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86-468: Significant numbers of the townspeople are employed in pepper cultivation. In the New Order era, tin mining was extensive across the province and a large number of the locals were employed either by the large tin mining corporations or by unconventional mines. The tourism sector have been growing in the recent years. Tourist destinations include a Dutch-era fortress and the city's natural beaches. In 2016,

172-969: A sesquiterpene originally discovered in the tubers of Cyperus rotundus , which can be detected in concentrations of 0.4 nanograms/l in water and in wine: rotundone is also present in marjoram, oregano, rosemary, basil, thyme, and geranium, as well as in some Shiraz wines . Pepper loses flavour and aroma through evaporation, so airtight storage helps preserve its spiciness longer. Pepper can also lose flavour when exposed to light, which can transform piperine into nearly tasteless isochavicine . Once ground, pepper's aromatics can evaporate quickly; most culinary sources recommend grinding whole peppercorns immediately before use for this reason. Handheld pepper mills or grinders, which mechanically grind or crush whole peppercorns, are used for this as an alternative to pepper shakers that dispense ground pepper. Spice mills such as pepper mills were found in European kitchens as early as

258-473: A "bright aroma." They decay quickly if not dried or preserved, making them unsuitable for international shipping. Red peppercorns usually consist of ripe peppercorn drupes preserved in brine and vinegar. Ripe red peppercorns can also be dried using the same colour-preserving techniques used to produce green pepper. Pink peppercorns are the fruits of the Peruvian pepper tree , Schinus molle , or its relative,

344-525: A burning marrow. I season delicacies, the banquets of kings, and the luxuries of the table, Both the sauces and the tenderized meats of the kitchen. But you will find in me no quality of any worth, Unless your bowels have been rattled by my gleaming marrow. It is commonly believed that during the Middle Ages , pepper was often used to conceal the taste of partially rotten meat. No evidence supports this claim, and historians view it as highly unlikely; in

430-402: A certain pungency; and yet it is for this that we import it all the way from India! Who was the first to make trial of it as an article of food? and who, I wonder, was the man that was not content to prepare himself by hunger only for the satisfying of a greedy appetite? He does not state whether the 50 million was the actual amount of money which found its way to India or the total retail cost of

516-623: A coil, where they condense back to liquid, which is then collected in the receiving vessel. Most oils are distilled in a single process. One exception is ylang-ylang ( Cananga odorata ) which is purified through a fractional distillation . The recondensed water is referred to as a hydrosol, hydrolat, herbal distillate , or plant water essence, which may be sold as another fragrant product. Hydrosols include rose water , lavender water, lemon balm , clary sage , and orange blossom water . Most citrus peel oils are expressed mechanically or cold-pressed (similar to olive oil extraction ). Due to

602-676: A common commodity. Like many eastern spices, pepper was historically both a seasoning and a traditional medicine . Pepper appears in the Buddhist Samaññaphala Sutta , chapter five, as one of the few medicines a monk is allowed to carry. Long pepper, being stronger, was often the preferred medication, but both were used. Black pepper (or perhaps long pepper) was believed to cure several illnesses, such as constipation , insomnia , oral abscesses , sunburn , and toothaches , among others. Pepper contains phytochemicals , including amides , piperidines , and pyrrolidines . Pepper

688-744: A danger when misused because of their thin skin and immature livers. This might cause them to be more susceptible to toxic effects than adults. The flash point of each essential oil is different. Many of the common essential oils, such as tea tree, lavender, and citrus oils, are classed as Class 3 Flammable Liquids , as they have a flash point of 50–60 °C. Estrogenic and antiandrogenic activity have been reported by in vitro study of tea tree oil and lavender essential oils. Two published sets of case reports suggest that lavender oil may be implicated in some cases of gynecomastia , an abnormal breast tissue growth in prepubescent boys. The European Commission's Scientific Committee on Consumer Safety dismissed

