal Attorney and special assistant. Stevenson accepted the position and in this capacity wrote speeches, represented Secretary Knox and
25944-550: The presidency by a landslide, winning only 42% of the popular vote and 73 electoral votes from just seven states, all except Missouri in the solid Democratic South. Early in 1957, Stevenson resumed law practice and allied himself with Judge Simon H. Rifkind to create a law firm based in Washington, DC. (Stevenson, Paul, Rifkind, Wharton & Garrison), and a second firm in Chicago (Stevenson, Rifkind & Wirtz). Both law firms were related to New York City's Paul, Weiss, Rifkind, Wharton & Garrison . Stevenson's associates in
26132-580: The race on November 16, 1955, and campaigned in the Minnesota, Florida, and California primaries. Stevenson was upset in the Minnesota primary by Kefauver, who successfully portrayed him as a "captive" of corrupt Chicago political bosses and "a corporation lawyer out of step with regular Democrats". Stevenson next battled Kefauver in the Florida primary, where he agreed to debate Kefauver on radio and television. Stevenson later joked that in Florida he had appealed to
26320-621: The regimental executive officer. In March 1941 he was promoted to colonel and assigned as chief of staff of the newly activated IX Corps under Major General Kenyon Joyce . In June 1941, he was appointed chief of staff to General Walter Krueger , Commander of the Third Army , at Fort Sam Houston in San Antonio, Texas. After successfully participating in the Louisiana Maneuvers , he was promoted to brigadier general on October 3, 1941. After
26508-648: The repeal of Prohibition in December 1933, Stevenson changed jobs, becoming chief attorney for the Federal Alcohol Control Administration (FACA), a subsidiary of the AAA which regulated the activities of the alcohol industry. In 1935, Stevenson returned to Chicago to practice law. He became involved in civic activities, particularly as chairman of the Chicago branch of the Committee to Defend America by Aiding
26696-466: The rest of their lives. Historians have concluded that this assignment provided valuable preparation for handling the challenging personalities of Winston Churchill , George S. Patton, George Marshall, and Bernard Montgomery during World War II. Eisenhower later emphasized that too much had been made of the disagreements with MacArthur and that a positive relationship endured. While in Manila, Mamie suffered
26884-421: The same year. He obtained a position at Cutting, Moore & Sidley , one of Chicago's oldest and most prestigious law firms. On December 1, 1928, Stevenson married Ellen Borden , a well-to-do socialite. The young couple soon became popular and familiar figures on the Chicago social scene; they especially enjoyed attending and hosting costume parties. They had three sons: Adlai Stevenson III , who would become
27072-443: The second ballot. In his acceptance speech, Stevenson spoke of his plan for a "New America", which included extending New Deal programs to "areas of education, health, and poverty". He also criticized Republicans for trying to "merchandise candidates like breakfast cereal". Following his nomination, Stevenson waged a vigorous presidential campaign , delivering 300 speeches and traveling 55,000 miles (89,000 km); he crisscrossed
27260-431: The services of the often unruly George S. Patton, by severely reprimanding him when Patton earlier had slapped a subordinate , and then when Patton gave a speech in which he made improper comments about postwar policy. The D-Day Normandy landings on June 6, 1944, were costly but successful. Two months later (August 15), the invasion of Southern France took place, and control of forces in the southern invasion passed from
27448-547: The spread of communism and reduce federal deficits . In 1953, he considered using nuclear weapons to end the Korean War and may have threatened China with nuclear attack if an armistice was not reached quickly. China did agree and an armistice resulted, which remains in effect. His New Look policy of nuclear deterrence prioritized "inexpensive" nuclear weapons while reducing funding for expensive Army divisions. He continued Harry S. Truman 's policy of recognizing Taiwan as
27636-460: The state highways. He sought, with mixed success, to cleanse the Illinois state government of corruption; in one instance he fired the warden of the state penitentiary for overcrowding, political corruption, and incompetence that had left the prisoners on the verge of revolt, and in another instance Stevenson fired the superintendent of an institution for alcoholics when he learned that the superintendent, after receiving bribes from local tavern owners,
