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94-610: The geology of Tora Bora is predominantly metamorphic gneiss and schist . In October and November 1980, during Operation "Shkval", this complex was taken by the "Kaskad" special forces unit of the USSR KGB, together with the 66th motorized rifle brigade of the 40th Army of the Soviet troops in Afghanistan. As Colonel Valentin Gerasimenko wrote about the first assault, “By that time, Tora Bora

188-752: A 20-year task of creating a respectable regular force by instituting measures that formed the long-term basis of the military system. These included increasing the equalization of military obligation by setting up a system known as the hasht nafari (whereby one man in every eight between the ages of 20 and 40 took his turn at military service); constructing an arsenal in Kabul to reduce dependence on foreign sources for small arms and other ordnance; introducing supervised training courses; organizing troops into divisions, brigades, and regiments, including battalions of artillery; developing pay schedules; and introducing an elementary (and harsh) disciplinary system. Further improvements to

282-742: A National Military Command Center had been established in Kabul , which was being mentored by personnel from the Virginia Army National Guard . Under the US–Afghanistan Strategic Partnership Agreement , the United States designated Afghanistan as a major non-NATO ally and agreed to fund the ANA until at least 2024. This included soldiers' salaries, providing training and weapons, and all other military costs. Soldiers in

376-572: A broad textural category for medium- to coarse-grained metamorphic rock that shows poorly developed schistosity, with compositional layering over 5 millimeters (0.20 in) thick and tending to split into plates over 1 centimeter (0.39 in) thick. Neither definition depends on composition or origin, though rocks poor in platy minerals are more likely to produce gneissose texture. Gneissose rocks thus are largely recrystallized but do not carry large quantities of micas, chlorite or other platy minerals. Metamorphic rock showing stronger schistosity

470-454: A distinct cleavage . Gneisses are common in the ancient crust of continental shields . Some of the oldest rocks on Earth are gneisses, such as the Acasta Gneiss . In traditional English and North American usage, a gneiss is a coarse-grained metamorphic rock showing compositional banding ( gneissic banding ) but poorly developed schistosity and indistinct cleavage . In other words, it

564-742: A hotel, arms and ammunition stores, roads large enough to drive a tank into, and sophisticated tunnel and ventilation systems. During the U.S. invasion of Afghanistan , the cave complex was one of the strongholds of the Taliban and Al-Qaeda , according to United States Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld . It was the location of the December 2001 Battle of Tora Bora , and suspected hideout of Al-Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden which led his escape into neighboring Pakistan in January 2002. bin Laden and his family moved to

658-600: A line from Bagram south to Kandahar ." The guards regiment additionally performed ceremonial duties. There were 570 medium tanks, plus more Soviet T-55 tanks on order. The Afghan Army was also referred to as the Afghan Republican Army, or simply the “Republican Army”, in a Kabul Times newspaper, a few days after the 1973 Afghan coup d'état . On 27 April 1978 the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan , led by Nur Mohammad Taraki , Babrak Karmal and Amin overthrew

752-633: A lot of different ammo storage is up there. – Jeff, Staff Sgt. ODA 572 The complex later was retaken by the Taliban, and served as an important base for the Taliban insurgency . In 2017, Tora Bora was attacked and captured by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant – Khorasan Province (ISIL-K), though the Afghan National Army soon recaptured it. Gneiss Gneiss ( / n aɪ s / nice )

846-453: A new compound in the village of Chak Shah Muhammad , a wealthy suburb of Bilal Town near Abbottabad on 6 January 2006. It was reported that in 2007, U.S. intelligence suspected bin Laden planned to meet with top Al-Qaeda and Taliban commanders at Tora Bora prior to the launch of a possible attack on Europe or the United States. Both the British and American press published detailed plans of

940-622: A severe problem. The Afghan Army's casualties were as high as 50–60,000 soldiers and another 50,000 soldiers deserted the Army. The Afghan Army's defection rate was about 10,000 soldiers per year between 1980 and 1989; the average deserters left the Afghan Army after the first five months. Local militias were also important to the Najibullah regime's security efforts. From 1988 several new divisions were formed from former Regional Forces/militias' formations:

1034-583: A three-star level multi-national command headquartered in downtown Kabul . On the Afghan side, by 2011 all training and education in the Army was run by Afghan National Army Training Command , a two-star command which reported directly to the Chief of the General Staff. All training centers and military schools were under this command. Individual basic training was conducted primarily by Afghan instructors and staff at

