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106-540: The first Trade Facilitation discussions began in the mid-1990s. In 1996, the Singaporean Ministerial Conference gave the WTO its initial directive, however under a different conceptual heading. The language used in the brief reflected a potential compromise between those wanting to renegotiate terms of a deal and those, primarily from the developing and Least Developed Countries who had their doubts about

212-634: A constitution , law or sentence by a constitutional assembly , legislature or court respectively. Other more specific examples are United Nations' negotiation regarding the reform of the UN Security Council and the formation of the international agreement underpinning the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP) in the Asia-Pacific Region, where the parties involved failed in 2019 to agree on

318-450: A multi-racial , multi-cultural , multi-religious, multi-denominational, multi-lingual, and multi-ethnic country. Singaporeans of Chinese , Malay , Indian and Eurasian descent have made up the overwhelming majority of the population since the 19th century. The Singaporean diaspora is also far-reaching worldwide. In 1819, the port of Singapore was established by Sir Stamford Raffles , who opened it to free trade and free immigration on

424-481: A "fixed pie" of benefits. Distributive negotiation operates under zero-sum conditions, where it is assumed that any gain made by one party will be at the expense of the other. Haggling over prices on an open market , as in the purchase of a car or home, is an example of distributive negotiation. In a distributive negotiation, each side often adopts an extreme or fixed position that they know will not be accepted, and then seeks to cede as little as possible before reaching

530-685: A British settlement, a large number of Chinese migrants also started to settle on the island. In 1825, the population of the island had passed the ten thousand mark and by the census of 1826, there were more Chinese with a population of 6,088, as compared to 4,790 Malays excluding the Bugis and Javanese. By 1871, due to the influx of migrants from Malaya , China, India and other parts of Asia, Singapore's population had reached nearly 100,000, with over half of them being Chinese. Many of these early migrants were predominantly male and they would usually return to their home countries after they had earned enough money. By

636-856: A cooperative strategy. During the negotiation, negotiators who are in a positive mood tend to enjoy the interaction more, show less contentious behavior, use less aggressive tactics, and more cooperative strategies. This, in turn, increases the likelihood that parties will reach their instrumental goals, and enhance the ability to find integrative gains. Indeed, compared with negotiators with negative or natural affectivity, negotiators with positive affectivity reached more agreements and tended to honor those agreements more. Those favorable outcomes are due to better decision-making processes, such as flexible thinking, creative problem-solving , respect for others' perspectives, willingness to take risks, and higher confidence. The post-negotiation positive effect has beneficial consequences as well. It increases satisfaction with

742-402: A deal. Distributive bargainers conceive of negotiation as a process of distributing a fixed amount of value. A distributive negotiation often involves people who have never had a previous interactive relationship with each other and are unlikely to do so again shortly, although all negotiations usually have some distributive element. Since prospect theory indicates that people tend to prioritize

848-591: A huge variety of foods. From 1971 to 1986, the government moved thousands of hawkers off the streets into cleaner and better hawker centre facilities. In 2020, the hawker culture in Singapore was listed by UNESCO as an Intangible Cultural Heritage . Due to the affordability and wide variety that a hawker centre provides, Singaporeans prefer to dine out rather than cook after work. Some well-known Singaporean dishes includes kaya toast , chilli crab , fish head curry , laksa and roti prata . The Hainanese chicken rice

954-630: A mandate of disciplines. Work surrounding the Trade Facilitation Agreement continued after the Singaporean summit . The main purpose of these discussions was to gain an initial understanding of the scope of the agreement. Setting a clearly defined role for the WTO became a priority. The role the WTO would play began relatively broad. The earliest proposal indicated that the WTO would be in charge of payments, insurance and other financial requirements concerned with international trade . In

1060-486: A negotiator is better equipped to interpret the information other participants are leaking non-verbally while keeping secret those things that would inhibit his/her ability to negotiate. In a negotiation, a person can gain the advantage by verbally expressing a position first. By anchoring one's position, one establishes the position from which the negotiation proceeds. Similarly, one can "anchor" and gain an advantage with nonverbal (body language) cues. Being able to read

1166-604: A number of developing countries such as Chile , Colombia , Costa Rica , Republic of Korea , Paraguay and Singapore. However, it remained difficult to convince the affiliated nations to agree on multi-lateral negotiations. There was however no opposition to working and drafting the Trade Facilitation Act. The Act promised lower tariff barriers and non-tariff issues. However, most of the developing and least-developed countries were more in favour of an approach which encouraged these Guidelines to be followed opposed to

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1272-480: A positive utility function but rather have a negative utility . However, the expression of negative emotions during negotiation can sometimes be beneficial: legitimately expressed anger can be an effective way to show one's commitment, sincerity, and needs. Moreover, although NA reduces gains in integrative tasks, it is a better strategy than PA in distributive tasks (such as zero-sum ). In his work on negative affect arousal and white noise, Seidner found support for

