Building material is material used for construction . Many naturally occurring substances, such as clay , rocks , sand, wood , and even twigs and leaves, have been used to construct buildings and other structures, like bridges . Apart from naturally occurring materials, many man-made products are in use, some more and some less synthetic. The manufacturing of building materials is an established industry in many countries and the use of these materials is typically segmented into specific specialty trades, such as carpentry , insulation , plumbing , and roofing work. They provide the make-up of habitats and structures including homes .
97-397: A gravestone or tombstone is a marker, usually stone , that is placed over a grave . A marker set at the head of the grave may be called a headstone . An especially old or elaborate stone slab may be called a funeral stele , stela , or slab . The use of such markers is traditional for Chinese , Jewish , Christian , and Islamic burials , as well as other traditions. In East Asia,
194-469: A beaver 's lodge. These were variously named wikiups , lean-tos, and so forth. An extension on the brush building idea is the wattle and daub process in which clay soils or dung , usually cow , are used to fill in and cover a woven brush structure. This gives the structure more thermal mass and strength. Wattle and daub is one of the oldest building techniques. Many older timber frame buildings incorporate wattle and daub as non load bearing walls between
291-561: A ceramic material. Fired bricks can be solid or have hollow cavities to aid in drying and make them lighter and easier to transport. The individual bricks are placed upon each other in courses using mortar . Successive courses being used to build up walls, arches , and other architectural elements. Fired brick walls are usually substantially thinner than cob/adobe while keeping the same vertical strength. They require more energy to create but are easier to transport and store, and are lighter than stone blocks. Romans extensively used fired brick of
388-420: A laboratory or factory . Mining in a wider sense comprises extraction of any resource (e.g. petroleum , natural gas , salt or even water ) from the earth. Mining of rock and metals has been done since prehistoric times. Modern mining processes involve prospecting for mineral deposits, analysis of the profit potential of a proposed mine, extraction of the desired materials, and finally reclamation of
485-445: A discreet reference code as well to help accurately fix the location for maintenance. The cemetery owner, church, or, as in the UK , national guidelines might encourage the use of 'tasteful' and accurate wording in inscriptions. The placement of inscriptions is traditionally placed on the forward-facing side of the memorial but can also be seen in some cases on the reverse and around the edges of
582-402: A fourth class of rocks alongside igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Rock varies greatly in strength, from quartzites having a tensile strength in excess of 300 MPa to sedimentary rock so soft it can be crumbled with bare fingers (that is, it is friable ). (For comparison, structural steel has a tensile strength of around 350 MPa. ) Relatively soft, easily worked sedimentary rock
679-483: A frame for photographs of the deceased is also increasingly common. The stele (plural: stelae ), as it is called in an archaeological context, is one of the oldest forms of funerary art . Originally, a tombstone was the stone lid of a stone coffin , or the coffin itself, and a gravestone was the stone slab (or ledger stone ) that was laid flat over a grave . Now, all three terms ("stele", "tombstone" or "gravestone") are also used for markers set (usually upright) at
776-476: A garden. This was much more prevalent in pre-industrial times, when laws existed as to the amount of wood one could cut at any one time to ensure there would be a supply of timber for the future, but is still a viable form of agriculture. Bricks are made in a similar way to mud-bricks except without the fibrous binder such as straw and are fired ("burned" in a brick clamp or kiln ) after they have air-dried to permanently harden them. Kiln fired clay bricks are
873-420: A gravestone over the years, so that one marker may chronicle the passing of an entire family spread over decades. Since gravestones and a plot in a cemetery or churchyard cost money, they are also a symbol of wealth or prominence in a community. Some gravestones were even commissioned and erected to their own memory by people who were still living, as a testament to their wealth and status. In a Christian context ,
970-492: A headstone may settle or its fixings weaken. After several instances where unstable stones have fallen in dangerous circumstances, some burial authorities "topple test" headstones by firm pressure to check for stability. They may then tape them off or flatten them. This procedure has proved controversial in the UK, where an authority's duty of care to protect visitors is complicated because it often does not have any ownership rights over
1067-433: A huge impact on the cultural and technological development of the human race. Rock has been used by humans and other hominids for at least 2.5 million years . Lithic technology marks some of the oldest and continuously used technologies. The mining of rock for its metal content has been one of the most important factors of human advancement, and has progressed at different rates in different places, in part because of
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#17328477585741164-497: A method based on the ‘maturity concept’ i.e. taking in consideration both time and temperature of cement hydration reaction. Recent work on aging of lignocellulosic materials in the cement paste showed hydrolysis of hemicelluloses and lignin that affects the interface between particles or fibers and concrete and causes degradation. Bricks were laid in lime mortar from the time of the Romans until supplanted by Portland cement mortar in