774-552: A facial at an all-natural salon, a person experienced severe skin irritation, which highlighted the potential dangers of using "clean" beauty products marketed as being made from natural ingredients. This incident underscores the misconception that natural compounds are always safe, revealing a growing awareness within the beauty industry about the risks associated with essential oils, which can lead to allergic reactions and skin damage; there has been at least one case of death. Research has shown that some essential oils have potential as

860-539: A feeling of cold followed by a sense of burning. In Australia essential oils (mainly eucalyptus) have been increasingly causing cases of poisoning, mostly of children. In the period 2014–2018, there were 4,412 poisoning incidents reported in New South Wales . Aromatherapy is a form of alternative medicine in which healing effects are ascribed to the aromatic compounds in essential oils and other plant extracts. Aromatherapy may be useful to induce relaxation, but there

946-481: A form of alternative medicine in which healing effects are ascribed to aromatic compounds. Aromatherapy may be useful to induce relaxation, but there is not sufficient evidence that it can effectively treat any condition. Improper use of essential oils may cause harm including allergic reactions, inflammation and skin irritation. Children may be particularly susceptible to the toxic effects of improper use. Essential oils can be poisonous if ingested or absorbed through

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1032-438: A natural pesticide . In case studies, certain oils have been shown to have a variety of deterring effects on pests, specifically insects and select arthropods. These effects may include repelling, inhibiting digestion, stunting growth, decreasing rate of reproduction, or death of pests that consume the oil. However, the molecules within the oils that cause these effects are normally non-toxic for mammals. These specific actions of

1118-828: A seal and piston arrangement which slides inside the pipette, wiping the essential oil off the pipette wall. Some essential oils qualify as GRAS flavoring agents for use in foods, beverages, and confectioneries according to strict good manufacturing practice and flavorist standards. Pharmacopoeia standards for medicinal oils should be heeded. Some oils can be toxic to some domestic animals, cats in particular. The internal use of essential oils can pose hazards to pregnant women, as some can be abortifacients in dose 0.5–10 mL, and thus should not be used during pregnancy. Concern about pesticide residues in essential oils, particularly those used therapeutically, means many practitioners of aromatherapy buy organically produced oils. Not only are pesticides present in trace quantities, but also

1204-426: A solvent in supercritical fluid extraction. This method can avoid petrochemical residues in the product and the loss of some "top notes" when steam distillation is used. It does not yield an absolute directly. The supercritical carbon dioxide will extract both the waxes and the essential oils that make up the concrete. Subsequent processing with liquid carbon dioxide, achieved in the same extractor by merely lowering

1290-595: Is a flowering vine in the family Piperaceae , cultivated for its fruit (the peppercorn ), which is usually dried and used as a spice and seasoning . The fruit is a drupe (stonefruit) which is about 5 mm (0.20 in) in diameter (fresh and fully mature), dark red, and contains a stone which encloses a single pepper seed . Peppercorns and the ground pepper derived from them may be described simply as pepper , or more precisely as black pepper (cooked and dried unripe fruit), green pepper (dried unripe fruit), or white pepper (ripe fruit seeds). Black pepper

1376-418: Is a perennial woody vine growing up to 4 m (13 ft) in height on supporting trees, poles, or trellises. It is a spreading vine, rooting readily where trailing stems touch the ground. The leaves are alternate, entire, 5 to 10 cm (2.0 to 3.9 in) long and 3 to 6 cm (1.2 to 2.4 in) across. The flowers are small, produced on pendulous spikes 4 to 8 cm (1.6 to 3.1 in) long at

1462-594: Is an essential oil derived from garlic . Most eucalyptus oil on the market is produced from the leaves of Eucalyptus globulus . Steam-distilled eucalyptus oil is used throughout Asia, Africa, Latin America and South America as a primary cleaning/disinfecting agent added to soaped mop and countertop cleaning solutions; it also possesses insect and limited vermin control properties. Note, however, there are hundreds of species of eucalyptus, and perhaps some dozens are used to various extents as sources of essential oils. Not only do