1378-419: A positive relationship between parties. Rather than conceding, each side can appreciate that the other has emotions and motivations of their own and use this to their advantage in discussing the issue. Understanding perspectives can help move parties toward a more integrative solution. Fisher et al. illustrate a few techniques that effectively improve perspective-taking in the book Getting to Yes , and through

1484-461: A result of the agreement is widespread. Estimates range from approximately $ 68 billion to nearly $ 1 trillion per year. According to the OECD , the Trade Facilitation Agreement has the capacity to reduce trade costs by 14.1% for low income countries , 15.1% for middle-income countries and 12.9% for high-middle-income countries. That would indicate a range  of gains of approximately $ 9 to $ 133

1590-485: A rich linguistic diversity in the city. Singaporean literature consists of literary works that is written in either of the 4 official languages. Although these works may be considered as literature works to their specific languages, they are also viewed as a distinct body of literature portraying various aspects of Singapore society and forms a significant part of the culture of Singapore. Singaporean literature in English

1696-461: A straightforward presentation of demands or setting of preconditions, to more deceptive approaches such as cherry picking . Intimidation and salami tactics may also play a part in swaying the outcome of negotiations. Another negotiation tactic is the bad guy/good guy. Bad guy/good guy is when one negotiator acts as a bad guy by using anger and threats. The other negotiator acts as a good guy by being considerate and understanding. The good guy blames

1802-588: A text which would suit India . Such negotiations are often founded on the principle that "nothing is agreed until everything is agreed". For example, this principle, also known as the single undertaking approach , is often used in World Trade Organization negotiations, although some negotiations relax this requirement. The principle formed part of the British negotiating approach for the Brexit deal following

1908-412: A transaction, and conversations between parents about how to manage childcare. Mediation is a form of negotiation where a third party helps the conflicting parties negotiate, usually when they are unable to do so by themselves. Mediated negotiation can be contrasted with the arbitration , where conflicting parties commit to accepting the decision of a third party. Negotiations in the workplace can impact

2014-574: A year per person on the planet . These large ranges indicate that there are still several uncertainties surrounding the trade deal. It became evident to the WTO that the provisions and mandates indicated the Trade Facilitation Agreement would be more difficult to implement for developing and least-developed countries . Therefore, the Trade Facilitation Agreement Facility was developed in order to provide assistance and support to these countries . The Trade Facilitation Agreement

2120-445: Is a fixed amount of value (a "fixed pie") to be divided between the parties, integrative negotiation attempts to create value in the course of the negotiation ("expand the pie") by either "compensating" the loss of one item with gains from another ("trade-offs" or logrolling ), or by constructing or reframing the issues of the conflict in such a way that both parties benefit ("win-win" negotiation). However, even integrative negotiation

2226-438: Is a theory in political psychology that was first put forth by Ole Holsti to explain the relationship between John Foster Dulles ' beliefs and his model of information processing. It is the most widely studied model of one's opponent: A state is presumed implacably hostile, and contra-indicators of this are ignored. They are dismissed as propaganda ploys or signs of weakness. Examples are John Foster Dulles ' position regarding

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2332-429: Is also common such as the incorporation of Taoism and Hindu traditions into Buddhism and vice versa. Negotiation Negotiation is a dialogue between two or more parties to resolve points of difference, gain an advantage for an individual or collective , or craft outcomes to satisfy various interests. The parties aspire to agree on matters of mutual interest . The agreement can be beneficial for all or some of

2438-404: Is also widely considered to be one of Singapore's national dish. Singapore's historical roots as a trading settlement gave rise to an influx of foreign traders, and their languages were slowly embedded in Singapore's modern day linguistic repertoire. With the influx of traders into Singapore, Bazaar Malay ( Melayu Pasar ), a creole of Malay and Chinese, emerged as the lingua franca of

2544-787: Is based on two themes or dimensions: Based on this model, individuals balance their concern for personal needs and interests with the needs and interests of others. The following five styles can be used based on individuals' preferences, depending on their pro-self or pro-social goals. These styles can change over time, and individuals can have strong dispositions toward numerous styles. Three basic kinds of negotiators have been identified by researchers involved in The Harvard Negotiation Project. These types of negotiators are soft bargainers, hard bargainers, and principled bargainers. Researchers from The Harvard Negotiation Project recommend that negotiators explore several tactics to reach

2650-443: Is closely linked to Islamic culture . Singaporean cuisine has been largely influenced by different cultures because of its position as an international shipping port since its founding as a British port in 1819. The main influences on Singaporean cuisine came from Chinese, Malay and Indian cuisines, similar to the ethnic makeup of Singaporeans. It is believed that certain dishes that are part of Singaporean cuisine today predates

2756-484: Is granted by birth, by descent, or by registration. Although provided for in the Constitution, citizenship by naturalisation is no longer granted. The government instead uses the constitutional provision for citizenship by registration to grant citizenship to resident aliens. Singaporeans with Chinese ancestry make up 75.9%, Malays make up 15.4%, Indians make up 7.4%, and residents of other descent make up 1.6% of