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1128-543: A variety of military professions. NMAA's first cadet class entered its second academic year in spring 2006. A contingent of US and Turkish instructors jointly mentored the NMAA faculty and staff. The Command and General Staff College, located in southern Kabul, prepared mid-level ANA officers to serve on brigade and corps staffs. France established the CGSC in early 2004, and a cadre of French Army instructors continued to oversee operations at

1222-454: Is a common and widely distributed type of metamorphic rock . It is formed by high-temperature and high-pressure metamorphic processes acting on formations composed of igneous or sedimentary rocks . This rock is formed under pressures anywhere from 2 to 15 kbar, sometimes even more, and temperatures over 300 °C (572 °F). Gneiss nearly always shows a banded texture characterized by alternating darker and lighter colored bands and without

1316-475: Is a gneiss resulting from metamorphism of granite, which contains characteristic elliptic or lenticular shear-bound grains ( porphyroclasts ), normally feldspar , surrounded by finer grained material. The finer grained material deforms around the more resistant feldspar grains to produce this texture. Migmatite is a gneiss consisting of two or more distinct rock types, one of which has the appearance of an ordinary gneiss (the mesosome ), and another of which has

1410-479: Is a metamorphic rock composed of mineral grains easily seen with the unaided eye, which form obvious compositional layers, but which has only a weak tendency to fracture along these layers. In Europe, the term has been more widely applied to any coarse, mica -poor, high-grade metamorphic rock. The British Geological Survey (BGS) and the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) both use gneiss as

1504-518: Is called gneissic banding. The darker bands have relatively more mafic minerals (those containing more magnesium and iron ). The lighter bands contain relatively more felsic minerals (minerals such as feldspar or quartz , which contain more of the lighter elements, such as aluminium , sodium , and potassium ). The banding is developed at high temperature when the rock is more strongly compressed in one direction than in other directions ( nonhydrostatic stress ). The bands develop perpendicular to

1598-449: Is classified as schist, while metamorphic rock devoid of schistosity is called a granofels . Gneisses that are metamorphosed igneous rocks or their equivalent are termed granite gneisses, diorite gneisses, and so forth. Gneiss rocks may also be named after a characteristic component such as garnet gneiss, biotite gneiss, albite gneiss, and so forth. Orthogneiss designates a gneiss derived from an igneous rock , and paragneiss

1692-510: Is one from a sedimentary rock . Both the BGS and the IUGS use gneissose to describe rocks with the texture of gneiss, though gneissic also remains in common use. For example, a gneissose metagranite or a gneissic metagranite both mean a granite that has been metamorphosed and thereby acquired gneissose texture. The minerals in gneiss are arranged into layers that appear as bands in cross section. This

1786-604: Is probably derived from the Middle High German noun gneist "spark" (so called because the rock glitters). Gneiss is used as a building material, such as the Facoidal gneiss. It's used extensively in Rio de Janeiro . Gneiss has also been used as construction aggregate for asphalt pavement . Afghan National Army The Islamic National Army ( Pashto : اسلامي ملي اردو , Islāmī Milli Urdu ), also referred to as

1880-506: Is subjected to extreme temperature and pressure and is composed of alternating layers of sandstone (lighter) and shale (darker), which is metamorphosed into bands of quartzite and mica. Another cause of banding is "metamorphic differentiation", which separates different materials into different layers through chemical reactions, a process not fully understood. Augen gneiss , from the German : Augen [ˈaʊɡən] , meaning "eyes",

1974-543: The 53rd Infantry Division – the "Jowzyani militia" of Abdul Rashid Dostum raised from Sheberghan , the 55th , 80th, 93rd, 94th, 95th, and 96th, plus, possibly, a division in Lashkar Gah . As compensation for the withdrawal of Soviet troops in 1989, the USSR agreed to deliver sophisticated weapons to the government, among which were large quantities of Scud surface-to-surface missiles . The first 500 were transferred during

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2068-596: The Bonn Conference on Afghanistan in early December 2001, President Hamid Karzai issued a decree reestablishing a unified army, the Afghan National Army. The decree set a size target of 70,000 (by 2009) and laid out the planned army structure. There had been significant disagreement over the size of the army that was needed. A Ministry of Defense -issued paper said that at least 200,000 active troops were needed. The Afghan Ministry of Defence loudly objected to

2162-753: The First and Second World Wars . From the 1960s to the early 1990s, the Afghan Army was equipped by the Soviet Union . After the resignation of President Najibullah in 1992, the army effectively dissolved. In 1996 the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (Taliban regime) took power, creating their own army, which lasted until the United States invasion of Afghanistan in October–November 2001. By 2016, most of Afghanistan came under government control. However over