27824-475: The state legislature, much to Stevenson's chagrin. However, Stevenson agreed to support a Republican alternative to con-con called "Gateway", it passed the legislature and was approved by Illinois voters in a 1950 referendum. Stevenson's push for an improved state constitution "began the process of constitutional change...and in 1969, four years after his death, the goal was achieved. It was perhaps his most important achievement as governor." The new constitution had
28012-554: The state's citrus farmers by "bitterly denouncing the Japanese beetle and fearlessly attacking the Mediterranean fruit fly". He narrowly defeated Kefauver in Florida by 12,000 votes, and then won the California primary over Kefauver with 63% of the vote, effectively ending Kefauver's presidential bid. At the 1956 Democratic National Convention in Chicago, former President Truman endorsed Governor Harriman, to Stevenson's dismay, but
28200-648: The stressful weeks leading up to the D-Day landings. His favorite partner was General Alfred Gruenther , considered the best player in the US Army; he appointed Gruenther his second-in-command at NATO partly because of his skill at bridge. Saturday night bridge games at the White House were a feature of his presidency. He was a strong player, though not an expert by modern standards. The great bridge player and popularizer Ely Culbertson described his game as classic and sound with "flashes of brilliance" and said that "you can always judge
28388-548: The tennis team, acted in plays, and was elected editor-in-chief of The Choate News , the school newspaper. Upon his graduation from Choate in 1918, he enlisted in the United States Naval Reserve and served at the rank of seaman apprentice , but his training was completed too late for him to participate in World War One. He attended Princeton University , becoming managing editor of The Daily Princetonian ,
28576-565: The twentieth century – the bloodiest, most turbulent age of the Christian era – is far from over. Sacrifice, patience, understanding, and implacable purpose may be our lot for years to come. ... Let's talk sense to the American people! Let's tell them the truth, that there are no gains without pains, that we are now on the eve of great decisions. Although Stevenson's eloquent oratory and thoughtful, stylish demeanor impressed many intellectuals, journalists, political commentators, and members of
28764-655: The unit under his command received orders overseas to France. This time his wishes were thwarted when the armistice was signed a week before his departure date. Completely missing out on the warfront left him depressed and bitter for a time, despite receiving the Distinguished Service Medal for his work at home. In World War II, rivals who had combat service in the Great War (led by Gen. Bernard Montgomery ) sought to denigrate Eisenhower for his previous lack of combat duty, despite his stateside experience establishing
28952-408: The unreasonable one, not only with Dad, but with us and the servants. I was embarrassed by her peremptory way with servants." Several of Stevenson's biographers have written that his wife suffered from mental illness: "Incidents that went from petulant to bizarre to nasty generally have been described without placing them in the context of the progression of [her] increasingly serious mental illness. It
29140-403: The unusual decision to leave the selection of his running mate up to the convention delegates. This set off a frantic scramble among several prominent Democrats to win the vice-presidential nomination, including Kefauver, Senator Hubert Humphrey , and Senator John F. Kennedy . After fending off a surprisingly strong challenge from Kennedy, Kefauver narrowly won the vice-presidential nomination on
29328-785: The verdict," as Eisenhower suspended above-ground nuclear tests in 1958, President Kennedy would sign the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty into law in 1963, and President Nixon would end the military draft in 1973. Civil rights was emerging rapidly as a major political issue. Stevenson urged caution and warned against aggressive enforcement of the Supreme Court's decision in Brown v. Board of Education in order to gain Southern white support. Kotlowski writes: Liberal Democrats, too, flinched before Brown. Adlai E. Stevenson, front-runner for
29516-647: The veto, Stevenson wrote "Does anyone seriously think that a real traitor will hesitate to sign a loyalty oath? Of course not. Really dangerous subversives and saboteurs will be caught by careful, constant, professional investigation, not by pieces of paper. The whole notion of loyalty inquisitions is a natural characteristic of the police state, not of democracy. I know full well this veto will be distorted and misunderstood...I know that to veto this bill in this period of grave anxiety will be unpopular with many. But I must, in good conscience, protest against any unnecessary suppression of our ancient rights as free men...we will win