2862-516: Is hoped to reduce corruption such as bribes in these domestic regions. New technology and more efficient procedures which reduce the ‘red tape’ surrounding international trade is forecasted to limit corruption by limiting its necessity. Since the Trade Facilitation Agreement was pushed to be a non-binding document , rather a set of encouragements for developed , developing and least-developed countries to follow, it has left many developing and least-developed countries with doubts about whether

2968-509: Is known as automated negotiation . In automated negotiation, the participants and process have to be modeled correctly. Recent negotiation embraces complexity. Negotiation can take a variety of forms in different contexts. These may include conferences between members of the United Nations to establish international norms, meetings between combatants to end a military conflict, meetings between representatives of businesses to bring about

3074-435: Is likely to have some distributive elements, especially when the different parties value some items to the same degree or when details are left to be allocated at the end of the negotiation. While concession by at least one party is always necessary for negotiations, research shows that people who concede more quickly are less likely to explore all integrative and mutually beneficial solutions. Therefore, early concession reduces

3180-476: Is negotiating in bad faith ; for example, when a political party sees political benefit in appearing to negotiate without having any intention of making the compromises necessary to settle. Bad faith negotiations are often used in political science and political psychology to refer to negotiating strategies in which there is no real intention to reach compromise or a model of information processing . The " inherent bad faith model " of information processing

3286-518: Is not to be confused with integrative negotiation , a different concept (as outlined above) related to a non-zero-sum approach to creating value in negotiations. Integrated negotiation was first identified and labeled by the international negotiator and author Peter Johnston in his book Negotiating with Giants . One of the examples cited in Johnston's book is that of J. D. Rockefeller deciding where to build his first major oil refinery. Instead of taking

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3392-472: Is oftentimes impeded by the so-called small pie bias, i.e. the psychological underestimation of the negotiation pie's size. Likewise, the possibility to increase the pie may be underestimated due to the so-called incompatibility bias. Contrary to enlarging the pie, the pie may also shrink during negotiations e.g. due to (excessive) negotiation costs. Due to different cultural lenses negotiation style differ worldwide. These differences comprise among others how

3498-506: Is projected to have a significantly positive impact on these countries, with an expected 14.5% reduction in total Trade costs once the Agreement comes into force. The Agreement will also help in making critical practical hurdles which govern International trade , redundant. The wealthier countries in the Agreement have committed to help reform developing countries technical and financial processes in order to increase efficiency. This in turn

3604-428: Is reflected in the architectural styles of buildings in several distinct ethnic neighbourhoods, such as Little India , Chinatown and Kampong Glam . Singlish is a local creole language that is primarily and understandably English with a local accent and smattering of words from Malay , Hokkien , Teochew , Cantonese and Tamil used by Singaporeans in an informal setting. Due to Singapore's diverse ethnic makeup,

3710-413: Is the basis for productive negotiation and agreement. Text-based negotiation refers to the process of working up the text of an agreement that all parties are willing to accept and sign. Negotiating parties may begin with a draft text, consider new textual suggestions, and work to find the middle ground among various differing positions. Common examples of text-based negotiation include the redaction of

3816-653: Is to the other person's message and ideas. Receptive negotiators tend to appear relaxed with their hands open and palms visibly displayed. Emotions play an important part in the negotiation process, although it is only in recent years that their effect is being studied. Emotions have the potential to play either a positive or negative role in negotiation. During negotiations, the decision as to whether or not to settle rests in part on emotional factors. Negative emotions can cause intense and even irrational behavior and can cause conflicts to escalate and negotiations to break down, but may be instrumental in attaining concessions. On

3922-657: The Arabs , Armenians , Eurasians and Sri Lankans are classified into broader ethnic groups under the CMIO model. The Javanese are classified under the Malay ethnic group and the Peranakans are classified under the Chinese ethnic group are two examples of the classification of race and ethnicity in Singapore. Other foreign communities in the country or Singaporeans of other ethnic origins includes

4028-556: The Australians , Americans , Burmese , Canadians , Chinese , Filipinos , Japanese , Koreans , Malaysians , Nepalis , Pakistanis , Afghans , Africans , English , Italians , Irish , Greeks , and Pacific Islanders . Singaporean culture is a mix of East , South and South East Asian , Middle Eastern , African , and European cultures, with influences from the Malay , Indian , Chinese , Eurasian , and European cultures. This

4134-739: The Mediterranean . The earliest settlers of the island were known as the Orang Laut , and the island was an outpost of the Srivijaya Empire until it was invaded by the Tamil Emperor Rajendra Chola I of the Chola Empire in the 11th century. According to the 19th century Chinese record Investigation of Southern Pacific (南洋蠡測) (Nanyang Li Ce), it described the presence of Chinese tombs in Singapore. Words and inscriptions recording

4240-634: The Singapore Constitution prohibits discrimination based on ethnicity, race, religion, denomination, descent, and place of birth. The state thus promotes the cultural diversity of multiculturalism and multiracialism, instead of a single cultural assimilation. About 70% of Singaporeans also identify with other ethnic cultures in Singapore, notably the Chinese, Malay and Indian cultures. Major festivals including Chinese New Year , Hari Raya Puasa , Deepavali , Vesak Day , Christmas , Good Friday , Easter , and New Year's Day which are celebrated by