1548-646: Is currently marketed as the most effective mosquito repellent. Although essential oils are effective as pesticides when first applied in uses such as mosquito repellent applied to the skin, it is only effective in the vapor stage. Since this stage is relatively short-lived, creams and polymer mixtures are used in order to elongate the vapor period of effective repellency. In any form, using essential oils as green pesticides rather than synthetic pesticides has ecological benefits such as decreased residual actions. In addition, increased use of essential oils as pest control could have not only ecological, but economical benefits as

1634-515: Is easily found and readily available. In New Zealand , the seeds of kawakawa ( Piper excelsum ), a relative of black pepper , are sometimes used as pepper; the leaves of Pseudowintera colorata ("mountain horopito") are another replacement for pepper. Several plants in the United States are also used as pepper substitutes, such as field pepperwort , least pepperwort , shepherd's purse , horseradish , and field pennycress . The pepper plant

1720-866: Is essential in the sense that it contains the essence of the plant's fragrance —the characteristic fragrance of the plant from which it is derived. The term "essential" used here does not mean indispensable or usable by the human body, as with the terms essential amino acid or essential fatty acid , which are so called because they are nutritionally required by a living organism. Essential oils are generally extracted by distillation , often by using steam . Other processes include expression , solvent extraction , sfumatura , absolute oil extraction, resin tapping, wax embedding, and cold pressing. They are used in perfumes , cosmetics , soaps , air fresheners and other products, for flavoring food and drink, and for adding scents to incense and household cleaning products. Essential oils are often used for aromatherapy ,

1806-547: Is known to cause sneezing . Some sources say that piperine, a substance present in black pepper, irritates the nostrils, causing the sneezing. Few, if any, controlled studies have been carried out to answer the question. One tablespoon (6 grams) of ground black pepper contains moderate amounts of vitamin K (13% of the daily value or DV), iron (10% DV), and manganese (18% DV), with trace amounts of other essential nutrients , protein , and dietary fibre . Pepper gets its spicy heat mostly from piperine derived from both

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1892-621: Is most closely related to other Asian species such as P. caninum . Wild pepper grows in the Western Ghats region of India . Into the 19th century, the forests contained expansive wild pepper vines, as recorded by the Scottish physician Francis Buchanan (also a botanist and geographer) in his book A journey from Madras through the countries of Mysore, Canara and Malabar (Volume III). However, deforestation resulted in wild pepper growing in more limited forest patches from Goa to Kerala , with

1978-507: Is native to the Malabar Coast of India , and the Malabar pepper is extensively cultivated there and in other tropical regions. Ground, dried, and cooked peppercorns have been used since antiquity, both for flavour and as a traditional medicine . Black pepper is the world's most traded spice , and is one of the most common spices added to cuisines around the world. Its spiciness is due to

2064-521: Is no year in which India does not drain the Roman Empire of 50 million sesterces ", and further moralizes on pepper: It is quite surprising that the use of pepper has come so much into fashion, seeing that in other substances which we use, it is sometimes their sweetness, and sometimes their appearance that has attracted our notice; whereas, pepper has nothing in it that can plead as a recommendation to either fruit or berry, its only desirable quality being

2150-630: Is not sufficient evidence that essential oils can effectively treat any condition. Scientific research indicates that essential oils cannot treat or cure any chronic disease or other illnesses. Much of the research on the use of essential oils for health purposes has serious methodological errors. In a systemic review of 201 published studies on essential oils as alternative medicines, only 10 were found to be of acceptable methodological quality, and even these 10 were still weak in reference to scientific standards. Use of essential oils may cause harm including allergic reactions and skin irritation; After receiving