29704-409: The welcoming address to the delegates. His speech was so stirring and witty that it invigorated efforts to secure the nomination for him, in spite of his continued protests that he was not a presidential candidate. In his welcoming speech he poked fun at the 1952 Republican National Convention , which had been held in Chicago in the same coliseum two weeks earlier. Stevenson described the achievements of
29892-420: Was elected governor of Illinois , defeating incumbent governor Dwight H. Green in an upset. As governor, Stevenson reformed the state police, cracked down on illegal gambling, improved the state highways, and attempted to cleanse the state government of corruption. Stevenson also sought, with mixed success, to reform the Illinois state constitution and introduced several crime bills in the state legislature. In
30080-648: Was "one of the most deeply religious men I know" though unattached to any "sect or organization". He was baptized in the Presbyterian Church in 1953. Eisenhower attended Abilene High School and graduated in 1909. As a freshman, he injured his knee and developed a leg infection that extended into his groin, which his doctor diagnosed as life-threatening. The doctor insisted that the leg be amputated but Dwight refused to allow it, and surprisingly recovered, though he had to repeat his freshman year. He and brother Edgar both wanted to attend college, though they lacked
30268-489: Was a member of Bloomington's upper class and lived in one of the city's well-to-do neighborhoods. On December 30, 1912, at the age of twelve, Stevenson accidentally killed Ruth Merwin, a 16-year-old friend, while demonstrating drill technique with a rifle, inadvertently left loaded, during a party at the Stevenson home. Stevenson was devastated by the accident and rarely mentioned or discussed it as an adult, even with his wife and children. However, in 1955 Stevenson heard about
30456-469: Was a member of the Democratic Party . He served in many positions in the federal government during the 1930s and 1940s, including the Agricultural Adjustment Administration , Federal Alcohol Administration , Department of the Navy , and the State Department . In 1945, he served on the committee that created the United Nations, and was a member of the initial U.S. delegations to the UN. In 1948, he
30644-401: Was allowing the patients to buy drinks at local bars. Two of Stevenson's major initiatives as governor were a proposal to create a constitutional convention (called "con-con") to reform and improve the Illinois state constitution, and several crime bills that would have provided new resources and methods to fight criminal activities in Illinois. Most of the crime bills and con-con failed to pass
30832-463: Was also employed part-time by the Encyclopædia Britannica as a legal consultant. In early 1960, Stevenson announced that he would not seek a third Democratic presidential nomination, but would accept a draft. One of his closest friends told a journalist that "Deep down, he wants [the Democratic nomination]. But he wants the [Democratic] Convention to come to him, he doesn't want to go to
31020-470: Was an ambitious, unprincipled partisan who craved winning, the exact personification of what was wrong with modern American politics...[for Stevenson] Nixon was an entirely plastic politician...Nixon was Stevenson's complete villain. Others sensed the potential for immorality that led to Nixon's humiliating resignation in 1974, but Stevenson was among the first." During the 1952 campaign Stevenson often used his wit to attack Nixon, and once stated that Nixon "was
31208-473: Was an illness that those closest to her – including Adlai for long after the divorce – were slow and reluctant to recognize. Hindsight, legal proceedings, and psychiatric testimony now make understandable the behavior that baffled and saddened her family." Stevenson did not remarry after his divorce, but instead dated a number of prominent women throughout the rest of his life, including Alicia Patterson , Marietta Tree , and Betty Beale. Stevenson belonged to
31396-413: Was appointed Illinois Secretary of State (1914–1917) and was considered a strong contender for the Democratic vice-presidential nomination in 1928. A maternal great-grandfather, Jesse W. Fell , had been a close friend and campaign manager for Abraham Lincoln in his 1858 US Senate race; Stevenson often referred to Fell as his favorite ancestor. Stevenson's eldest son, Adlai E. Stevenson III , became