4346-419: The arrival of Raffles in 1819, some of these dishes include laksa , biryani and betel quid . However, it is unknown when these dishes arrived in Singapore, as historical records on them are largely scattered and inaccurate. A large part of Singaporean cuisine centres around the hawker culture in the country. Hawker stalls first began around mid 1800s and were largely made up of street food stalls selling

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4452-401: The 3,498,200 of the resident population (excluding persons holding Permanent Residency). To avoid physical racial segregation and formation of ethnic enclaves common in other multi-racial societies, the Singapore government implemented the "Ethnic Integration Policy" (EIP) in 1989 where each block of units are sold to families from ethnicities roughly comparable to the national average. Today,

4558-535: The Chinese-Malay-Indian-Others (CMIO) model is the dominant organising framework of race in Singapore. The country also celebrates Racial Harmony Day to commemorate the 1964 race riots in Singapore and to remember the consequences of racial disharmony the country experienced during the 1964 racial riots, which were a series of riots that resulted in a total of 36 deaths and 560 others suffered severe injuries. Singaporeans of other ethnicities notably

4664-512: The Draft into segments for each individual to refine. Mario Matus from Chile oversaw the transparency components as well as customs operations. Switzerlands representative Remigi Winzap was put in charge of articles 6–9. Fred Agah from Nigeria had the task of refining article 10 and finally Michael Stone from Hong Kong looked after S&D under section 2. In September 2013, the WTO's Director-General also stepped in to provide council. This came in

4770-507: The Hong Kong Ministerial. There were however still concerns surrounding the Hong Kong Ministerial. Those who were in favour of a timely resolution of Negotiations were concerned that an absence of real drafting would continue to delay processes. The developing and least-developed nations were still concerned about implementation processes. There was a lack of empirical evidence pointing to technical assistance and S&D, rather it

4876-504: The Soviet Union. The total of advantages and disadvantages to be distributed in a negotiation is illustrated with the term negotiation pie. The course of the negotiation can either lead to an increase, shrinking, or stagnation of these values. If the negotiating parties can expand the total pie, a win-win situation is possible, assuming that both parties profit from the expansion of the pie. In practice, however, this maximization approach

4982-470: The Trade Facilitation Agreement was not fully completed by the Ministerial Conference it was in a good enough shape to be brought and completed there. The Ministerial Conference brought more rounds of negotiation and disagreement, however at the end the members were able to agree on a text for the Agreement. After a decade of negotiations, the WTO finally had their Trade Facilitation Agreement at

5088-642: The UK's withdrawal from the European Union . Integrated negotiation is a strategic attempt to maximize value in any single negotiation through the astute linking and sequencing of other negotiations and decisions related to one's operating activities. This approach in complex settings is executed by mapping out all potentially relevant negotiations, conflicts, and operating decisions to integrate helpful connections among them while minimizing any potentially harmful connections (see examples below). Integrated negotiation

5194-403: The ability (presence of environmental or cognitive disturbances) and the motivation: According to this model, emotions affect negotiations only when one is high and the other is low. When both ability and motivation are low, the effect is identified, and when both are high the effect is identified but discounted as irrelevant to judgment. A possible implication of this model is, for example, that

5300-511: The achieved outcome and influences one's desire for future interactions. The PA aroused by reaching an agreement facilitates the dyadic relationship, which brings commitment that sets the stage for subsequent interactions. PA also has its drawbacks: it distorts the perception of self-performance, such that performance is judged to be relatively better than it is. Thus, studies involving self-reports on achieved outcomes might be biased. Negative affect has detrimental effects on various stages in

5406-401: The additional operating costs of sending his oil to Cleveland for refining, helping establish Rockefeller's empire, while undermining his competitors who failed to integrate their core operating decisions with their negotiation strategies. Other examples of integrated negotiation include the following: When a party pretends to negotiate but secretly has no intention of compromising, the party

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5512-449: The archipelago, Bugis , Javanese , Peranakan Chinese , South Asian and Hadhrami Arab traders flocked to the island, due to the Dutch trading restrictions. After six months of Singapore's founding as a free port, the population increased to 5,000, with the first census of 1824 showing that 6,505 out of the 10,683 total were Malays and Bugis settlers. Within the first few months of becoming

5618-594: The bad guy for all the difficulties while soliciting concessions and agreement from the opponent. The best alternative to a negotiated agreement, or BATNA , is the most advantageous alternative course of action a negotiator can take should the current negotiation end without reaching an agreement. The quality of a BATNA has the potential to improve a party's negotiation outcome. Understanding one's BATNA can empower an individual and allow him or her to set higher goals when moving forward. Alternatives need to be actual and actionable to be of value. Negotiators may also consider

5724-401: The best solution for their problems, but this is often not the case (as when you may be dealing with an individual using soft or hard-bargaining tactics) (Forsyth, 2010). Tactics are always an important part of the negotiating process. More often than not they are subtle, difficult to identify, and used for multiple purposes. Tactics are more frequently used in distributive negotiations and when