2256-526: The Herat uprising broke out. The 17th Division was detailed by the regime to put down the rebellion, but this proved a mistake, as there were few Khalqi faction soldiers in the division and instead it mutinied and joined the uprising. Forces from Kabul had to be dispatched to suppress the rebellion. Gradually the Army's three armoured divisions and now sixteen infantry divisions dropped in size to on average around 2,500 strong, quarter strength, by 1985. One of

2350-674: The Islamic Emirate Army and the Afghan Army , is the land force branch of the Afghan Armed Forces . The roots of an army in Afghanistan can be traced back to the early 18th century when the Hotak dynasty was established in Kandahar followed by Ahmad Shah Durrani 's rise to power. It was reorganized in 1880 during Emir Abdur Rahman Khan 's reign. Afghanistan remained neutral during

2444-526: The Jezail . At the outbreak of the Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878–80), Ali Ahmad Jalali cites sources saying that the regular army was about 50,000 strong and consisted of 62 infantry and 16 cavalry regiments, with 324 guns mostly organized in horse and mountain artillery batteries. Jalali writes that '..although Amir Shir Ali Khan (1863–78) is widely credited for founding the modern Afghan Army, it

2538-546: The Kabul Military Training Center , situated on the eastern edge of Kabul. The United States Department of Defense assisted in basic and advanced training of enlisted recruits, and also ran the Drill Instructor School which ran basic training courses for training NCOs. Basic training had been expanded to include required literacy courses for illiterate recruits. A French Army advisory team oversaw

2632-628: The Persian Safavid Empire at the Battle of Gulnabad in 1722. When Ahmad Shah Durrani formed the Durrani Empire in 1747, in general, tribes were responsible for providing troops to the king. The only national army that existed during Ahmad Shah's time consisted of small groups that functioned as royal bodyguards. The Afghan Army fought a number of battles in the Punjab region of India during

2726-635: The platoon , toli (company) and kandak (battalion) levels to certify them ready for field operations. In the Regional Corps, Coalition Embedded Training Teams continued to mentor the kandak's leadership, and advised them in the areas of intelligence, communications, fire support, logistics and infantry tactics. During the ISAF era, advisers in the US Embedded Training Teams and NATO Operational Mentor and Liaison Teams acted as liaisons between

2820-618: The 19th century. One of the famous battles was the 1761 Battle of Panipat in which the Afghan army decisively defeated the Hindu Maratha Empire . The Afghans then fought with the Sikh Empire , until finally, the Sikh Marshal Hari Singh Nalwa died and Sikh conquests stopped. In 1839, the British successfully invaded Afghanistan and installed the exiled Shah Shujah Durrani into power. Their occupation of Afghanistan

2914-754: The 38th Commando Brigade during the Second Battle of Zhawar in Paktika Province in May 1983. After sustaining heavy casualties the commando brigades were turned into battalions. Most soldiers were recruited for a three-year term, later extended to four-year terms in 1984. The Afghan Army 1978 After the PDPA seizure of power, desertions swept the force, affecting the loyalty and moral values of soldiers. There were purges on patriotic junior and senior officers, and upper class Afghan aristocrats in society. On 15 March 1979,

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3008-616: The AFPS story as the 203 Corps , was to have an initial force of 200 soldiers. Kandahar's command was the first activated, followed by Gardez and Mazar-e-Sharif. The Herat command was seemingly activated on 28 September. The next year, the ANA's numbers grew to around 20,000 soldiers, most of which were trained by the United States Army. In the meantime, the United States Army Corps of Engineers started building new military camps for

3102-526: The Afghan Army and coalition forces. The teams coordinated planning and ensured that ANA units received U.S./Coalition support. Formal education and professional development was conducted at two main ANATC schools, both in Kabul. The National Military Academy of Afghanistan , located near the Kabul International Airport , was a four-year military university which produced degree second lieutenants in

3196-495: The Afghan Army's ability to use their ballistic missiles. On 24 April 1992, the mujahideen forces of Ahmad Shah Massoud ( Jamiat-e Islami ) captured the main Scud stockpile at Afshar, Kabul , belonging to the 99th Missile Brigade . Shia Hazara groups, such as Harakat-e Islami , additionally gained Scud missile launchers. As the government collapsed, the few remaining Scuds and their transporter erector launchers were divided among

3290-448: The Afghan National Army manpower were made up of ghost soldiers . Following the withdrawal of U.S. and allied troops from Afghanistan in the summer of 2021, in the face of a rapid Taliban offensive , the Afghan National Army largely disintegrated. Following the escape of President Ashraf Ghani and the fall of Kabul, remaining ANA soldiers either deserted their posts or surrendered to the Taliban. Some ANA remnants reportedly joined