31584-570: Was appointed Assistant Chief of Staff in charge of the new Operations Division (which replaced WPD) under Chief of Staff General George C. Marshall, who spotted talent and promoted accordingly. At the end of May 1942, Eisenhower accompanied Lt. Gen. Henry H. Arnold , commanding general of the Army Air Forces , to London to assess the effectiveness of the theater commander in England, Maj. Gen. James E. Chaney . He returned to Washington on June 3 with
31772-501: Was born in Denison, Texas , and raised in Abilene, Kansas . His family had a strong religious background, and his mother became a Jehovah's Witness . Eisenhower, however, belonged to no organized church until 1952. He graduated from West Point in 1915 and later married Mamie Doud , with whom he had two sons. During World War I , he was denied a request to serve in Europe and instead commanded
31960-596: Was born in Los Angeles , California, in a neighborhood that is now designated as the North University Park Historic District . His home and birthplace at 2639 Monmouth Avenue has been designated as a Los Angeles Historic-Cultural Monument. He was a member of a prominent Illinois political family . His grandfather and namesake Adlai Stevenson was Vice President of the United States under President Grover Cleveland from 1893 to 1897. His father, Lewis Stevenson , never held an elected office, but
32148-446: Was charged in these positions with planning and carrying out the Allied assault on the coast of Normandy in June 1944 under the code name Operation Overlord, the liberation of Western Europe and the invasion of Germany. Eisenhower, as well as the officers and troops under him, had learned valuable lessons in their previous operations, and their skills had all strengthened in preparation for
32336-486: Was deemed necessary to the campaign and Eisenhower encountered a "preposterous situation" with the multiple rival factions in France. His primary objective was to move forces successfully into Tunisia and intending to facilitate that objective, he gave his support to François Darlan as High Commissioner in North Africa, despite Darlan's previous high offices in Vichy France and his continued role as commander-in-chief of
32524-534: Was even surprised the next morning when the mail was delivered on time. But we Democrats were by no means the only victims here. First they [Republicans] slaughtered each other, and then they went after us...perhaps the proximity of the stockyards accounts for the carnage." Following this speech, the Illinois delegation (led by Jacob Arvey) announced that they would place Stevenson's name in nomination, and Stevenson called President Truman to ask if "he would be embarrassed" if Stevenson formally announced his candidacy for
32712-632: Was extended as commander of AFHQ across the Mediterranean basin to include the British Eighth Army , commanded by General Sir Bernard Montgomery. The Eighth Army had advanced across the Western Desert from the east and was ready for the start of the Tunisia Campaign . After the capitulation of Axis forces in North Africa, Eisenhower oversaw the invasion of Sicily . Once Mussolini ,
32900-430: Was forgoing his only opportunity to be president as Republican Thomas E. Dewey was considered the probable winner and would presumably serve two terms, meaning that Eisenhower, at age 66 in 1956, would be too old to run. Adlai Stevenson II Adlai Ewing Stevenson II ( / ˈ æ d l eɪ / ; February 5, 1900 – July 14, 1965) was an American politician and diplomat and who was the United States Ambassador to
33088-466: Was founded by his maternal great-grandfather Jesse Fell. The Pantagraph , which had one of the largest circulations of any newspaper in Illinois outside the Chicago area, was a main source of the Stevenson family's wealth. Following his mother's death in 1935, Adlai inherited one-quarter of the Pantagraph's stock, providing him with a large, dependable source of income for the rest of his life. A year after leaving Harvard, Stevenson became interested in
33276-430: Was going to be a clandestine operation in Cuba...it was strictly a Cuban affair. It would have some American cooperation, but only with the training and financing." According to historian Peter Wyden, Barnes did not tell Stevenson that there would be a large-scale invasion of Cuba, nor did he provide details about the full extent of American support for, and involvement with, the Cuban rebels, nor did he tell Stevenson about
33464-410: Was hard for him to understand the urgency." While President Eisenhower suffered heart problems, the economy enjoyed robust health. Stevenson's hopes for victory were dashed when, in October, Eisenhower's doctors gave him a clean bill of health and the Suez and Hungary crises erupted simultaneously. The public was not convinced that a change in leadership was needed. Stevenson lost his second bid for