1261-414: A number of members of the same family. In the 19th century, headstone styles became very diverse, ranging from plain to highly decorated, and often using crosses on a base or other shapes differing from the traditional slab. By this time popular designs were shifting from symbols of death like Winged heads and Skulls to Urns and Willow trees. Marble also became overwhelmingly popular as a grave material during
1358-957: A shape and type now called Roman bricks . Building with brick gained much popularity in the mid-18th century and 19th centuries. This was due to lower costs with increases in brick manufacturing and fire-safety in increasingly crowded cities. The cinder block supplemented or replaced fired bricks in the late 20th century often being used for the inner parts of masonry walls and by themselves. Structural clay tiles (clay blocks) are clay or terracotta and typically are perforated with holes. Cement bonded composites are made of hydrated cement paste that binds wood, particles, or fibers to make pre-cast building components. Various fiberous materials, including paper , fiberglass , and carbon-fiber have been used as binders. Wood and natural fibers are composed of various soluble organic compounds like carbohydrates , glycosides and phenolics. These compounds are known to retard cement setting. Therefore, before using
1455-562: A source area and then transported to the place of deposition by water , wind , ice , mass movement or glaciers (agents of denudation ). About 7.9% of the crust by volume is composed of sedimentary rocks, with 82% of those being shales, while the remainder consists of 6% limestone and 12% sandstone and arkoses . Sedimentary rocks often contain fossils . Sedimentary rocks form under the influence of gravity and typically are deposited in horizontal or near horizontal layers or strata , and may be referred to as stratified rocks. Sediment and
1552-610: A stone. In addition, before laying a stone flat, it must be recorded for posterity. Gravestone cleaning is a practice that both professionals and volunteers can do to preserve gravestones and increase their life spans. Before cleaning any gravestones, permission must be given to the cleaner by a "descendant, the sexton , cemetery superintendent or the town, in that order. If unsure who to ask, go to your town cemetery keeper and inquire." A gravestone can be cleaned to remove human vandalism and graffiti, biological growth such as algae or lichen , and other minerals, soiling, or staining. One of
1649-410: A structure is the energy consumed to extract, manufacture, deliver, install, the materials. The lifetime embodied energy continues to grow with the use, maintenance, and reuse/recycling/disposal of the building materials themselves and how the materials and design help minimize the life-time energy consumption of the structure. Social costs are injury and health of the people producing and transporting
1746-713: A texture are referred to as foliated ; the remainders are termed non-foliated. The name of the rock is then determined based on the types of minerals present. Schists are foliated rocks that are primarily composed of lamellar minerals such as micas . A gneiss has visible bands of differing lightness , with a common example being the granite gneiss. Other varieties of foliated rock include slates , phyllites , and mylonite . Familiar examples of non-foliated metamorphic rocks include marble , soapstone , and serpentine . This branch contains quartzite —a metamorphosed form of sandstone —and hornfels . Though most understanding of rocks comes from those of Earth, rocks make up many of
1843-408: A variety of building applications, including load-bearing, filling, insulating, and plastering materials. These materials vary in structure depending on the formulation used. Plant fibres can be combined with binders and then used in construction to provide thermal, hydric or structural functions. The behaviour of concrete based on plant fibre is mainly governed by the amount of the fibre constituting
1940-499: A wood in making cement bonded composites, its compatibility with cement is assessed. Wood-cement compatibility is the ratio of a parameter related to the property of a wood-cement composite to that of a neat cement paste. The compatibility is often expressed as a percentage value. To determine wood-cement compatibility, methods based on different properties are used, such as, hydration characteristics, strength, interfacial bond and morphology. Various methods are used by researchers such as
2037-476: Is a generic building material and is used in building just about any type of structure in most climates. Wood can be very flexible under loads, keeping strength while bending, and is incredibly strong when compressed vertically. There are many differing qualities to the different types of wood, even among same tree species. This means specific species are better suited for various uses than others. And growing conditions are important for deciding quality. "Timber"
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#17328477585742134-529: Is a specialized job for a monumental mason . Even overgrowth removal requires care to avoid damaging the carving. For example, ivy should only be cut at the base roots and left to naturally die off, never pulled off forcefully. Many materials have been used as markers. Markers sometimes bear inscriptions . The information on the headstone generally includes the name of the deceased and their date of birth and death. Such information can be useful to genealogists and local historians . Larger cemeteries may require