5830-496: The capacity to satisfy its requirements. However many nations such as India and China have only committed to respectively 70–75% of the Trade Facilitation Agreements measures. Singaporeans Singaporeans are the citizens and nationals of the sovereign island city-state of Singapore . Singapore is home to a people of a variety of ethno-racial-religious origins, with the city-state itself being

5936-486: The chance of an integrative negotiation. Integrative negotiation often involves a higher degree of trust and the formation of a relationship, although INSEAD professor Horacio Falcao has stated that, counter-intuitively, trust is a helpful aid to successful win-win negotiation but not a necessary requirement: he argues that promotion of interdependence is a more effective strategy that development of trust. Integrative negotiation can also involve creative problem-solving in

6042-407: The country's diverse ethnic and cultural mix. The Inter-Religious Organisation, Singapore (IRO) recognises 10 major religions being practiced in the city state. Dharmic religions have the highest number of adherents in Singapore, with 33% of the population practising Buddhism and 5% of the population practising Hinduism . Many Singaporeans are also adherents of Abrahamic religions , with 18.7% of

6148-838: The different major racial and religious groups are designated as public holidays. Former Prime Ministers of Singapore, Lee Kuan Yew and Goh Chok Tong, have stated that Singapore does not fit the traditional description of a nation, calling it a society-in-transition, pointing out the fact that Singaporeans do not all speak the same language, share the same religion, nor have the same customs. Each Singaporean's behaviours and attitudes are influenced by, among other things, his or her home language and his religion. Singaporeans who speak English as their native language tend to lean toward Western culture and Christian culture , while those who speak Chinese as their native language tend to lean toward Chinese culture and Confucianism . Malay-speaking Singaporeans tend to lean toward Malay culture , which itself

6254-528: The earlier known works of Singaporean literature in Malay was written by Abdullah Bin Abdul Kadir, a Malay scribe, with his work Cherita Kapal Asap . Some of the other earlier known Malay writers include Tuan Simi and Masuri S. N. Singaporean Malay literary works were similar to its Malaysian counterpart before the early 1970s. Many early pioneers of Singaporean literature in Malay relocated to Malaysia before Singapore became independent as they wanted to be part of

6360-707: The early to mid twentieth century, an increasingly significant number of migrant workers chose to stay permanently, with their descendants forming the bulk of Singapore's population today. In 1957, Singapore attained self-governance and Singaporean citizenship was granted to selected residents who were born in Singapore or the Federation of Malaya , British citizens who had been resident for two years, and others who had been resident for ten years. On September 16, 1963, all Singaporeans effectively became Malaysian citizens as Malaya, Singapore, North Borneo and Sarawak were merged to form Malaysia. However, about two years after

6466-666: The easier, cheaper route from the oil fields to refine his petroleum in Pittsburgh, Rockefeller chose to build his refinery in Cleveland, because he recognized that he would have to negotiate with the rail companies transporting his refined oil to market. Pittsburgh had just one major railroad, which would therefore be able to dictate prices in negotiations, while Cleveland had three railroads that Rockefeller knew would compete for his business, potentially reducing his costs significantly. The leverage gained in these rail negotiations more than offset

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6572-401: The end of 2013, moving in to 2014. Currently, the cost of international trade stands at approximately $ 2 trillion. This is due to a variety of factors including, redundant customs procedures, border fees and unnecessary duplications. The economic benefit of the Trade Facilitation Agreement is still yet to be completely felt and measured. However, estimates of the economic gains as

6678-713: The entire organization performance. Negotiation theorists generally distinguish between two primary types of negotiation: distributive negotiation and integrative negotiation. The type of negotiation that takes place is dependent on the mindset of the negotiators and the situation of the negotiation. For example, one-off encounters where lasting relationships do not occur are more likely to produce distributive negotiations whereas lasting relationships are more likely to require integrative negotiating. Theorists vary in their labeling and definition of these two fundamental types. Distributive negotiation, compromise, positional negotiation, or hard-bargaining negotiation attempts to distribute

6784-449: The existence of a negative affect arousal mechanism through observations regarding the devaluation of speakers from other ethnic origins. Negotiation may be negatively affected, in turn, by submerged hostility toward an ethnic or gender group. Research indicates that a negotiator's emotions do not necessarily affect the negotiation process. Albarracın et al. (2003) suggested that there are two conditions for emotional affect, both related to

6890-456: The focus is on taking as much value off the table as possible. Many negotiation tactics exist. Below are a few commonly used tactics. Communication is a key element of negotiation. Effective negotiation requires that participants effectively convey and interpret information. Participants in a negotiation communicate information not only verbally but non-verbally through body language and gestures. By understanding how nonverbal communication works,

6996-457: The followers of Temenggong Abdul Rahman, and about 20–30 Chinese. The majority of Singaporeans today are descendants of immigrants who settled on the island when Singapore was founded as a British trading port by Raffles in 1819, except for the Malays who are indigenous to the region of Malaya. At that time, Raffles decided Singapore would be a free port and as news of the free port spread across