33652-591: Was in charge of training at Fort Oglethorpe in Georgia , his wife Mamie had their first son, Doud Dwight "Icky" Eisenhower , who died of scarlet fever at the age of three. Eisenhower was mostly reluctant to discuss his death. Their second son, John Eisenhower , was born in Denver , Colorado. John served in the United States Army , retired as a brigadier general, became an author and served as Ambassador to Belgium from 1969 to 1971. He married Barbara Jean Thompson and had four children: David , Barbara Ann, Susan Elaine and Mary Jean . David, after whom Camp David
33840-503: Was installing nuclear missiles in Cuba, and when Zorin appeared reluctant to reply, Stevenson punctuated with the demand "Don't wait for the translation, [answer] 'yes' or 'no'!" When Zorin replied that "I am not in an American court of law, and therefore do not answer a question put to me in the manner of a prosecuting counsel...you will have your answer in due course", Stevenson retorted, "I am prepared to wait for my answer until Hell freezes over." Stevenson then showed photographs taken by
34028-452: Was not a candidate, President Truman and the Democratic Party leadership looked for other prospective candidates. However, each of the other main contenders had a major weakness. Senator Estes Kefauver of Tennessee won most of the presidential primaries and entered the 1952 Democratic National Convention with the largest number of delegates, but he was unpopular with President Truman and other prominent Democrats. In 1950, Kefauver had chaired
34216-471: Was not a close friend or associate of him. In the deposition, Stevenson testified that the reputation of Hiss for integrity, loyalty, and veracity was good. In 1950, Hiss was found guilty of perjury on the spying charges. Stevenson's deposition, according to his biographer Porter McKeever, would later be used in the 1952 presidential campaign by Senators Joseph McCarthy and Richard Nixon to "inflame public opinion and attack Adlai as 'soft on communism'." In
34404-458: Was offered a post by the Philippine Commonwealth Government, namely by then Philippine President Manuel L. Quezon on recommendations by MacArthur, to become the chief of police of a new capital being planned, now named Quezon City , but he declined the offer. Eisenhower returned to the United States in December 1939 and was assigned as commanding officer of the 1st Battalion, 15th Infantry Regiment at Fort Lewis , Washington, later becoming
34592-400: Was remorseful for the remainder of his life. Eisenhower developed a keen and enduring interest in exploring the outdoors. He learned about hunting and fishing, cooking, and card playing from a man named Bob Davis who camped on the Smoky Hill River . While his mother was against war, it was her collection of history books that first sparked Eisenhower's interest in military history; he became
34780-410: Was required. Eisenhower requested consideration for either Annapolis or West Point with his Senator, Joseph L. Bristow . Though Eisenhower was among the winners of the entrance-exam competition, he was beyond the age limit for the Naval Academy. He accepted an appointment to West Point in 1911. At West Point, Eisenhower relished the emphasis on traditions and on sports, but was less enthusiastic about
34968-407: Was shot down over the Soviet Union. Eisenhower approved the Bay of Pigs Invasion , which was left to John F. Kennedy to carry out. On the domestic front, Eisenhower governed as a moderate conservative who continued New Deal agencies and expanded Social Security . He covertly opposed Joseph McCarthy and contributed to the end of McCarthyism by openly invoking executive privilege . He signed
35156-444: Was the 34th president of the United States , serving from 1953 to 1961. During World War II , he was Supreme Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force in Europe and achieved the five-star rank as General of the Army . Eisenhower planned and supervised two of the most consequential military campaigns of World War II : Operation Torch in the North Africa campaign in 1942–1943 and the invasion of Normandy in 1944. Eisenhower
35344-444: Was too evasive in his description of the operation, and that it was clear that Stevenson was not to be given the full details of the invasion plan. Historian Garry Wills has written that "news of the invasion was leaking out...Castro knew the landings would occur; only Adlai Stevenson was kept in the dark" about the invasion by President Kennedy and his aides. Kennedy, anticipating that Stevenson might be angered at being left out of
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