2231-483: Is combined with straws to create light clay , wattle and daub , and mud plaster . Wet-laid, or damp, walls are made by using the mud or clay mixture directly without forming blocks and drying them first. The amount of and type of each material in the mixture used leads to different styles of buildings. The deciding factor is usually connected with the quality of the soil being used. Larger amounts of clay are usually employed in building with cob , while low-clay soil
2328-458: Is formed through the cooling and solidification of magma or lava . This magma may be derived from partial melts of pre-existing rocks in either a planet 's mantle or crust . Typically, the melting of rocks is caused by one or more of three processes: an increase in temperature, a decrease in pressure, or a change in composition. Igneous rocks are divided into two main categories: Magmas tend to become richer in silica as they rise towards
2425-572: Is hard to warm without consuming considerable energy but, once warm, its thermal mass means that can retain heat for useful periods of time. Dry-stone walls and huts have been built for as long as humans have put one stone on top of another. Eventually, different forms of mortar were used to hold the stones together, cement being the most commonplace now. The granite -strewn uplands of Dartmoor National Park, United Kingdom, for example, provided ample resources for early settlers. Circular huts were constructed from loose granite rocks throughout
2522-518: Is illegible after about a hundred years... For those of you who seek a degree of immortality , a slate headstone, or as a second choice, one carved from an Irish limestone, should ensure that your name will remain on view for several centuries to come! The choice of language and/or script on gravestones has been studied by sociolinguists as indicators of language choices and language loyalty. For example, by studying cemeteries used by immigrant communities, some languages were found to be carved "long after
2619-422: Is less per year. Some materials may require more care than others, maintaining costs specific to some materials may also influence the final decision. Risks when considering lifetime cost of a material is if the building is damaged such as by fire or wind, or if the material is not as durable as advertised. The cost of materials should be taken into consideration to bear the risk to buy combustive materials to enlarge
2716-426: Is lightweight, easily shaped, and an excellent insulator. Foam is usually used as part of a structural insulated panel , wherein the foam is sandwiched between wood or cement or insulating concrete forms. Glassmaking is considered an art form as well as an industrial process or material. Clear windows have been used since the invention of glass to cover small openings in a building. Glass panes provided humans with
2813-490: Is next in importance. About 65% of the Earth's crust by volume consists of igneous rocks. Of these, 66% are basalt and gabbro , 16% are granite, and 17% granodiorite and diorite . Only 0.6% are syenite and 0.3% are ultramafic . The oceanic crust is 99% basalt, which is an igneous rock of mafic composition. Granite and similar rocks, known as granitoids , dominate the continental crust . Sedimentary rocks are formed at
2910-563: Is the home of choice among nomadic groups all over the world. Two well-known types include the conical teepee and the circular yurt . The tent has been revived as a major construction technique with the development of tensile architecture and synthetic fabrics. Modern buildings can be made of flexible material such as fabric membranes, and supported by a system of steel cables, rigid or internal, or by air pressure. Recently, synthetic polystyrene or polyurethane foam has been used in combination with structural materials, such as concrete. It
3007-411: Is the longest-lasting building material available, and is usually readily available. There are many types of rock, with differing attributes that make them better or worse for particular uses. Rock is a very dense material so it gives a lot of protection; its main drawback as a building material is its weight and the difficulty of working it. Its energy density is both an advantage and disadvantage. Stone
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3104-407: Is the purchase price. This is often what governs decision making about what materials to use. Sometimes people take into consideration the energy savings or durability of the materials and see the value of paying a higher initial cost in return for a lower lifetime cost. For example, an asphalt shingle roof costs less than a metal roof to install, but the metal roof will last longer so the lifetime cost
3201-453: Is the study of Earth and its components, including the study of rock formations. Petrology is the study of the character and origin of rocks. Mineralogy is the study of the mineral components that create rocks. The study of rocks and their components has contributed to the geological understanding of Earth's history, the archaeological understanding of human history, and the development of engineering and technology in human society. While
3298-504: Is the term used for construction purposes except the term "lumber" is used in the United States. Raw wood (a log, trunk, bole) becomes timber when the wood has been "converted" (sawn, hewn, split) in the forms of minimally-processed logs stacked on top of each other , timber frame construction, and light-frame construction . The main problems with timber structures are fire risk and moisture-related problems. In modern times softwood
3395-563: Is then air dried and can be laid dry or with a mortar or clay slip . Sand is used with cement , and sometimes lime , to make mortar for masonry work and plaster . Sand is also used as a part of the concrete mix. An important low-cost building material in countries with high sand content soils is the Sandcrete block, which is weaker but cheaper than fired clay bricks. Sand reinforced polyester composite are used as bricks. Rock structures have existed for as long as history can recall. It
3492-465: Is used as a lower-value bulk material, whereas hardwood is usually used for finishings and furniture. Historically timber frame structures were built with oak in western Europe, recently douglas fir has become the most popular wood for most types of structural building. Many families or communities, in rural areas, have a personal woodlot from which the family or community will grow and harvest trees to build with or sell. These lots are tended to like
3589-452: Is used as structural framework for larger buildings such as skyscrapers , or as an external surface covering. There are many types of metals used for building. Metal figures quite prominently in prefabricated structures such as the Quonset hut , and can be seen used in most cosmopolitan cities. It requires a great deal of human labor to produce metal, especially in the large amounts needed for
3686-409: Is usually associated with sod house or sod roof construction. The other main ingredients include more or less sand / gravel and straw /grasses. Rammed earth is both an old and newer take on creating walls, once made by compacting clay soils between planks by hand; nowadays forms and mechanical pneumatic compressors are used. Soil, and especially clay, provides good thermal mass ; it
3783-580: Is very good at keeping temperatures at a constant level. Homes built with earth tend to be naturally cool in the summer heat and warm in cold weather. Clay holds heat or cold, releasing it over a period of time like stone. Earthen walls change temperature slowly, so artificially raising or lowering the temperature can use more resources than in say a wood built house, but the heat/coolness stays longer. People building with mostly dirt and clay, such as cob, sod, and adobe, created homes that have been built for centuries in western and northern Europe, Asia, as well as
3880-624: The Neolithic and early Bronze Age , and the remains of an estimated 5,000 can still be seen today. Granite continued to be used throughout the Medieval period (see Dartmoor longhouse ) and into modern times. Slate is another stone type, commonly used as roofing material in the United Kingdom and other parts of the world where it is found. Stone buildings can be seen in most major cities, and some civilizations built predominantly with stone, such as
3977-452: The acrostic message "KFC tortures birds". The group placed its grave marker to promote its contention that KFC is cruel to chickens. Gravestones may be simple upright slabs with semi-circular, rounded, gabled, pointed-arched, pedimental, square or other shaped tops. During the 18th century, they were often decorated with memento mori (symbolic reminders of death ) such as skulls or winged skulls, winged cherub heads, heavenly crowns, or
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4074-424: The ecological economics of building materials are green building and sustainable development . The initial energy costs include the amount of energy consumed to produce, deliver and install the material. The long term energy cost is the economic, ecological, and social costs of continuing to produce and deliver energy to the building for its use, maintenance, and eventual removal. The initial embodied energy of
4171-417: The history of geology includes many theories of rocks and their origins that have persisted throughout human history, the study of rocks was developed as a formal science during the 19th century. Plutonism was developed as a theory during this time, and the discovery of radioactive decay in 1896 allowed for the radiocarbon dating of rocks. Understanding of plate tectonics developed in the second half of
4268-674: The 1800s in the United States. More elaborately carved markers, such as crosses or angels also became popular during this time. Simple curb surrounds, sometimes filled with glass chippings, were popular during the mid-20th century. Islamic headstones are traditionally more a rectangular upright shaft, often topped with a carved topknot symbolic of a turban ; but in Western countries more local styles are often used. Some form of simple decoration may be employed. Special emblems on tombstones indicate several familiar themes in many faiths. Some examples are: Greek letters might also be used: Over time
4365-399: The 20th century. Rocks are composed primarily of grains of minerals, which are crystalline solids formed from atoms chemically bonded into an orderly structure. Some rocks also contain mineraloids , which are rigid, mineral-like substances, such as volcanic glass , that lack crystalline structure. The types and abundance of minerals in a rock are determined by the manner in which it
4462-442: The Earth's crust, or lava cools on the ground surface or the seabed. Sedimentary rocks are formed by diagenesis and lithification of sediments , which in turn are formed by the weathering , transport, and deposition of existing rocks. Metamorphic rocks are formed when existing rocks are subjected to such high pressures and temperatures that they are transformed without significant melting. Humanity has made use of rocks since
4559-467: The Earth's surface, a process called magma differentiation . This occurs both because minerals low in silica crystallize out of the magma as it begins to cool ( Bowen's reaction series ) and because the magma assimilates some of the crustal rock through which it ascends ( country rock ), and crustal rock tends to be high in silica. Silica content is thus the most important chemical criterion for classifying igneous rock. The content of alkali metal oxides
4656-503: The Earth's surface: temperatures greater than 150 to 200 °C and pressures greater than 1500 bars. This occurs, for example, when continental plates collide. Metamorphic rocks compose 27.4% of the crust by volume. The three major classes of metamorphic rock are based upon the formation mechanism. An intrusion of magma that heats the surrounding rock causes contact metamorphism—a temperature-dominated transformation. Pressure metamorphism occurs when sediments are buried deep under