2236-516: Is possible that black pepper was known in China in the second century BCE, if poetic reports regarding an explorer named Tang Meng (唐蒙) are correct. Sent by Emperor Wu to what is now south-west China, Tang Meng is said to have come across something called jujiang or "sauce-betel". He was told it came from the markets of Shu , an area in what is now the Sichuan province. The traditional view among historians

2322-490: Is produced from the petals of Rosa damascena and Rosa centifolia . Steam-distilled rose oil is known as "rose otto", while the solvent extracted product is known as "rose absolute". The potential toxicity of essential oil is related to its level or grade of purity, and to the toxicity of specific chemical components of the oil. Many essential oils are designed exclusively for their aroma-therapeutic quality; these essential oils generally should not be applied directly to

2408-546: Is rare because much higher concentrations are required in real foods. Some or all of this lower effectiveness is due to large differences between culture medium and foods in chemistry (especially lipid content), viscosity, and duration of inoculation/storage. Essential oils are usually lipophilic (literally: "oil-loving" ) compounds that are immiscible (not miscible ) with water. They can be diluted in solvents like pure ethanol and polyethylene glycol . Essential oils are derived from sections of plants. Some plants, like

2494-522: Is that "sauce-betel" is a sauce made from betel leaves, but arguments have been made that it actually refers to pepper, either long or black. In the third century CE, black pepper made its first definite appearance in Chinese texts, as hujiao or "foreign pepper". It does not appear to have been widely known at the time, failing to appear in a fourth-century work describing a wide variety of spices from beyond China's southern border, including long pepper. By

2580-402: Is used to extract the fragrant oil from the concrete. The alcohol solution is chilled to −18 °C (0 °F) for more than 48 hours which causes the waxes and lipids to precipitate out. The precipitates are then filtered out and the ethanol is removed from the remaining solution by evaporation, vacuum purge, or both, leaving behind the absolute . Supercritical carbon dioxide is used as

2666-467: The Brazilian pepper tree , Schinus terebinthifolius , plants from a different family ( Anacardiaceae ). As they are members of the cashew family, they may cause allergic reactions , including anaphylaxis , for persons with a tree nut allergy . The bark of Drimys winteri ("canelo" or "winter's bark") is used as a substitute for pepper in cold and temperate regions of Chile and Argentina , where it

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2752-476: The Chera Dynasty , famous for exporting black pepper and various other spices, gets mentioned in a number of classical historical sources for its trade with Roman Empire , Egypt , Mesopotamia , Levant , and Yemen . Peppercorns were a much-prized trade good, often referred to as "black gold" and used as a form of commodity money . The legacy of this trade remains in some Western legal systems that recognize

2838-497: The LD 50 or median lethal dose for common oils; this is the dose required to kill half the members of a tested animal population. LD 50 is intended as a guideline only, and reported values can vary widely due to differences in tested species and testing conditions. In 2002, ISO published ISO 4720 in which the botanical names of the relevant plants are standardized. The rest of the standards with regards to this topic can be found in

2924-469: The bitter orange , are sources of several types of essential oil. Balsam of Peru , an essential oil derived from Myroxylon plants, is used in food and drink for flavoring, in perfumes and toiletries for fragrance, and in animal care products. However, national and international surveys identified balsam of Peru among the "top five" allergens most commonly causing patch test allergic reactions in people referred to dermatology clinics. Garlic oil

3010-399: The citrus peel oils, are photosensitizers , increasing vulnerability of the skin to sunlight. Industrial users of essential oils should consult the safety data sheets to determine the hazards and handling requirements of particular oils. Even certain therapeutic-grade oils can pose potential threats to individuals with epilepsy or pregnant women. Essential oil use in children can pose

3096-441: The 12th century, however, black pepper had become a popular ingredient in the cuisine of the wealthy and powerful, sometimes taking the place of China's native Sichuan pepper (the tongue-numbing dried fruit of an unrelated plant). Marco Polo testifies to pepper's popularity in 13th-century China, when he relates what he is told of its consumption in the city of Kinsay ( Hangzhou ): "... Messer Marco heard it stated by one of