3384-441: The Army initially received $ 30 a month during training and $ 50 a month upon graduation, though the basic pay for trained soldiers later rose to $ 165. This starting salary increased to $ 230 a month in an area with moderate security issues and to $ 240 in those provinces where there was heavy fighting. About 95% of the men and women who served in the military were paid by electronic funds transfer . Special biometrics were used during

3478-660: The Army were made by King Amanullah Khan in the early 20th century just before the Third Anglo-Afghan War . King Amanullah fought against the British in 1919, resulting in Afghanistan becoming fully independent after the Treaty of Rawalpindi was signed. It appears from reports of Naib Sular Abdur Rahim's career that a Cavalry Division was in existence in the 1920s, with him being posted to the division in Herat Province in 1913 and Mazar-i-Sharif after 1927. A military academy

3572-831: The Central Army Corps around Kabul. In addition, there were divisions with strong links to the centre in Kabul. These included the 1st in Kabul, 27th in Qalat, 31st in Kabul, 34th in Bamiyan (4th Corps), 36th in Logar, 41st in Ghor, 42nd in Wardak, 71st in Farah, and 100th in Laghman. The International Crisis Group wrote: New divisions and even army corps were created to recognise factional realities or undermine

3666-575: The Officer Candidate School (OCS). OCS candidates were young men with little or no military experience. The British Army also conducted initial and advanced Non-Commissioned Officer training as well in a separate NCO Training Brigade. The Canadian Forces supervised the Combined Training Exercise portion of initial military training, where trainee soldiers, NCOs, and officers were brought together in field training exercises at

3760-530: The PDPA garrison at Kunduz surrendered to local mujahideen commanders. The 54th Division base at Kunduz was handed over to the overall military leader of Ittehad in the area, Amir Chughay. Dostum and commanders loyal to him formed Junbesh I-Melli, the National Islamic Movement of Afghanistan . The NIM grouped the former regime's 18th, 20th, 53rd, 54th, and 80th Divisions, plus several brigades. By mid-1994 there were two parallel 6th Corps operating in

3854-439: The PDPA government. As a result, the 26th Airborne Battalion was reformed and turned into the 37th Commando Battalion. In the same year, the 81st Artillery Regiment were given airborne training and converted into the 38th Commando Battalion. The Commando Brigades were, in contrast, considered reliable and were used as mobile strike forces until they sustained excessive casualties. Insurgents ambushed and inflicted heavy casualties on

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3948-524: The Pashto language experienced difficulty because instruction was usually given through interpreters who spoke Dari. The Afghan New Beginnings Programme (ANBP) was launched on 6 April 2003 and begin disarmament of former Army personnel in October 2003. In March 2004, fighting between two local militias took place in the western Afghan city of Herat . It was reported that Mirwais Sadiq (son of warlord Ismail Khan)

4042-466: The Soviet advisors arrived. By the late 1950s, Azimi describes three corps, each with a number of divisions, along the eastern border with Pakistan and several independent divisions. In a 1960s manual titled “Royalist Regulations” for the Royal Afghan Army, there were illustrations of numerous branch insignias, denoting the specialities and the role of the soldier wearing them. These include: In

4136-627: The Supreme Court and other courts across the country to curtail the rights of journalists, civic society activists, and even political candidates. He also controls militias, including forces recognized as the 10th Division of the Afghan army, which intimidate and abuse Afghans even inside Kabul. We ask that you express public opposition to Sayyaf's activities, explicitly state your opposition to such misuse of unofficial authority, and move expeditiously to disarm and demobilize armed forces associated with Ittihad-i Islami and other unofficial forces." During

4230-472: The Taliban government through the United States invasion of Afghanistan in late 2001, private armies loyal to warlords gained more and more influence. In mid-2001, Ali Ahmed Jalali wrote: The army (as a state institution, organized, armed, and commanded by the state) does not exist in Afghanistan today. Neither the Taliban-led "Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan" nor the "Islamic State of Afghanistan" headed by

4324-595: The US-led Operation Warrior Sweep , marking the first major combat operation for Afghan troops. Initial recruiting problems lay in the lack of cooperation from regional warlords and inconsistent international support. The problem of desertion dogged the force from the outset: in the summer of 2003, the desertion rate was estimated to be 10% and in mid-March 2004, an estimate suggested that 3,000 soldiers had deserted. Some recruits were under 18 years of age and many could not read or write. Recruits who only spoke

4418-441: The absence of a top political layer capable of controlling individual and group violence. ... Although both sides identify their units with military formations of the old regime, there is hardly any organizational or professional continuity from the past. But these units really exist in name only ... [i]n fact only their military bases still exist, accommodating and supporting an assortment of militia groups. Formations in existence by

4512-453: The amphibolite or granulite facies. These form most of the exposed rock in Archean cratons . Gneiss domes are common in orogenic belts (regions of mountain formation). They consist of a dome of gneiss intruded by younger granite and migmatite and mantled with sedimentary rock. These have been interpreted as a geologic record of two distinct mountain-forming events, with the first producing

4606-585: The anti-Taliban National Resistance Front of Afghanistan in the Panjshir Valley (see Republican insurgency in Afghanistan ). Historically, Afghans have served in the army of the Ghaznavids (963–c.1187), Ghurids (1148–1215), Delhi Sultanate (1206–1527), and the Mughals (1526–1858). The Afghan Army traces its origin to the early 18th century when the Hotak dynasty rose to power in Kandahar and defeated

4700-538: The appearance of an intrusive rock such pegmatite , aplite , or granite the ( leucosome ). The rock may also contain a melanosome of mafic rock complementary to the leucosome. Migmatites are often interpreted as rock that has been partially melted, with the leucosome representing the silica-rich melt, the melanosome the residual solid rock left after partial melting, and the mesosome the original rock that has not yet experienced partial melting. Gneisses are characteristic of areas of regional metamorphism that reaches

4794-426: The army corps. A year later, in 1981, the 203rd Separate Spetsnaz Battalion was formed (alongside the 212th, 230th and 211th) under the 1st Central Army Corps in Kabul and subordinated to KhAD-e Nezami (military intelligence). The 203rd Battalion reportedly worked alongside the Spetsnaz GRU and the Soviet Border Troops , as well as with the Soviet Airborne Forces . The army lost much of its strength during

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4888-438: The army included three armored divisions; infantry divisions averaging 4,500 to 8,000 men each; “two mountain infantry brigades, one artillery brigade, a guards regiment (for palace protection), three artillery regiments, two commando regiments, and a parachute battalion, which was largely grounded. All the formations were under the control of three corps level headquarters. All but three infantry divisions were facing Pakistan along

4982-422: The base. When shown a plan during an NBC interview, Rumsfeld said, "This is serious business; there's not one of those, there are many of those". An elaborate military operation was planned which included deployment of the CIA-US Special Operations Forces team with laser markers to guide non-stop heavy air strikes during 72 hours. When Tora Bora was eventually captured by the U.S. and Afghan troops, no traces of

5076-416: The bottom of the deck in the other direction. These forces stretch out the rock like a plastic , and the original material is spread out into sheets. Per the polar decomposition theorem , the deformation produced by such shearing force is equivalent to rotation of the rock combined with shortening in one direction and extension in another. Some banding is formed from original rock material (protolith) that

5170-522: The caves: Again, with the caves, they weren't these crazy mazes or labyrinths of caves that they described. Most of them were natural caves. Some were supported with some pieces of wood maybe about the size of a 10-foot by 24-foot room, at the largest. They weren't real big. I know they made a spectacle out of that, and how are we going to be able to get into them? We worried about that too, because we see all these reports. Then it turns out, when you actually go up there, there's really just small bunkers , and

5264-399: The country and also had armored riverboats in their inventory, as seen in a parade in Kabul . In February–March 1957, the first group of Soviet military specialists (about 10, including interpreters) was sent to Kabul to train Afghan officers and non-commissioned officers. At the time, there seems to have been significant Turkish influence in the Afghan Armed Forces, which waned quickly after

5358-402: The direction of greatest compression, also called the shortening direction, as platy minerals are rotated or recrystallized into parallel layers. A common cause of nonhydrodynamic stress is the subjection of the protolith (the original rock material that undergoes metamorphism) to extreme shearing force, a sliding force similar to the pushing of the top of a deck of cards in one direction, and

5452-444: The early 1970s, Soviet military assistance was increased. The number of Soviet military specialists increased from 1,500 in 1973 to 5,000 by April 1978. The senior Soviet specialist at this time (from 29 November 1972 until 11 December 1975) was a Major General I.S. Bondarets (И.С. Бондарец), and from 1975 to 1978, the senior Soviet military adviser was Major General L.N. Gorelov. Before the Saur Revolution in 1978, according to Jacobs,

5546-401: The early months of 1989, and soon proved to be extremely useful, a critical asset. During the mujahideen attack against Jalalabad , between March and June 1989, three firing batteries manned by Afghan crews advised by Soviets fired approximately 438 missiles. Soon Scuds were in use in all the heavily contested areas of Afghanistan. After January 1992, the Soviet advisors were withdrawn, reducing

5640-530: The early stages of PDPA rule. One of the main reasons for the small size was that the Soviet military were afraid the Afghan army would defect en masse to the enemy if total personnel increased. There were several sympathisers of the mujahideen within the military. Even so, there were several elite units under the command of the Afghan army, for instance, the 26th Airborne Battalion, 444th, 37th and 38th Commando Brigades . The 26th Airborne Battalion proved politically unreliable, and in 1979, they revolted against

5734-458: The end of 2002 included the 1st Army Corps ( Nangarhar ), 2nd Army Corps ( Kandahar , dominated by Gul Agha Sherzai ), 3rd Army Corps ( Paktia , where the US allegedly attempted to impose Atiqullah Ludin as commander), 4th Army Corps ( Herat , dominated by Ismail Khan ), 6th Army Corps at Kunduz, 7th Army Corps (under Atta Muhammad Nur at Balkh ), 8th Army Corps (at Jowzjan , dominated by Dostum's National Islamic Movement of Afghanistan ) and

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5828-412: The fast-growing army. In 2003, the United States issued guidelines to ensure the army's ethnic balance. By late 2012, the ANA was composed of 43% Pashtuns , 32% Tajiks , 12% Hazaras , 8% Uzbeks , and the rest were smaller ethnic groups of Afghanistan . However, the army did not track the actual ethnic composition of the officer corps. There were no quotas for the enlisted soldiers. By March 2011,

5922-474: The first female general in the Afghan National Army in August 2002. The National Military Academy of Afghanistan , a West Point analogue and part of the Marshal Fahim National Defense University based in Qargha Garrison, was also established to produce officers. The NMAA administered a four-year military and civil training programme with the aim of preparing the prospective officer for the long-term. The NMAA taught four major foreign languages, vital to developing

6016-412: The first series of defections occurred in the 9th Division , which, Urban wrote, defected by brigades in response to the Soviet intervention. It lost its 5th Brigade at Asmar in August 1979 and its 30th Mountain Brigade in 1980. After Soviet advisors arrived in 1977, they inspired a number of adaptations and reorganisations. In April 1982, the 7th Division was moved from the capital. The division, which

6110-430: The fortified area of the Mujahideen Tora Bora. July 22–29, 1983 - operation in Tora-Bora of the 66th motorized rifle brigade. The base at Tora Bora was developed as a CIA-financed complex built for the Mujahideen following the 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan , and has been described by the western media as an "impregnable cave fortress" housing 2,000 men complete with a hospital, a hydroelectric power plant, offices,

6204-436: The granite basement and the second deforming and melting this basement to produce the domes. However, some gneiss domes may actually be the cores of metamorphic core complexes , regions of the deep crust brought to the surface and exposed during extension of the Earth's crust . The word gneiss has been used in English since at least 1757. It is borrowed from the German word Gneis , formerly also spelled Gneiss , which

6298-521: The middle amphibolite to granulite metamorphic facies . In other words, the rock was metamorphosed at a temperature in excess of 600 °C (1,112 °F) at pressures between about 2 to 24 kbar . Many different varieties of rock can be metamorphosed to gneiss, so geologists are careful to add descriptions of the color and mineral composition to the name of any gneiss, such as garnet-biotite paragneiss or grayish-pink orthogneiss . Continental shields are regions of exposed ancient rock that make up

6392-407: The next few years the government slowly lost territory to the Taliban and eventually collapsed, with Kabul falling to the Taliban in 2021. The majority of training of the ANA was undertaken in the Kabul Military Training Centre . In 2019, the ANA had approximately 180,000 soldiers out of an authorized strength of 195,000. Despite its significant manpower on paper, in reality a significant portion of

6486-406: The north. Dostum's 6th Corps was based at Pul-i-Khumri and had three divisions. The Defence Ministry of the Kabul government's 6th Corps was based at Kunduz and also had three divisions, two sharing numbers with formations in Dostum's corps. By 1995 Masoud controlled three corps commands: the Central Corps at Kabul, the best organised with a strength of 15–20,000, the 5th Corps at Herat covering

6580-413: The ousted President Rabbani has the political legitimacy or administrative efficiency of a state. The militia formations they command are composed of odd assortments of armed groups with varying level of loyalties, political commitment, professional skills, and organizational integrity. Many of them feel free to switch sides, shift loyalties, and join or leave the group spontaneously. The country suffers from

6674-417: The power base of individual commanders, often without regard to the troop levels normally associated with such units. For example, the ministry in July 2002 recognised a 25th Division in Khost province, formed by the Karzai-appointed governor, Hakim Taniwal , to unseat a local warlord, Padshah Khan Zadran, who was then occupying the governor's residence. At its inception, however, the division had only 700 men –

6768-548: The regime of Mohammad Daoud , who was killed the next day, along with most of his family. On 1 May, Taraki became President , Prime Minister and General Secretary of the PDPA. The country was then renamed the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (DRA), and the PDPA government lasted until April 1992. In 1980, under President Babrak Karmal , the Ministry of Defense drafted plans to form three Spetsnaz battalions for each of

6862-539: The registration of each soldier. Task Force Phoenix was the initial U.S. and allied force training organisation in 2002. This program was formalized in April 2003, based near the Kabul Military Training Center . Coalition efforts were initially overseen by OMC-A, then Office of Security Cooperation-Afghanistan, then from 2006 to 2009, by the Combined Security Transition Command – Afghanistan (CSTC-A),

6956-471: The relationship between the ANA and foreign armies. The U.S. Army's major objectives for the ANA in October 2002 were: The first deployment outside Kabul was made by 3rd Kandak ANA to Paktika Province , including Orgun , in January 2003. By January 2003 just over 1,700 soldiers in five Kandaks ( battalions ) had completed the 10-week training course, and by mid-2003 a total of 4,000 troops had been trained. Approximately 1,000 ANA soldiers were deployed in

7050-533: The rival factions fighting for power. However, the missile operators managed to successfully flee and a lack of trained personnel prevented a sustained use of such weapons, and, between April 1992 and 1996, only 44 Scuds were fired in Afghanistan. In spring 1992, the Afghan Army consisted of five corps – 1st Corps at Jalalabad, 2nd at Kandahar, 3rd Corps at Gardez, 4th Corps at Herat, and 6th Corps at Kunduz – as well as five smaller operations groups, including one at Charikar , which had been 5th Corps until it

7144-469: The situation under control. In addition to the fighting units, establishment of regional structures began when four of the five planned corps commanders and some of their staff were appointed on 1 September 2004. The first regional command was established in Kandahar on 19 September; the second at Gardez on 22 September, with commands at Mazar-i-Sharif and Herat planned. The Gardez command, also referred to in

7238-610: The size of a battalion. The 93rd Division of the AMF, which Malkasian's The American War in Afghanistan (2021) describes as "1,200 strong" was later reported in southern Helmand. Even by December 2004 Human Rights Watch was still saying in an open letter to Karzai that: " Abdul Rabb al-Rasul Sayyaf , the head of the Ittihad-i Islami faction and the Daw'at-e Islami party [should be curbed]. Sayyaf has no government post but has used his power over

7332-558: The smaller, volunteer, nature of the new army, a change from the previous usage of conscripts. The US also blocked the new government from using the army to pressure Pakistan. The first new Afghan kandak (battalion) was trained by British Army personnel of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF), becoming 1st Battalion, Afghan National Guard. Yet while the British troops provided high quality training, they were few in number. After some consideration, it

7426-596: The stable cores of continents. The rock exposed in the oldest regions of shields, which is of Archean age (over 2500 million years old), mostly belong to granite-greenstone belts. The greenstone belts contain metavolcanic and metasedimentary rock that has undergone a relatively mild grade of metamorphism, at temperatures of 350–500 °C (662–932 °F) and pressures of 200–500 MPa (2,000–5,000 bar). The greenstone belts are surrounded by high-grade gneiss terrains showing highly deformed low-pressure, high-temperature (over 500 °C (932 °F)) metamorphism to

7520-441: The supposed "fortress" were found despite painstaking searches in the surrounding areas. Tora Bora turned out to be a system of small natural caves housing, at most, 200 fighters. While arms and ammunition stores were found, there were no traces of the advanced facilities claimed to exist. In a 2002 interview with by PBS 's Frontline , a Staff Sergeant from the U.S. Special Forces Operational Detachment Alpha (ODA) 572 described

7614-483: The training of officers for staff and platoon or toli (company) command in a combined commissioning/infantry officer training unit called the Officer Training Brigade (OTB). OTB candidates in the platoon and company command courses were usually former militia and mujaheddin leaders with various levels of military experience. The United Kingdom also conducted initial infantry officer training and commissioning at

7708-597: The two countries in September 1961. In 1953, Lieutenant General Mohammed Daoud Khan , cousin of the King who had previously served as Minister of Defence, was transferred from command of the Central Corps in Kabul to become Prime Minister of Afghanistan . The Central Corps was headquartered at Amanullah's Darulaman Palace. On the opening day of Parliament in October 1965, a violent student demonstration among which Babrak Karmal

7802-597: The west, and the 6th Corps at Kunduz covering the northeast. By 1996 the Taliban Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan seized the country, aiming to control it by Islamic Sharia law . The Taliban's army and commanders placed emphasis on simplicity; some were secretly trained by the Pakistan Inter-Services Intelligence and Pakistani Armed Forces around the Durand Line . After the removal of

7896-519: Was assassinated in unclear circumstances. Thereafter a bigger conflict began that resulted in the death of up to 100 people. The battle was between troops of Ismail Khan and Abdul Zahir Nayebzada, a senior local military commander blamed for the death of Sadiq. Nayebzada commanded the 17th Herat Division of the Afghan Militia Forces' 4th Corps . In response to the fighting, about 1,500 newly trained ANA soldiers were sent to Herat in order to bring

7990-408: Was at the forefront forced Zahir Shah 's new prime minister Yousef to resign. Two students were killed when the new corps commander, General Abdul Wali, sent in troops to restore order. From the 1960s to the early 1990s, the Afghan Army received training and equipment mostly from the Soviet Union . The Royal Afghan Army was also photographed wearing white “snegurochka” winter suits in snowy areas of

8084-462: Was challenged after Dost Mohammad's son, Wazir Akbar Khan and the forces he led revolted against the occupying British. By October 1841 disaffected Afghan tribes were flocking to the support of Wazir Akbar Khan in Bamian. The success of Akbar Khan's uprising led to the 1842 retreat from Kabul where the Afghan army decimated British forces, thanks to effective use of the rugged terrain and weapons such as

8178-484: Was commanded by Khalqi Major General Zia-Ud-Din, had its depleted combat resources spread out along the Kabul-Kandahar highway. In 1984–1985, all infantry divisions were restructured to a common design. In 1985 Army units were relieved of security duties, making more available for combat operations. During the 1980s Soviet–Afghan War , the Army fought against the mujahideen rebel groups. Deserters or defectors became

8272-505: Was decided that the United States might be able to provide the training. Thus follow-on kandaks were recruited and trained by 1st Battalion, 3rd Special Forces Group . 3rd SFG built the training facilities and ranges for early use, using a Soviet built facility on the eastern side of Kabul, near the then ISAF headquarters. Recruiting and training began in May 2002, with a difficult but successful recruitment process of bringing hundreds of new recruits in from all parts of Afghanistan. Training

8366-542: Was expanded during King Zahir Shah 's reign, starting in 1933. In 1934, soldiers of the Royal Afghan Army were also taught the Japanese martial art of Jujutsu by His Excellency Abdullah Khan, at the royal army school. From 1949–1950 to 1961, Afghanistan-Pakistan skirmishes took place along the frontier, culminating in fighting in Bajaur Agency in September 1960. This led to a breakoff in diplomatic relations between

8460-476: Was in existence by Amanullah's reign. The Army fought the Soviet Union in the Urtatagai conflict (1925–1926) over a border island, following earlier fighting in 1913. In 1927 Afghanistan invited Turkey to send a military advisory mission, resulting in a strengthening of Afghan divisions and brigades, "augmenting each echelon headquarters with supporting staff;" and "regularizing the officer corps". The Afghan Army

8554-464: Was initially done in Pashto and Dari (Persian dialect) and some Arabic due to the very diverse ethnicities. The original US target in April 2002 was that of 12,000 men trained by April 2003, but it was quickly realised that this was too ambitious, and the requirement reduced to only 9,000, to be ready by November 2003. The first female Afghan parachutist Khatol Mohammadzai , trained during the 1980s, became

8648-408: Was only under Abdur Rahman that it became a viable and effective institution.' The Library of Congress Country Study for Afghanistan states that when Abdur Rahman came to the throne circa 1880: "..the army was virtually nonexistent. With the assistance of a liberal financial loan from the British, plus their aid in the form of weapons, ammunition, and other military supplies, [Abdur Rahman] began

8742-438: Was reduced in status. 1st, 2nd, and 3rd Corps, and the operations groups at Sarobi and Khost , nearly completely disintegrated in 1992. Formations in and around Kabul joined different mujahideen militias while forces in the north and west remained intact for a longer period. Forces in the north and west were taken over by three major commanders: Ismael Khan , Ahmed Shah Masoud , and Abdul Rashid Dostam . On 18 April 1992,

8836-557: Was still a little-known, but already covered with a veil of mystery, the base of the Dushmans. Only later will it surpass the Panjshir Valley in its glory and fame, in the number of assaults and destruction”. June 18–19, 1981 - in the province of Nangarhar, 85 km south of Jalalabad, in the area of the Afghan-Pakistani border, units of the Soviet 66th motorized rifle brigade and part of the Afghan 11th Jalalabad infantry division take

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