7102-408: The following, negotiators can separate people from the problem itself: Additionally, negotiators can use specific communication techniques to build stronger relationships and develop more meaningful negotiation solutions. A skilled negotiator may serve as an advocate for one party to the negotiation. The advocate attempts to obtain the most favorable outcomes possible for that party. In this process,

7208-731: The form of numerous Negotiations and configurations, resulting in the resolve of many controversies and issues. Just prior to the Bali Ministerial Conference in December, with the direct help of the Director general , the process of drafting had resulted in almost a clean text. The previous areas of disagreement was now only limited to a few members which was able to resolved in a bilateral meeting allowing them to return as members. Previous brackets of dispute and discontent were now bracket free, such as S&D and customs cooperation. While

7314-425: The idea of a full negotiating mandate. However, this was met with a number of opposition. A number of members preferred to continue on the exploratory path instead of setting compulsory mandates. With numerous countries standing in opposition of each other, the ‘Colorado Group’ looking for certain mandates and the rest preferring to build upon three existing GATT disciplines in order to alleviate ‘red tape’ surrounding

7420-421: The introduction of Singapore's bilingual language education policy Singapore English , however, remains the de facto lingua franca spoken by Singaporeans today. It is the main language of instruction in all school subjects except for Mother Tongue lessons and also the common language of administration, law and business. In 2009, more than 20 languages were identified as being spoken in Singapore, reflecting

7526-593: The island fell under the suzerainty of various regional empires and Malayan sultanates until its destruction by Portuguese raiders in 1613. Prior to the arrival of Raffles, there were about a hundred indigenous Malays living on the island under the Johor Sultanate . Most of the indigenous Malays came from the Malay Archipelago . There were an estimated 150 people living on the island, who were predominantly Orang Laut with small population of 120 Malays who were

7632-463: The island's south coast. Many immigrants from the region settled in Singapore. By 1827, the population of the island was composed of people from various ethnic groups². Singapore is a multilingual and multicultural society. It is home to people of many different ethnic, racial, religious, denominational, and national origins -- the majority of which are of Chinese , Malay , Indian , Arab , Eurasian , and European descent. The Singaporean identity

7738-417: The island, which was the language of trade in the Malay Archipelago . However, under the British colonial government, English gained prestige as the language of administration, law and business in Singapore, and eventually displaced Bazar Malay as the bridging language among the population. As government administration increased, infrastructure and commerce developed, and access to education further catalysed

7844-530: The larger Malay community in Malaysia due to the common language in writing. By the 1970s, due to the difference in governance between Singapore and Malaysia, literary works in Malay between the 2 countries became more distinguishable, with Singapore literature in Malay revolving around the themes of freedom, authenticity, and criticality. Singapore is the world's most religiously diverse nation, with Singaporeans following various religious beliefs and practices due to

7950-447: The late 1990s an effort from a number of countries to make the WTO rules binding and not encouraged triggered a response to narrow the scope and focus on selected aspects of GATT . The two main areas of interest were Articles VIII and X of the GATT . In late 1999, the ‘Colorado Group’, which was made up of predominantly developed countries and a few developing countries , began to promote

8056-522: The main conflicting opinions. These brackets eventually expanded to approximately 2200 until it eventually started to come down. The chairman decided to appoint several organisers to try and reduce the amount of brackets. Eventually there were more than 14 facilitator groups working parallel on the issues and Negotiations . In March 2013, the WTO decided that it was essential for higher-level management and involvement. The NGTF Chair chose 4 Ambassadors and separated

8162-470: The merger, Singapore seceded from Malaysia on August 9, 1965, and Malaysian citizenship was withdrawn from Singaporean citizens. Singaporean nationality law was incorporated into the new Constitution of Singapore . The constitution repealed the 1957 Ordinance, and all persons who were citizens as of 16 September 1963 by virtue of the Ordinance continued to be Singaporean citizens. Today, Singaporean citizenship

8268-501: The minimization of losses over the maximization of gains, this form of negotiation is likely to be more acrimonious and less productive in agreement. Integrative negotiation is also called interest-based, merit-based, win-win or principled negotiation. It is a set of techniques that attempts to improve the quality and likelihood of negotiated agreement by taking advantage of the fact that different parties often value various outcomes differently. While distributive negotiation assumes there

8374-780: The negotiating parties trust each other to implement the negotiated solution is a major factor in determining the success of a negotiation. People negotiate daily, often without considering it a negotiation. Negotiations may occur in organizations, including businesses, non-profits, and governments, as well as in sales and legal proceedings , and personal situations such as marriage, divorce, parenting, friendship, etc. Professional negotiators are often specialized. Examples of professional negotiators include union negotiators, leverage buyout negotiators, peace negotiators, and hostage negotiators . They may also work under other titles, such as diplomats , legislators , or arbitrators . Negotiations may also be conducted by algorithms or machines in what