3182-496: The 14th century, but the mortar and pestle used earlier for crushing pepper have remained a popular method for centuries, as well. Enhancing the flavour profile of peppercorns (including piperine and essential oils), prior to processing, has been attempted through the postharvest application of ultraviolet-C light (UV-C). [REDACTED] Media related to Piper nigrum at Wikimedia Commons [REDACTED] Data related to Piper nigrum at Wikispecies [REDACTED] Pepper at

3268-517: The 16th century. Black peppercorns were found stuffed in the nostrils of Ramesses II , placed there as part of the mummification rituals shortly after his death in 1213 BCE. Little else is known about the use of pepper in ancient Egypt and how it reached the Nile from the Malabar Coast of South Asia. Pepper (both long and black) was known in Greece at least as early as the fourth century BCE, though it

3354-739: The Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish Councils of State. Its exorbitant price during the Middle Ages – and the monopoly on the trade held by Venice – was one of the inducements that led the Portuguese to seek a sea route to India. In 1498, Vasco da Gama became the first person to reach India by sailing around Africa (see Age of Discovery ); asked by Arabs in Calicut (who spoke Spanish and Italian) why they had come, his representative replied, "we seek Christians and spices". Though this first trip to India by way of

3440-483: The Danish-Norwegian flagship, Gribshunden , which sank in the summer of 1495. In 2021, archaeologists recovered more than 2000 peppercorns from the wreck, along with a variety of other spices and exotic foodstuffs including clove, ginger, saffron, and almond. The ship was carrying King Hans to a political summit at the time of its loss. The spices were likely intended for feasts at the summit, which would have included

3526-456: The Dutch in the period 1661–1663.7 As pepper supplies into Europe increased, the price of pepper declined (though the total value of the import trade generally did not). Pepper, which in the early Middle Ages had been an item exclusively for the rich, started to become more of an everyday seasoning among those of more average means. Today, pepper accounts for one-fifth of the world's spice trade. It

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3612-499: The Great Kaan's officers of customs that the quantity of pepper introduced daily for consumption into the city of Kinsay amounted to 43 loads, each load being equal to 223 lbs." During the course of the Ming treasure voyages in the early 15th century, Admiral Zheng He and his expeditionary fleets returned with such a large amount of black pepper that the once-costly luxury became

3698-771: The Greek geographer Strabo , the early empire sent a fleet of around 120 ships on an annual trip to India and back. The fleet timed its travel across the Arabian Sea to take advantage of the predictable monsoon winds. Returning from India, the ships travelled up the Red Sea , from where the cargo was carried overland or via the Nile-Red Sea canal to the Nile River, barged to Alexandria , and shipped from there to Italy and Rome. The rough geographical outlines of this same trade route would dominate

3784-637: The Malabar area also served as a stop-off point for much of the trade in other spices from farther east in the Indian Ocean. The Maluku Islands, historically known as the "Spice Islands," are a region in Indonesia known for producing nutmeg, mace, cloves, and pepper, and were a major source of these spices in the world. The presence of these spices in the Maluku Islands sparked European interest to buy them directly in

3870-511: The Mediterranean, the trade was largely monopolized by Italian powers, especially Venice and Genoa . The rise of these city-states was funded in large part by the spice trade. A riddle authored by Saint Aldhelm , a seventh-century Bishop of Sherborne , sheds some light on black pepper's role in England at that time: I am black on the outside, clad in a wrinkled cover, Yet within I bear

3956-425: The Middle Ages, pepper was a luxury item , affordable only to the wealthy, who certainly had unspoiled meat available, as well. In addition, people of the time certainly knew that eating spoiled food would make them sick. Similarly, the belief that pepper was widely used as a preservative is questionable; it is true that piperine , the compound that gives pepper its spiciness, has some antimicrobial properties, but at

4042-565: The New World and of chili peppers . Chili peppers—some of which, when dried, are similar in shape and taste to long pepper—were easier to grow in a variety of locations more convenient to Europe. Before the 16th century, pepper was being grown in Java , Sunda , Sumatra , Madagascar , Malaysia, and everywhere in Southeast Asia. These areas traded mainly with China, or used the pepper locally. Ports in

4128-471: The Roman Empire , that pepper was "a favorite ingredient of the most expensive Roman cookery". Pepper was so valuable that it was often used as collateral or even currency. The taste for pepper (or the appreciation of its monetary value) was passed on to those who would see Rome fall. Alaric , king of the Visigoths , included 3,000 pounds of pepper as part of the ransom he demanded from Rome when he besieged

4214-471: The Wikibooks Cookbook subproject Essential oil An essential oil is a concentrated hydrophobic liquid containing volatile (easily evaporated at normal temperatures) chemical compounds from plants . Essential oils are also known as volatile oils , ethereal oils , aetheroleum , or simply as the oil of the plant from which they were extracted, such as oil of clove . An essential oil

4300-403: The base of the spikes begin to turn red, and before the fruit is fully mature, and still hard; if allowed to ripen completely, the fruits lose pungency, and ultimately fall off and are lost. The spikes are collected and spread out to dry in the sun, then the peppercorns are stripped off the spikes. Black pepper is native either to Southeast Asia or South Asia . Within the genus Piper , it

4386-446: The berries, which may also yield an essential oil by extraction . White pepper consists solely of the seed of the ripe fruit of the pepper plant, with the thin darker-coloured skin (flesh) of the fruit removed. This is usually accomplished by a process known as retting , where fully ripe red pepper berries are soaked in water for about a week so the flesh of the peppercorn softens and decomposes ; rubbing then removes what remains of

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4472-528: The chemical compound piperine , which is a different kind of spiciness from that of capsaicin characteristic of chili peppers . It is ubiquitous in the Western world as a seasoning , and is often paired with salt and available on dining tables in shakers or mills . The word pepper derives from Old English pipor , Latin piper , and Greek : πέπερι . The Greek likely derives from Dravidian pippali , meaning "long pepper". Sanskrit pippali shares

4558-605: The city in the fifth century. After the fall of Rome, others took over the middle legs of the spice trade , first the Persians and then the Arabs ; Innes Miller cites the account of Cosmas Indicopleustes , who travelled east to India, as proof that "pepper was still being exported from India in the sixth century". By the end of the Early Middle Ages , the central portions of the spice trade were firmly under Islamic control. Once into

4644-595: The claims against tea tree oil as implausible, but did not comment on lavender oil. In 2018, a BBC report on a study stated that tea tree and lavender oils contain eight substances that when tested in tissue culture experiments, increasing the level of estrogen and decreasing the level of testosterone . Some of the substances are found in "at least 65 other essential oils". The study did not include animal or human testing. Exposure to essential oils may cause contact dermatitis . Essential oils can be aggressive toward rubbers and plastics, so care must be taken in choosing

4730-400: The concentrations present when pepper is used as a spice, the effect is small. Salt is a much more effective preservative, and salt-cured meats were common fare, especially in winter. However, pepper and other spices certainly played a role in improving the taste of long-preserved meats. Archaeological evidence of pepper consumption in late medieval Northern Europe comes from excavations on

4816-411: The correct handling equipment. Glass syringes are often used, but have coarse volumetric graduations. Chemistry syringes are ideal, as they resist essential oils, are long enough to enter deep vessels, and have fine graduations, facilitating quality control. Unlike traditional pipettes, which have difficulty handling viscous fluids, the chemistry syringe, also known as a positive displacement pipette, has

4902-862: The essential oil market diversifies and popularity increases among organic farmers and environmentally conscious consumers. As of 2012 some EOs are authorized, and in use, in the European Union : Melaleuca oil as a fungicide , citronella oil as a herbicide , Syzygium aromaticum oil as a fungicide and bactericide, Mentha spicata oil as a plant growth regulator ; Citrus sinensis oil (only in France) for Bemisia tabaci on Cucurbita pepo and Trialeurodes vaporariorum on Solanum lycopersicum ; and approvals for oils of Thymus , C. sinensis , and Tagetes as insecticides are pending. In relation with their food applications, although these oils have been used throughout history as food preservatives, it

4988-453: The extraction temperature, will separate the waxes from the essential oils. This lower temperature process prevents the decomposition and denaturing of compounds. When the extraction is complete, the pressure is reduced to ambient and the carbon dioxide reverts to a gas, leaving no residue. Estimates of total production of essential oils are difficult to obtain. One estimate, compiled from data in 1989, 1990, and 1994 from various sources, gives

5074-492: The fermentation and other processing removes the fruit layer (which also contains some of the spicy piperine). Other flavours also commonly develop in this process, some of which are described as off-flavours when in excess: Primarily 3-methylindole (pig manure-like), 4-methylphenol (horse manure), 3-methylphenol (phenolic), and butyric acid (cheese). The aroma of pepper is attributed to rotundone (3,4,5,6,7,8-Hexahydro-3α,8α-dimethyl-5α-(1-methylethenyl) azulene -1(2H)-one),

5160-562: The following total production, in tonnes, of essential oils for which more than 1,000 tonnes were produced. Taken by mouth, many essential oils can be dangerous in high concentrations. Typical effects begin with a burning feeling, followed by salivation. Different essential oils may have drastically different pharmacology. Some act as local anesthetic counterirritants and, thereby, exert an antitussive (cough suppressing) effect. Many essential oils, particularly tea tree oil , may cause contact dermatitis . Menthol and some others produce

5246-524: The fruit, and the naked seed is dried. Sometimes the outer layer is removed from the seed through other mechanical, chemical, or biological methods. Ground white pepper is commonly used in Chinese , Thai , and Portuguese cuisines . It finds occasional use in other cuisines in salads, light-coloured sauces, and mashed potatoes as a substitute for black pepper, because black pepper would visibly stand out. However, white pepper lacks certain compounds present in

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5332-479: The high heat used in steam distillation. Instead, a solvent such as hexane or supercritical carbon dioxide is used to extract the oils. Extracts from hexane and other hydrophobic solvents are called concretes , which are a mixture of essential oil, waxes , resins , and other lipophilic (oil-soluble) plant material. Although highly fragrant, concretes contain large quantities of non-fragrant waxes and resins. Often, another solvent, such as ethyl alcohol ,

5418-557: The items in Rome, and, elsewhere, he cites a figure of 100 million sesterces. Black pepper was a well-known and widespread, if expensive, seasoning in the Roman Empire. Apicius ' De re coquinaria , a third-century cookbook probably based at least partly on one from the first century CE, includes pepper in a majority of its recipes. Edward Gibbon wrote, in The History of the Decline and Fall of

5504-588: The leaf nodes, the spikes lengthening up to 7 to 15 cm (2.8 to 5.9 in) as the fruit matures. Pepper can be grown in soil that is neither too dry nor susceptible to flooding, moist, well-drained, and rich in organic matter. The vines do not do well over an altitude of 900 m (3,000 ft) above sea level. The plants are propagated by cuttings about 40 to 50 cm (16 to 20 in) long, tied up to neighbouring trees or climbing frames at distances of about 2 m (6 ft 7 in) apart; trees with rough bark are favoured over those with smooth bark, as

5590-561: The local government for the first time held a cultural carnival, aimed to increase the number of tourists coming to the town. The majority of the people in Toboali are Hakka Chinese and Malay . Majority of Chinese are Buddhist , Catholic or Protestant . