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79-474: The Tongass has been recognized by some as the largest, wettest, and wildest of the United States National Forests , with "soaring mountain peaks, narrow fjords, lush woods, and more than 1000 named islands." The Tongass encompasses most of Southeast Alaska, and was created in 1907 by President Theodore Roosevelt . With high concentrations of grizzly bears and bald eagles , this forest provides

158-566: A century. Cuprammonium rayon has properties similar to viscose; however, during its production, the cellulose is combined with copper and ammonia ( Schweizer's reagent ). Due to the detrimental environmental effects of this production method, cuprammonium rayon is no longer being produced in the United States . The process has been described as obsolete, but cuprammonium rayon is still made by one company in Japan. Tetraamminecopper(II) sulfate

237-409: A discrepancy in the ability to identify natural fibers in a marine environment via Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy . Later research of oceanic microfibers instead found cotton being the most frequent match (50% of all fibers), followed by other cellulosic fibers at 29.5% (e.g., rayon/viscose, linen, jute, kenaf, hemp, etc.). Further analysis of the specific contribution of rayon to ocean fibers

316-661: A haven for a diversity of wildlife. For the commercially important industry of salmon fishing, the Tongass plays an important role as well, as 90% of salmon in Southeast Alaska spawn within the territory of the Tongass National Forest . It has become a growing destination for passing tourists, and supports a traditional subsistence lifestyle for many communities. John Muir , the founder of the Sierra Club , and by many seen as

395-820: A highly viscous solution. Cross and Bevan took out British Patent No. 8,700, "Improvements in Dissolving Cellulose and Allied Compounds" in May, 1892. In 1893, they formed the Viscose Syndicate to grant licences and, in 1896, formed the British Viscoid Co. Ltd. The first commercial viscose rayon was produced by the UK company Courtaulds Fibres in November 1905. Courtaulds formed an American division, American Viscose (later known as Avtex Fibers), to produce their formulation in

474-523: A large reduction in suitable habitat of the Sitka black-tailed deer , an important resource for subsistence hunting. Projections for the forest calculated prior to the TTRA, estimated that the timber harvests of the Tongass, and its consequential impacts on future employment, did not yield promising results for the logging industry. Disruptions were forecasted to local communities and a gross decline in profitable timber if

553-551: A less environmentally-harmful process for making Rayon led to the development of the lyocell method for producing Rayon. The lyocell process was developed in 1972 by a team at the now defunct American Enka fibers facility at Enka, North Carolina . In 2003, the American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists (AATCC) awarded Neal E. Franks their Henry E. Millson Award for Invention for lyocell. In 1966–1968, D. L. Johnson of Eastman Kodak Inc. studied NMMO solutions. In

632-502: A pilot plant in 1990, and commercial production in 1997, with 12 metric tonnes/year made in a plant in Heiligenkreuz im Lafnitztal , Austria. When an explosion hit the plant in 2003 it was producing 20,000 tonnes/year, and planning to double capacity by the end of the year. In 2004 Lenzing was producing 40,000 tons [sic, probably metric tonnes]. In 1998, Lenzing and Courtaulds reached a patent dispute settlement. In 1998 Courtaulds

711-607: A profit from the Tongass timber, due to the subsidies provided by the federal government. The existence of the TTRA is in part due to specific Southeast Alaskans lobbying Congress in Washington D.C. Another important player in the creation of the TTRA were local conservation organizations including the Sitka Conservation Society and the Southeast Alaska Conservation Council (SEACC). The legislation

790-408: A soft, silky feel. They are sometimes identified by the trade name Modal. Modal is used alone or with other fibers (often cotton or spandex ) in clothing and household items like pajamas, underwear, bathrobes, towels, and bedsheets. Modal can be tumble-dried without damage. The fabric has been known to pill less than cotton due to fiber properties and lower surface friction. The trademarked Modal

869-414: A solvent, N-methyl morpholine N-oxide (NMMO). The process starts with cellulose and involves dry jet-wet spinning. It was developed at the now defunct American Enka Company and Courtaulds Fibres. Lenzing's Tencel is an example of a lyocell fiber. Unlike the viscose process, the lycocell process does not use highly toxic carbon disulfide. "Lyocell" has become a genericized trademark, used to refer to

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948-424: A starting material. The use of woody sources of cellulose makes viscose cheaper, so it was traditionally used on a larger scale than the other methods. On the other hand, the original viscose process generates large amounts of contaminated wastewater. Newer technologies use less water and have improved the quality of the wastewater. The raw material for viscose is primarily wood pulp (sometimes bamboo pulp ), which

1027-399: A step towards rational management of the Tongass National Forest . The intention of the legislation was aimed at safeguarding clean water and riparian habitats, protecting the old-growth of the Tongass National Forest , and reducing the economic strain on federal funding through the 4.5 billion board feet decadal guaranteed timber budget. Initially a large goal of the bill was to terminate

1106-435: A strategy to increase the population of Southeast Alaska by creating more employment opportunities. About half the timber harvest was used primarily to produce dissolvable pulp, a raw material used in the production of rayon and cellophane . These long-term contract holders pay a much lower stumpage fee for the Tongass timber, than standard businesses holding short-term timber contracts. The logging mills have been able to make

1185-480: A wide range of colors. Rayon fabrics are soft, smooth, cool, comfortable, and highly absorbent, but they do not always insulate body heat, making them ideal for use in hot and humid climates, although also making their "hand" (feel) cool and sometimes almost slimy to the touch. The durability and appearance retention of regular viscose rayons are low, especially when wet; also, rayon has the lowest elastic recovery of any fiber. However, HWM rayon (high-wet-modulus rayon)

1264-550: Is a semi-synthetic fiber , made from natural sources of regenerated cellulose , such as wood and related agricultural products. It has the same molecular structure as cellulose. Many types and grades of viscose fibers and films exist. Some imitate the feel and texture of natural fibers such as silk , wool , cotton , and linen . The types that resemble silk are often called artificial silk . It can be woven or knit to make textiles for clothing and other purposes. Rayon production involves solubilizing cellulose to allow turning

1343-408: Is also used as a solvent. The viscose process builds on the reaction of cellulose with a strong base, followed by treatment of that solution with carbon disulfide to give a xanthate derivative. The xanthate is then converted back to a cellulose fiber in a subsequent step. The viscose method can use wood as a source of cellulose, whereas other routes to rayon require lignin -free cellulose as

1422-477: Is chemically converted into a soluble compound. It is then dissolved and forced through a spinneret to produce filaments, which are chemically solidified, resulting in fibers of nearly pure cellulose. Unless the chemicals are handled carefully, workers can be seriously harmed by the carbon disulfide used to manufacture most rayon. To prepare viscose, pulp is treated with aqueous sodium hydroxide (typically 16–19% by mass ) to form " alkali cellulose ", which has

1501-437: Is emitted per kilogram of rayon produced. Control technologies have enabled improved collection of carbon disulfide and reuse of it, resulting in a lower emissions of carbon disulfide. These have not always been implemented in places where it was not legally required and profitable. Carbon disulfide is volatile and is lost before the rayon gets to the consumer; the rayon itself is basically pure cellulose . Studies from

1580-583: Is harvested, no adverse impacts will occur. This section intended to increase small business participation in the Tongass, in order to tackle the monopoly of the KPC and the APC in the timber industry. This section prohibited the construction of further road systems that would connect the logging road of Chichagof Island to Tenakee Springs by the Forest Service, aiming to preserve the quality of Tongass. Rather than cancel

1659-584: Is made by a slightly different solvent recovery process, and is considered a different fiber by the US FTC. Tencel lyocell was first produced commercially by Courtaulds' Grimsby plant in England. The process, which dissolves cellulose without a chemical reaction, was developed by Courtaulds Research. Birla Cellulose is also a volume manufacturer of rayon. They have plants located in India , Indonesia and China . Accordis

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1738-413: Is made by spinning beech-tree cellulose and is considered a more eco-friendly alternative to cotton, as the production process uses on average 10–20 times less water. In 2018, viscose fiber production in the world was approximately 5.8 million tons, and China was the largest producer with about 65% of total global production. Trade names are used within the rayon industry to label the type of rayon in

1817-576: Is much stronger and exhibits higher durability and appearance retention. Recommended care for regular viscose rayon is dry-cleaning only. HWM rayon can be machine-washed. Regular rayon has lengthwise lines called striations and its cross-section is an indented circular shape. The cross-sections of HWM and cupra rayon are rounder. Filament rayon yarns vary from 80 to 980 filaments per yarn and vary in size from 40 to 5000 denier . Staple fibers range from 1.5 to 15 denier and are mechanically or chemically crimped. Rayon fibers are naturally very bright, but

1896-401: Is produced from the ripened solutions by treatment with a mineral acid, such as sulfuric acid . In this step, the xanthate groups are hydrolyzed to regenerate cellulose and carbon disulfide: Aside from regenerated cellulose, acidification gives hydrogen sulfide (H 2 S), sulfur, and carbon disulfide. The thread made from the regenerated cellulose is washed to remove residual acid. The sulfur

1975-475: Is stretched as it is made, aligning the molecules along the fibers. Two forms are available: "polynosics" and "high wet modulus" (HWM). High-wet-modulus rayon is a modified version of viscose that is stronger when wet. It can be mercerized like cotton. HWM rayons are also known as "polynosic". Polynosic fibers are dimensionally stable and do not shrink or get pulled out of shape when wet like many rayons. They are also wear-resistant and strong while maintaining

2054-403: Is then removed by the addition of sodium sulfide solution, and impurities are oxidized by bleaching with sodium hypochlorite solution or hydrogen peroxide solution. Production begins with processed cellulose obtained from wood pulp and plant fibers. The cellulose content in the pulp should be around 87–97%. The steps: The lyocell process relies on dissolution of cellulose products in

2133-603: The National Forest Management Act of 1976... except as provided in subsection (d) of this section, the Secretary shall, to the extent consistent with providing for the multiple use and sustained yield of all renewable forest resources, seek to provide a supply of timber from the Tongass National Forest which (1) meets the annual market demand for timber from such forest and (2) meets the market demand from such forest for each planning cycle. This essentially subjects

2212-486: The National Park Service , extraction of natural resources from national forests is permitted, and in many cases encouraged. Forest products are the resources removed and harvested from national forests. They may be for commercial or personal use such as “lumber, paper, and firewood as well as 'special forest products' such as medicinal herbs, fungi, edible fruits and nuts, and other natural products”. However,

2291-600: The National Wilderness Preservation System under the Wilderness Act of 1964 . During the congressional negotiations concerning the TTRA, the House wanted to eliminate the designated decadal harvest levels, terminate the long-term contracts existing with the KPC and the APC, designate more of the Tongass to wilderness status, and provide increased protection to fisheries. The Senate were hesitant to endorse

2370-523: The Tongass National Forest . The second contract was between the Alaska Pulp Corporation (APC) and the United States, signed in 1956, authorizing the harvest of 4.975 billion board feet for the next fifty years. Both mills have been key to local economy, and were for a time the largest employer in Southeast Alaska. The funding by the United States government of the timber industry was intended as

2449-766: The Tongass National forest to the same laws and market demands as all other National Forests of the US - in the context of timber harvest, repealing the prior mandated harvest of 4.5 billion board feet per ten years and the guaranteed funding. This amends section 705 (d) of ANILCA , limiting the Forest Service from excessively harvesting old-growth timber. This amends section 705 (d) of ANILCA , which allowed leniency in designating which areas were to be open to timber harvest. In Stein v Barton, 740 F. Supp. 743 (D. Alaska 1990) fishermen got an injunction against logging within 100 feet of either side of salmon streams. Congress merely enacted

Tongass Timber Reform Act - Misplaced Pages Continue

2528-526: The Vereinigte Glanzstoff Fabriken AG in Oberbruch (near Aachen ). Improvement by J. P. Bemberg AG in 1904 made the artificial silk a product comparable to real silk. English chemist Charles Frederick Cross and his collaborators, Edward John Bevan and Clayton Beadle, patented their artificial silk in 1894. They named it "viscose" because its production involved the intermediacy of

2607-422: The firebrat —can eat rayon, but damage was found to be minor, potentially due to the heavy, slick texture of the tested rayon. Another study states that "artificial silk [...] [was] readily eaten" by the grey silverfish . A 2014 ocean survey found that rayon contributed to 56.9% of the total fibers found in deep ocean areas, the rest being polyester , polyamides , acetate and acrylic . A 2016 study found

2686-471: The grasslands , shrublands , and forest understory are grazed by sheep , cattle, and more recently, rising numbers of elk and mule deer due to loss of predators . Many ski resorts and summer resorts operate on leased land in national forests. National forests include 14 national monuments where resource extraction is restricted. Rayon Rayon , also called viscose and commercialised in some countries as sabra silk or cactus silk ,

2765-694: The 1930s show that 30% of American rayon workers experienced significant health impacts due to carbon disulfide exposure. Courtaulds worked hard to prevent this information being published in Britain. During the Second World War , political prisoners in Nazi Germany were made to work in appalling conditions at the Phrix rayon factory in Krefeld . Nazis used forced labour to produce rayon across occupied Europe. In

2844-502: The 1980s the patent was licensed by Akzo to Courtaulds and Lenzing. The fibre was developed by Courtaulds Fibres under the brand name "Tencel" in the 1980s. In 1982, a 100 kg/week pilot plant was built in Coventry, UK, and production was increased tenfold (to a ton/week) in 1984. In 1988, a 25 ton/week semi-commercial production line opened at the Grimsby, UK, pilot plant . The process

2923-410: The 50 year contracts with KPC and APC, the act has amendments that applied to the current contracts, consisting of nine specific reform directives. Seen by some as the "most significant piece of conservation law, the TTRA created 6 new areas of wilderness totalling 296,080 acres. This means that lands are closed to logging, road construction, mine development, and to is required to be managed as part of

3002-477: The Alaska Pulp Corporation located in Sitka , closed its doors due to unprofitable business circumstances, followed shortly by the Ketchikan Pulp Company in 1997 for similar reasons. United States National Forests In the United States , national forest is a classification of protected and managed federal lands that are largely forest and woodland areas. They are owned collectively by

3081-599: The American people through the federal government and managed by the United States Forest Service , a division of the United States Department of Agriculture . The U.S. Forest Service is also a forestry research organization which provides financial assistance to state and local forestry industry. There are 154 national forests in the United States. The Land Revision Act of 1891 , enacted during

3160-466: The Forest Service to identify, investigate, and protect cultural resources on lands it manages. The U.S. Forest Service also manages all of the United States national grasslands and nearly 50% of the United States national recreation areas . Land management of these areas focuses on conservation , timber harvesting , livestock grazing , watershed protection, wildlife , and recreation . Unlike national parks and other federal lands managed by

3239-455: The Forest Service to report to congress on the impacts of timber harvest on subsistence, wildlife and fisheries habitats, while also consulting on the status reports with the Southeast Alaska commercial fishing organizations. In response to credibility issue between the Forest Service and the public, the courts and the Congress, due to conviction from the Forest Service that no matter how much timber

Tongass Timber Reform Act - Misplaced Pages Continue

3318-456: The TTRA on the Tongass. After the TTRA's enactment, it appeared that timber production was still the main resource on which the Forest Service focused its management, prioritizing the sale of the Tongass forest to the mills with which it held its contracts. The state of Alaska noted that the Forest service inadequately assessed the impacts on water quality due to logging, as well as avoiding assessing

3397-566: The US in 1910. The name "rayon" was adopted in 1924 , with "viscose" being used for the viscous organic liquid used to make both rayon and cellophane . In Europe, though, the fabric itself became known as "viscose", which has been ruled an acceptable alternative term for rayon by the US Federal Trade Commission (FTC). Rayon was produced only as a filament fiber until the 1930s, when methods were developed to utilize "broken waste rayon" as staple fiber. Manufacturers' search for

3476-699: The United States One Trillion Trees Interagency Council" in order to further the Federal Government's participation in this effort and repeal the current $ 30 million annual funding cap for the Reforestation Trust Fund. The United States national forest comprises about 132 million acres. There are 154 national forests and 20 national grasslands containing 193 million acres (297,000 mi /769 000 km ) of land. These lands comprise 8.5 percent of

3555-459: The addition of delustering pigments cuts down on this natural brightness. The physical properties of rayon remained unchanged until the development of high-tenacity rayon in the 1940s. Further research and development led to high-wet-modulus rayon (HWM rayon) in the 1950s. Research in the UK was centred on the government-funded British Rayon Research Association . High-tenacity rayon is another modified version of viscose that has almost twice

3634-404: The adverse effects on a variety of other industries and activities that rely on the health of the Tongass National Forest . Delineating buffers around streams of Class I and II that were explicitly stipulated in section 103 of the TTRA have been carried out by the Forest Service. However, the requirements laid forth in section 103 have been inadequately enforced and interpreted in a way that reduces

3713-474: The approximate formula [C 6 H 9 O 4 −ONa] n . This material is allowed to depolymerize to an extent. The rate of depolymerization (ripening or maturing) depends on temperature and is affected by the presence of various inorganic additives, such as metal oxides and hydroxides. Air also affects the ripening process, since oxygen causes depolymerization. The alkali cellulose is then treated with carbon disulfide to form sodium cellulose xanthate : Rayon fiber

3792-512: The banks of anadromous stream systems and tributaries (Class I and II streams), a buffer modeled per recommendation from the National Marine Fisheries Service. This amendment protects stream-side banks. Harvesting in these areas increases soil erosion, threatening the quality of the watershed ecosystems and the potentially harming the fish that reside in these streams. This is in amendment of section 706 (b) of ANILCA . Requires

3871-510: The decade 1969 to 1979, American Enka tried unsuccessfully to commercialize the process. The operating name for the fibre inside the Enka organization was "Newcell", and the development was carried through pilot plant scale before the work was stopped. The basic process of dissolving cellulose in NMMO was first described in a 1981 patent by Mcorsley for Akzona Incorporated (the holding company of Akzo). In

3950-498: The effort. There have been multiple legislative acts to expand the scope of the national forest system, as well as shrinking it. In 2020, the Trump administration encouraged more forest products to be harvested in order to support a struggling economy. There was a plan to develop around 190 million acres of protected National Forests in order to increase logging, grazing, and energy resources. This would be facilitated through shrinking

4029-495: The extensive reforms, concerned for the local economy of Southeast Alaska , and the Alaskans that relied on the timber industry of the Tongass for employment. The Senate were in support of the goal to improve the management of the Tongass by the Forest Service. The application of the TTRA modifications by the Forest Service did see positive changes in the management of the Tongass. However, reforms are seen to fall short of encompassing

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4108-522: The fibers into required form. Three common solubilization methods are: French scientist and industrialist Hilaire de Chardonnet (1838–1924) invented the first artificial textile fiber, artificial silk . Swiss chemist Matthias Eduard Schweizer (1818–1860) discovered that cellulose dissolved in tetraamminecopper dihydroxide . Max Fremery and Johann Urban developed a method to produce carbon fibers for use in light bulbs in 1897. Production of cuprammonium rayon for textiles started in 1899 in

4187-634: The first-designated wilderness areas , and some of the largest, are on national forest lands. There are management decision conflicts between conservationists and environmentalists and natural resource extraction companies and lobbies (e.g. logging & mining) over the protection and/or use of national forest lands. These conflicts center on endangered species protection, logging of old-growth forests , intensive clear cut logging , undervalued stumpage fees, mining operations and mining claim laws, and logging/mining access roadbuilding within national forests. Additional conflicts arise from concerns that

4266-524: The grandfather of the American National Parks, called the Tongass a place of "endless rhythm and beauty. Between 1954 and 1990 approximately 70% of the productive old-growth had been harvested. Prior to the enactment of the TTRA, clear cut logging of old-growth still took place in the Tongass National Forest , the only forest in the US where this method of forest management still existed. Continuation of similar rates of deforestation would have led to

4345-541: The health of people living near rayon plants and their livestock. Rates of disability in modern factories (mainly in China, Indonesia, and India) are unknown. This has raised ethical concerns over viscose rayon production. As of 2016 , production facilities located in developing countries generally do not provide environmental or worker safety data. Most global carbon disulfide emissions come from rayon production, as of 2008. As of 2004 , about 250 g of carbon disulfide

4424-492: The intended protection. The Forest Service applied the 100-foot buffer by slope distance rather than exclusively horizontal distance. This can lead to a significant reduction in the final buffer zone afforded to the stream, particularly as the Tongass National Forest consists predominantly of steep terrain. An additional 733,482 acres were designated to Land Use Designation II, meaning that the management of these lands were to be carried out without further road construction. In 1993

4503-467: The intention and goals of Congress in passing the TTRA. An article published in a local newspaper of Juneau , mentioned that the "Law provision cancelled a $ 40 million annual subsidy for timber harvest" and "significantly reshaped the logging industry's relationship with the Tongass National Forest ." It was observed however that the Forest Services were resistant in adhering to the reforms set out in

4582-401: The largest lyocell producer at 130,000 tonnes/year. Rayon is produced by dissolving cellulose, then converting this solution back to insoluble fibrous cellulose. Various processes have been developed for this regeneration. The most common methods for creating rayon are the cuprammonium method, the viscose method, and the lyocell process. The first two methods have been practiced for more than

4661-449: The largest producers of rayon in the world, and Asia Pacific Rayon (APR) of the country has an annual production capacity of 0.24 million tons. The biodegradability of various fibers in soil burial and sewage sludge was evaluated by Korean researchers. Rayon was found to be more biodegradable than cotton, and cotton more than acetate . The more water-repellent the rayon-based fabric, the more slowly it will decompose. Silverfish —like

4740-468: The lyocell process for making cellulose fibers. As of 2018 , the lyocell process is not widely used, because it is still more expensive than the viscose process. Rayon is a versatile fiber and is widely claimed to have the same comfort properties as natural fibers, although the drape and slipperiness of rayon textiles are often more like nylon . It can imitate the feel and texture of silk , wool , cotton , and linen . The fibers are easily dyed in

4819-412: The man-made cellulosics manufacturers globally on the same scoring platform. The scoring from the 2020 report scores all such manufacturers on a scale of 35, the highest scores having been achieved by Birla Cellulose (33) and Lenzing (30.5). Carbon disulfide is highly toxic . It is well documented to have seriously harmed the health of rayon workers in developed countries, and emissions may also harm

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4898-412: The management approach by the Forest Service was not changed. Signed in on November 12th 1980 by President Carter, ANILCA exempted the Tongass National Forest from complying to the provisions of section 6 (k) of the National Forest Management Act of 1976 . This opened the Tongass to logging contracts that would have otherwise been unprofitable. Under In section 705 (a) of ANILCA , The Forest Service

4977-599: The presidency of Benjamin Harrison , allowed the president to set aside forest reserves on public lands. Harrison established 15 forest reserves containing more than 13 million acres of land. The bill was the result of concerted action by Los Angeles -area businessmen and property owners who were concerned by the harm being done to the watershed of the San Gabriel Mountains by ranchers and miners. Abbot Kinney and forester Theodore Lukens were key spokesmen for

5056-466: The product. Viscose rayon was first produced in Coventry, England in 1905 by Courtaulds. Bemberg is a trade name for cuprammonium rayon developed by J. P. Bemberg . Bemberg performs much like viscose but has a smaller diameter and comes closest to silk in feel. Bemberg is now only produced in Japan. The fibers are finer than viscose rayon. Modal and Tencel are widely used forms of rayon produced by Lenzing AG . Tencel, generic name lyocell ,

5135-487: The protection which they had sought when fish canneries and Alaska fishermen in the Salmon Bay Protective Association lobbied hard for the provision. The US Forest Service argued it should have discretion but 40 years of abuse under its administration persuaded fishermen only a prescriptive law would be adequate. This section focuses on protecting riparian ecosystems by creating a minimum 100-foot buffer on

5214-507: The pulp companies were able to harvest and sell. The recorded public response to ANILCA was an opinion that the United States government was engaging in "senseless deforestation." From 1982 to 1988, it was estimated that roughly $ 386,003,000 was spent by the United States federal government on the preparation and sale of the Tongass Forest timber. This sum was calculated by the Southeast Alaska Conservation Council (SEACC). The receipts of

5293-531: The rules and regulations required to get permits to conduct such business. In October 2020, the Trump administration proclaimed its goal of "strengthening markets for wood products and incentivizing innovative manufacturing techniques" and reported "The Department of Agriculture’s Forest Service sold 3.3 billion board feet of timber from national forests in fiscal year 2019 — the highest output since 1997". Furthermore, President Trump signed an executive order to "establish

5372-435: The strength of HWM. This type of rayon is typically used for industrial purposes such as tire cord. Industrial applications of rayon emerged around 1935. Substituting cotton fiber in tires and belts, industrial types of rayon developed a totally different set of properties, amongst which tensile strength and elastic modulus were paramount. Modal is a genericized trademark of Lenzing AG , used for (viscose) rayon which

5451-477: The timber harvest of the Tongass National Forest . Many companies entered into timber contracts in Southeast Alaska during the post-World War II boom, however only two contracts remained by the time the TTRA was passed. In 1951 the United States federal government signed a contract with the Ketchikan Pulp Company (KPC) to authorize the harvest of 8.25 billion board feet of timber within a 50-year period from

5530-475: The timber sales for that period that the federal government released, total $ 32,427,432, resulting in an approximate net loss of $ 353,575,568 for the national treasury. There are disputes as to the specific costs that the federal government carried in incentivizing industrial production in the Tongass National Forest. None of the calculations could reveal a positive return to the US national treasury from

5609-564: The total land area of the United States, an area about the size of Texas . About 87 percent of national forest land lies in the Western United States , mostly in mountain ranges. Alaska has 12 percent of all national forest lands. Within the national forest system, there are 1,200 sites listed on the National Register of Historic Places and 23 are National Historic Landmarks . The National Historic Preservation Act requires

5688-514: The two existing long-term contracts of the KPC and APC. In the final bill this goal was amended to apply specific modifications to the existing long-term timber contracts. The hope with this Act was to eliminate a bias in favor of timber production in the Tongass, and to require the forest service to meet the needs of the other resource based industries involved in the Tongass. Initially, the following areas were proposed to receive Wilderness status: Port Houghton, Castle River, and East Kuiu Island. This

5767-406: Was a major manufacturer of cellulose-based fibers and yarns. Production facilities can be found throughout Europe, the U.S. and Brazil . Visil rayon and HOPE FR are flame retardant forms of viscose that have silica embedded in the fiber during manufacturing. North American Rayon Corporation of Tennessee produced viscose rayon until its closure in the year 2000. Indonesia is one of

5846-548: Was acquired by competitor Akzo Nobel , which combined the Tencel division with other fibre divisions under the Accordis banner, then sold them to private equity firm CVC Partners . In 2000, CVC sold the Tencel division to Lenzing AG , which combined it with their "Lenzing Lyocell" business, but maintained the brand name Tencel. It took over the plants in Mobile and Grimsby, and by 2015 were

5925-584: Was first commercialized at Courtaulds' rayon factories at Mobile, Alabama (1990 ), and at the Grimsby plant (1998) . In January 1993, the Mobile Tencel plant reached full production levels of 20,000 tons per year, by which time Courtaulds had spent £100 million and 10 years on Tencel development. Tencel revenues for 1993 were estimated as likely to be £50 million. A second plant in Mobile was planned. By 2004, production had quadrupled to 80,000 tons. Lenzing began

6004-424: Was legally required to make 4.5 billion board feet of the raw wood available to timber harvesting, on a decadal cycle. This resulted in the removal of market demands of timber, eliminating economic competition for those companies that held a contract with the Forest Service the timber industry. Because of this guarantee, any fluctuations in market demands of timber would be inconsequential in determining how much timber

6083-435: Was not performed due to the difficulty in distinguishing between natural and man-made cellulosic fibers using FTIR spectra. For several years, there have been concerns about links between rayon manufacturers and deforestation. As a result of these concerns, FSC and PEFC came on the same platform with CanopyPlanet to focus on these issues. CanopyPlanet subsequently started publishing a yearly Hot Button report, which puts all

6162-402: Was part of the original bill that passed the House in 1989, but was dropped in the final bill. The bill became a compromise between further conservation and continuing to accommodate economic growth in the region by permitting the continuation of the long-term timber contracts. In ANILCA section 705 (a) is replaced with: Subject to appropriations, other applicable law, and the requirements of

6241-758: Was supported by the Salmon Bay Protective Association which brought in fish canneries and other fishing organizations such as the Alaska Trollers Association, the United Southeast Gillnetters Association, the Petersburg Vessel Owners, the Southeast Seiner Boat Owners and Operators, and the United Fisherman of Alaska. All these different organizational bodies intended for the TTRA to constitute and herald

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