8480-539: The negotiation process. Although various negative emotions affect negotiation outcomes, by far the most researched is anger . Angry negotiators plan to use more competitive strategies and cooperate less, even before the negotiation starts. These competitive strategies are related to reduced joint outcomes. During negotiations, anger disrupts the process by reducing the level of trust, clouding parties' judgment, narrowing parties' focus of attention, and changing their central goal from reaching an agreement to retaliating against

8586-452: The negotiator attempts to determine the minimum outcome(s) the other party is (or parties are) willing to accept, then adjusts their demands accordingly. A "successful" negotiation in the advocacy approach is when the negotiator can obtain all or most of the outcomes their party desires, but without driving the other party to permanently break off negotiations. Skilled negotiators may use a variety of tactics ranging from negotiation hypnosis to

8692-405: The negotiator's emotions and behavior: mimetic/ reciprocal or complementary. For example, disappointment or sadness might lead to compassion and more cooperation. In a study by Butt et al. (2005) that simulated real multi-phase negotiation, most people reacted to the partner's emotions in a reciprocal, rather than complementary, manner. Specific emotions were found to have different effects on

8798-412: The non-verbal communication of another person can significantly aid in the communication process. By being aware of inconsistencies between a person's verbal and non-verbal communication and reconciling them, negotiators can come to better resolutions. Examples of incongruity in body language include: The way negotiation partners position their bodies relative to each other may influence how receptive each

8904-475: The optimum time to make a concession, making concessions in installments, not all at once, and ensuring that the opponent is aware that a concession has been made, rather than a re-expression of a position already outlined, and aware of the cost incurred in making the concession, especially where the other party is generally less aware of the nature of the business or the product being negotiated. Negotiators do not need to sacrifice effective negotiation in favor of

9010-701: The options, and the agreement(s) reached at the end. Another view of negotiation comprises four elements: strategy , process , tools , and tactics . The Strategy comprises top-level goals. Which typically include the relationship and the outcome. Processes and tools include the steps to follow and roles to take in preparing for and negotiating with the other parties. Tactics include more detailed statements and actions and responses to others' statements and actions. Some add to this persuasion and influence , asserting that these have become integral to modern-day negotiation success, and so should not be omitted. Strategic approaches to concession-making include consideration of

9116-454: The other hand, positive emotions often facilitate reaching an agreement and help to maximize joint gains, but can also be instrumental in attaining concessions. Positive and negative discrete emotions can be strategically displayed to influence task and relational outcomes and may play out differently across cultural boundaries. Dispositions for effects affect various stages of negotiation: which strategies to use, which strategies are chosen,

9222-469: The other party is a necessary condition for its emotion to effect, and visibility enhances the effect. Emotions contribute to negotiation processes by signaling what one feels and thinks and can thus prevent the other party from engaging in destructive behaviors and indicate what steps should be taken next: PA signals to keep in the same way, while NA points out that mental or behavioral adjustments are needed. Partner's emotions can have two basic effects on

9328-414: The other party's BATNA and how it compares to what they are offering during the negotiation. Kenneth W. Thomas identified five styles or responses to negotiation. These five strategies have been frequently described in the literature and are based on the dual-concern model. The dual-concern model of conflict resolution is a perspective that assumes individuals' preferred method of dealing with conflict

9434-641: The other side. Angry negotiators pay less attention to the opponent's interests and are less accurate in judging their interests, thus achieving lower joint gains. Moreover, because anger makes negotiators more self-centered in their preferences, it increases the likelihood that they will reject profitable offers. Opponents who get angry (or cry, or otherwise lose control) are more likely to make errors. Anger does not help achieve negotiation goals either: it reduces joint gains and does not boost personal gains, as angry negotiators do not succeed. Moreover, negative emotions lead to acceptance of settlements that are not in

9540-552: The parties exchange information, the use of different strategies, conceptions of the nature of negotiation, the use of power, the use of options. Negotiations as they are often taught and used by practicionners in "Western" countries may not be effective or may even be counterproductive in "non-Western" countries – such as Asian countries. There are many different ways to categorize the essential elements of negotiation. One view of negotiation involves three basic elements: process , behavior, and substance . The process refers to how

9646-442: The parties involved. The negotiators should establish their own needs and wants while also seeking to understand the wants and needs of others involved to increase their chances of closing deals, avoiding conflicts, forming relationships with other parties, or maximizing mutual gains. Distributive negotiations, or compromises, are conducted by putting forward a position and making concessions to achieve an agreement. The degree to which

9752-424: The parties negotiate: the context of the negotiations, the parties to the negotiations, the tactics used by the parties, and the sequence and stages in which all of these play out. Behavior refers to the relationships among these parties, the communication between them, and the styles they adopt. The substance refers to what the parties negotiate over: the agenda, the issues (positions and – more helpfully – interests),

9858-509: The period of Later Liang and Emperor Gong of Song were found on these tombs and this may suggest that from 907 to 1274, some Chinese had settled, lived, died and were buried in Singapore. A small Malay kingdom, known as the Kingdom of Singapura , was founded in 1299 by a fleeing Srivijayan prince, Sang Nila Utama , who was crowned as the Raja of the new state. After the fall of the kingdom in 1398,

9964-454: The population identifying as Christian , and 14% identifying as Muslim . Other prominent faiths practised by Singaporeans include Taoism (10%), Chinese folk religion , and other Dharmic religions like Sikhism and Jainism . A small percentage of Singapore's population practices Zoroastrianism and Judaism . 18.5% not identifying with any religion and 0.9% of Singaporeans identify as atheist . In addition, practice of hybrid religions

10070-468: The population of Singaporeans stands at 4,026,200 and the population of Overseas Singaporeans stands at 340,751, with 217,200 individuals retaining their citizenship. The earliest records of settlement on the island date back to the 2nd century, where the island was identified as a trading port which was part of a chain of similar trading centres that linked Southeast Asia with the Tamil Indians and

10176-432: The positive effects of PA have on negotiations (as described above) are seen only when either motivation or ability is low. Most studies on emotion in negotiations focus on the effect of the negotiator's own emotions on the process. However, what the other party feels might be just as important, as group emotions are known to affect processes both at the group and the personal levels. When it comes to negotiations, trust in

10282-504: The pursuit of mutual gains. It sees a good agreement as one that provides optimal gain for both parties, rather than maximum individual gain. Each party seeks to allow the other party sufficient benefit that both will hold to the agreement. Productive negotiation focuses on the underlying interests of both parties rather than their starting positions and approaches negotiation as a shared problem-solving exercise rather than an individualized battle. Adherence to objective and principled criteria

10388-546: The spread of English among Singaporeans. Today, Singapore has four official languages, English , Malay , Mandarin , and Tamil . Malay is the ceremonial national language of the country and is the home language to 13% of the population. Although most of the younger generation of non-Malay people are non-proficient in the Malay language, Malay is used in the national anthem of Singapore and also in citations for Singapore orders and decorations and military parade drill commands. Almost all Singaporeans are bilingual since

10494-424: The success of new Negotiations and preferred a much more narrow/limited program. Many of the doubts surrounding a prospective new multi-lateral trade agreement were surrounding concerns about not having the capabilities to take on any additional commitments, especially for developing and Least Developed Countries . All of the developed countries supported the Trade Facilitation Agreement at this point, as well as

10600-605: The trading procedures, the negotiations ended up breaking down. In the aftermath, efforts were allocated to trying to identify the positives and benefits that the Trade Facilitation Act can have on its members. It was not until 2001 at the Doha Ministerial that renewed efforts on the Trade Facilitation Negotiations began. The ‘Colorado Group’ was still attempting to increase their membership whilst their opposition were not inactive either. The Doha Ministerial

10706-406: The way the other party and their intentions are perceived, their willingness to reach an agreement, and the final negotiated outcomes. Positive affectivity (PA) and negative affectivity (NA) of one or more of the negotiating sides can lead to very different outcomes. Even before the negotiation process starts, people in a positive mood have more confidence, and higher tendencies to plan to use

10812-406: The wealthier countries will fulfil their commitment of support. Many African nations are asking questions on how this Agreement is able to benefit them for not just international trade but also inter-regional trade. Many developing countries thus are still unable to fully commit to ratifying into this agreement. Developed countries have been able to show commitment to the agreement as they have

10918-731: Was first started by the Peranakan community in colonial Singapore during the 1830s. Singaporean English literature first gained notability in 1937, with a poetry known as F.M.S.R. A Poem , written by Teo Poh Leng and was followed by Wang Gungwu 's work, Pulse, in the 1950. By 1965 when Singapore became an independent nation, authors such as Edwin Thumboo , Arthur Yap , Robert Yeo , Goh Poh Seng , Lee Tzu Pheng , Chandran Nair and Kirpal Singh were mostly focusing on poetry, which makes up most published works of Singapore writing in English. Singaporean literature in Malay can be traced back to 1841. One of

11024-562: Was fostered as a way for these different groups to integrate and identify as one with the nation, while preserving the culture and traditions of each group without assimilating minority cultures into a single majority culture. According to a 2017 survey by the Institute of Policy Studies , 49% of Singaporeans identify with both the Singaporean identity and their ethnic identity equally, while 35% would identify as "Singaporeans" first and 14.2% would identify with their ethnic identity. As of 2019,

11130-581: Was somewhat successful as it brought the two sides closer to negotiation . However, the negotiation process was yet to begin. The 2003 Cancún Ministerial in September emphasised that negotiations still remained elusive. The Ministerial in Hong Kong 2005 represented the first concrete point of reference for Trade Facilitation talks. The writing had already been set in stone in Geneva and simply had to be confirmed at

11236-464: Was very general. In general, the impact of the Hong Kong Ministerial varied depending on who you asked. It was a landmark point in terms of inciting negotiation, but still little progress was made. Subsequent action from the Hong Kong Ministerial did in fact not develop at speeds anticipated. It was not until December 2009, that the "Draft Consolidated Negotiation Text’ was circulated. This draft consisted of approximately 1700 square brackets, highlighting

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