4753-554: The Egyptian and Aztec pyramids and the structures of the Inca civilization. Thatch is one of the oldest of building materials known. "Thatch" is another word for "grass"; grass is a good insulator and easily harvested. Many African tribes have lived in homes made completely of grasses and sand year-round. In Europe, thatch roofs on homes were once prevalent but the material fell out of favor as industrialization and improved transport increased
4850-601: The United States alone, pre-purchased headstones with pre-carved death years beginning with 19–. Bas-relief carvings of a religious nature or of a profile of the deceased can be seen on some headstones, especially up to the 19th century. Since the invention of photography, a gravestone might include a framed photograph or cameo of the deceased; photographic images or artwork (showing the loved one, or some other image relevant to their life, interests or achievements) are sometimes now engraved onto smooth stone surfaces. Some headstones use lettering made of white metal fixed into
4947-456: The ability to both let light into rooms while at the same time keeping inclement weather outside. Glass is generally made from mixtures of sand and silicates , in a very hot fire stove called a kiln , and is very brittle. Additives are often included the mixture used to produce glass with shades of colors or various characteristics (such as bulletproof glass or lightbulbs). The use of glass in architectural buildings has become very popular in
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#17328477585745044-612: The availability of other materials. Today, though, the practice is undergoing a revival. In the Netherlands, for instance, many new buildings have thatched roofs with special ridge tiles on top. Wood has been used as a building material for thousands of years in its natural state. Today, engineered wood is becoming very common in industrialized countries. Wood is a product of trees , and sometimes other fibrous plants, used for construction purposes when cut or pressed into lumber and timber, such as boards, planks and similar materials. It
5141-422: The blink of an eye. We captured the whole world through our courage and strength, Yet could take nothing with us to our grave." Or a simpler warning of inevitability of death: Remember me as you pass by, As you are now, so once was I, As I am now, so you will be, Prepare for death and follow me. Headstone engravers faced their own " year 2000 problem " when still-living people, as many as 500,000 in
5238-430: The building blocks can be manufactured off site in a centralized location at a brickworks and transported to multiple building locations. These blocks can also be monetized more easily and sold. Structural mud bricks are almost always made using clay, often clay soil and a binder are the only ingredients used, but other ingredients can include sand, lime, concrete, stone and other binders . The formed or compressed block
5335-502: The building industries. Corrosion is metal's prime enemy when it comes to longevity. The term plastics covers a range of synthetic or semi-synthetic organic condensation or polymerization products that can be molded or extruded into objects, films, or fibers . Their name is derived from the fact that in their semi-liquid state they are malleable, or have the property of plasticity . Plastics vary immensely in heat tolerance, hardness, and resiliency. Combined with this adaptability,
5432-457: The cement hydrates and eventually hardens into a stone-like material. When used in the generic sense, this is the material referred to by the term "concrete". For a concrete construction of any size, as concrete has a rather low tensile strength , it is generally strengthened using steel rods or bars (known as rebars ). This strengthened concrete is then referred to as reinforced concrete . In order to minimise any air bubbles, that would weaken
5529-523: The constituent particles, and particle size . These physical properties are the result of the processes that formed the rocks. Over the course of time, rocks can be transformed from one type into another, as described by a geological model called the rock cycle . This transformation produces three general classes of rock: igneous , sedimentary and metamorphic . Those three classes are subdivided into many groups. There are, however, no hard-and-fast boundaries between allied rocks. By increase or decrease in
5626-427: The dangerous marker. Authorities that have knocked over stones during testing or have unilaterally lifted and laid flat any potentially hazardous stones have been criticised, after grieving relatives have discovered that their relative's marker has been moved. Since 2007 Consistory Court and local authority guidance now restricts the force used in a topple test and requires an authority to consult relatives before moving
5723-543: The development of metallurgy . Building materials In history, there are trends in building materials from being natural to becoming more human-made and composite ; biodegradable to imperishable; indigenous (local) to being transported globally; repairable to disposable; chosen for increased levels of fire-safety, and improved seismic resistance. These trends tend to increase the initial and long-term economic, ecological, energy, and social costs of building materials. The initial economic cost of building materials
5820-461: The different types of stone available: The use of slate for this plaque was a good choice as it weathers very slowly and the quality of the carved lettering remains good for many years. Many (Irish) gravestones from the mid 1700s and 1800s are made of slate. This is fortunate for those interested in tracing genealogies , as many of the inscriptions can still be read after two hundred years. This contrasts sharply with lettering cut into granite, which
5917-538: The dust enclosèd here. Blest be the man that spares these stones, And cursed be he that moves my bones. Or a warning about mortality , such as this Persian poetry carved on an ancient tombstone in the Tajiki capital of Dushanbe . I heard that mighty Jamshed the King Carved on a stone near a spring of water these words: "Many – like us – sat here by this spring And left this life in
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#17328477585746014-491: The earliest humans. This early period, called the Stone Age , saw the development of many stone tools. Stone was then used as a major component in the construction of buildings and early infrastructure . Mining developed to extract rocks from the Earth and obtain the minerals within them, including metals . Modern technology has allowed the development of new human-made rocks and rock-like substances, such as concrete . Geology
6111-648: The early 20th century. Gypsum concrete is a mixture of gypsum plaster and fibreglass rovings . Although plaster and fibres fibrous plaster have been used for many years, especially for ceilings, it was not until the early 1990s that serious studies of the strength and qualities of a walling system Rapidwall , using a mixture of gypsum plaster and 300mm plus fibreglass rovings, were investigated. With an abundance of gypsum (naturally occurring and by-product chemical FGD and phospho gypsums) available worldwide, Gypsum concrete-based building products, which are fully recyclable, offer significant environmental benefits. Metal
6208-409: The early 20th century. Cement blocks also sometimes are filled with grout or covered with a parge coat . Concrete is a composite building material made from the combination of aggregate and a binder such as cement . The most common form of concrete is Portland cement concrete, which consists of mineral aggregate (generally gravel and sand ), portland cement and water . After mixing,
6305-606: The earth's surface by the accumulation and cementation of fragments of earlier rocks, minerals, and organisms or as chemical precipitates and organic growths in water ( sedimentation ). This process causes clastic sediments (pieces of rock) or organic particles ( detritus ) to settle and accumulate or for minerals to chemically precipitate ( evaporite ) from a solution . The particulate matter then undergoes compaction and cementation at moderate temperatures and pressures ( diagenesis ). Before being deposited, sediments are formed by weathering of earlier rocks by erosion in
6402-427: The earth, from an ore body, vein or seam . The term also includes the removal of soil. Materials recovered by mining include base metals , precious metals , iron , uranium , coal , diamonds , limestone , oil shale , rock salt , potash , construction aggregate and dimension stone . Mining is required to obtain any material that cannot be grown through agricultural processes, or created artificially in
6499-590: The general uniformity of composition and lightness of plastics ensures their use in almost all industrial applications today. High performance plastics such as ETFE have become an ideal building material due to its high abrasion resistance and chemical inertness. Notable buildings that feature it include: the Beijing National Aquatics Center and the Eden Project biomes. Building papers and membranes are used for many reasons in construction. One of
6596-402: The ground; pressure is dominant, and temperature plays a smaller role. This is termed burial metamorphism, and it can result in rocks such as jade . Where both heat and pressure play a role, the mechanism is termed regional metamorphism. This is typically found in mountain-building regions. Depending on the structure, metamorphic rocks are divided into two general categories. Those that possess
6693-493: The head of the grave. Some graves in the 18th century also contained footstones to demarcate the foot end of the grave. This sometimes developed into full kerb sets that marked the whole perimeter of the grave. Footstones were rarely annotated with more than the deceased's initials and year of death, and sometimes a memorial mason and plot reference number. Many cemeteries and churchyards have removed those extra stones to ease grass cutting by machine mower. In some UK cemeteries,
6790-491: The kind of metals available from the rock of a region. Anthropic rock is synthetic or restructured rock formed by human activity. Concrete is recognized as a human-made rock constituted of natural and processed rock and having been developed since Ancient Rome . Rock can also be modified with other substances to develop new forms, such as epoxy granite . Artificial stone has also been developed, such as Coade stone . Geologist James R. Underwood has proposed anthropic rock as
6887-431: The land to prepare it for other uses once mining ceases. Mining processes may create negative impacts on the environment both during the mining operations and for years after mining has ceased. These potential impacts have led to most of the world's nations adopting regulations to manage negative effects of mining operations. Stone tools have been used for millions of years by humans and earlier hominids . The Stone Age
6984-542: The language ceased to be spoken" in the communities. In other cases, a language used in the inscription may indicate a religious affiliation. Marker inscriptions have also been used for political purposes, such as the grave marker installed in January 2008 at Cave Hill Cemetery in Louisville, Kentucky by Mathew Prescott, an employee of PETA . The grave marker is located near the grave of KFC founder Harland Sanders and bears
7081-421: The lifetime. It is said that, "if it must be done, it must be done well". Pollution costs can be macro and micro. The macro, environmental pollution of extraction industries building materials rely on such as mining, petroleum, and logging produce environmental damage at their source and in transportation of the raw materials, manufacturing, transportation of the products, retailing, and installation. An example of
7178-891: The material. Several studies have shown that increasing the amount of these plant particles increases porosity, moisture buffering capacity, and maximum absorbed water content on the one side, while decreasing density, thermal conductivity, and compressive strength on the other. Plant-based materials are largely derived from renewable resources and mainly use co-products from agriculture or the wood industry. When used as insulation materials, most bio-based materials exhibit (unlike most other insulation materials) hygroscopic behaviour, combining high water vapour permeability and moisture regulation. Brush structures are built entirely from plant parts and were used in primitive cultures such as Native Americans and pygmy peoples in Africa. These are built mostly with branches, twigs and leaves, and bark, similar to
7275-507: The materials and potential health problems of the building occupants if there are problems with the building biology. Globalization has had significant impacts on people both in terms of jobs, skills, and self-sufficiency are lost when manufacturing facilities are closed and the cultural aspects of where new facilities are opened. Aspects of fair trade and labor rights are social costs of global building material manufacturing. Bio-based materials (especially plant-based materials) are used in
7372-456: The measurement of hydration characteristics of a cement-aggregate mix; the comparison of the mechanical properties of cement-aggregate mixes and the visual assessment of microstructural properties of the wood-cement mixes. It has been found that the hydration test by measuring the change in hydration temperature with time is the most convenient method. Recently, Karade et al. have reviewed these methods of compatibility assessment and suggested
7469-433: The micro aspect of pollution is the off-gassing of the building materials in the building or indoor air pollution . Red List building materials are materials found to be harmful. Also the carbon footprint , the total set of greenhouse gas emissions produced in the life of the material. A life-cycle analysis also includes the reuse , recycling, or disposal of construction waste . Two concepts in building which account for
7566-407: The modern culture. Glass " curtain walls " can be used to cover the entire facade of a building, or it can be used to span over a wide roof structure in a " space frame ". These uses though require some sort of frame to hold sections of glass together, as glass by itself is too brittle and would require an overly large kiln to be used to span such large areas by itself. Glass bricks were invented in
7663-512: The most important tenets of gravestone cleaning is "do no harm." In the United States, the National Park Service has published a list of guidelines that outline the best practices of gravestone cleaning: Do Don't Rock (geology) In geology , rock (or stone ) is any naturally occurring solid mass or aggregate of minerals or mineraloid matter. It is categorized by the minerals included, its chemical composition , and
7760-418: The original rock was formed. This process is called metamorphism , meaning to "change in form". The result is a profound change in physical properties and chemistry of the stone. The original rock, known as the protolith , transforms into other mineral types or other forms of the same minerals, by recrystallization . The temperatures and pressures required for this process are always higher than those found at
7857-425: The particles of clastic sedimentary rocks can be further classified by grain size . The smallest sediments are clay , followed by silt , sand , and gravel . Some systems include cobbles and boulders as measurements. Metamorphic rocks are formed by subjecting any rock type—sedimentary rock, igneous rock or another older metamorphic rock—to different temperature and pressure conditions than those in which
7954-418: The picks and shovels of the gravedigger . Somewhat unusual were more elaborate allegorical figures , such as Old Father Time , or emblems of trade or status , or even some event from the life of the deceased (particularly how they died). Large tomb chests, false sarcophagi as the actual remains were in the earth below, or smaller coped chests were commonly used by the gentry as a means of commemorating
8051-442: The principal, and indeed only, marker is placed at the foot of the grave. Owing to soil movement and downhill creep on gentle slopes, older headstones and footstones can often be found tilted at an angle. Over time, this movement can result in the stones being sited several metres away from their original location. Graves and any related memorials are a focus for mourning and remembrance. The names of relatives are often added to
8148-462: The proportions of their minerals, they pass through gradations from one to the other; the distinctive structures of one kind of rock may thus be traced, gradually merging into those of another. Hence the definitions adopted in rock names simply correspond to selected points in a continuously graduated series. Igneous rock (derived from the Latin word igneus, meaning of fire, from ignis meaning fire)
8245-413: The rest of the world, and continue to be built, though on a smaller scale. Some of these buildings have remained habitable for hundreds of years. Mud-bricks , also known by their Spanish name adobe are ancient building materials with evidence dating back thousands of years BC. Compressed earth blocks are a more modern type of brick used for building more frequently in industrialized society since
8342-643: The size and use of certain materials, especially in a conservation area. Some may limit the placing of a wooden memorial to six months after burial, after which a more permanent memorial must be placed. Others may require stones of a certain shape or position to facilitate grass-cutting. Headstones of granite , marble and other kinds of stone are usually created, installed, and repaired by monumental masons . Cemeteries require regular inspection and maintenance, as stones may settle, topple and, on rare occasions, fall and injure people; or graves may simply become overgrown and their markers lost or vandalised . Restoration
8439-518: The stone itself. Some families request that an inscription be made on the portion of the memorial that will be underground. In addition, some gravestones also bear epitaphs in praise of the deceased or quotations from religious texts, such as " requiescat in pace ". In a few instances the inscription is in the form of a plea, admonishment, testament of faith, claim to fame or even a curse – William Shakespeare 's inscription famously declares Good friend, for Jesus' sake forbear, To dig
8536-475: The stone, which is easy to read but can be damaged by ivy or frost. Deep carvings on a hard-wearing stone may weather many centuries exposed in graveyards and still remain legible. Those fixed on the inside of churches , on the walls , or on the floor (often as near the altar as possible) may last much longer: such memorials were often embellished with a monumental brass . Irish geologist Patrick Wyse Jackson mused on gravestone legibility in 1993 with regards to
8633-502: The structure, a vibrator is used to eliminate any air that has been entrained when the liquid concrete mix is poured around the ironwork. Concrete has been the predominant building material in the modern age due to its longevity, formability, and ease of transport. Recent advancements, such as insulating concrete forms , combine the concrete forming and other construction steps (installation of insulation). All materials must be taken in required proportions as described in standards. The tent
8730-535: The timber frames. Snow and occasionally ice, were used by the Inuit peoples for igloos and snow is used to build a shelter called a quinzhee . Ice has also been used for ice hotels as a tourist attraction in northern climates. Clay based buildings usually come in two distinct types. One being when the walls are made directly with the mud mixture, and the other being walls built by stacking air-dried building blocks called mud bricks . Other uses of clay in building
8827-415: The tomb's spirit tablet is the focus for ancestral veneration and may be removable for greater protection between rituals. Ancient grave markers typically incorporated funerary art , especially details in stone relief . With greater literacy, more markers began to include inscriptions of the deceased's name, date of birth, and date of death, often along with a personal message or prayer . The presence of
8924-610: The universe's celestial bodies. In the Solar System , Mars , Venus , and Mercury are composed of rock, as are many natural satellites , asteroids , and meteoroids . Meteorites that fall to Earth provide evidence of extraterrestrial rocks and their composition. They are typically heavier than rocks on Earth. Asteroid rocks can also be brought to Earth through space missions, such as the Hayabusa mission. Lunar rocks and Martian rocks have also been studied. The use of rock has had
9021-455: The very wealthy often erected elaborate memorials within churches rather than having simply external gravestones. Crematoria frequently offer similar alternatives to families who do not have a grave to mark, but who want a focus for their mourning and for remembrance . Carved or cast commemorative plaques inside the crematorium for example may serve this purpose. A cemetery may follow national codes of practice or independently prescribe
9118-590: The way in which it is formed. Rocks form the Earth's outer solid layer, the crust , and most of its interior, except for the liquid outer core and pockets of magma in the asthenosphere . The study of rocks involves multiple subdisciplines of geology, including petrology and mineralogy . It may be limited to rocks found on Earth, or it may include planetary geology that studies the rocks of other celestial objects. Rocks are usually grouped into three main groups: igneous rocks , sedimentary rocks and metamorphic rocks . Igneous rocks are formed when magma cools in
9215-408: Was a period of widespread stone tool usage. Early Stone Age tools were simple implements, such as hammerstones and sharp flakes. Middle Stone Age tools featured sharpened points to be used as projectile points , awls, or scrapers . Late Stone Age tools were developed with craftsmanship and distinct cultural identities. Stone tools were largely superseded by copper and bronze tools following
9312-456: Was formed. Most rocks contain silicate minerals , compounds that include silica tetrahedra in their crystal lattice , and account for about one-third of all known mineral species and about 95% of the earth's crust . The proportion of silica in rocks and minerals is a major factor in determining their names and properties. Rocks are classified according to characteristics such as mineral and chemical composition, permeability , texture of
9409-760: Was quarried for construction as early as 4000 BCE in Egypt, and stone was used to build fortifications in Inner Mongolia as early as 2800 BCE. The soft rock, tuff , is common in Italy, and the Romans used it for many buildings and bridges. Limestone was widely used in construction in the Middle Ages in Europe and remained popular into the 20th century. Mining is the extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from
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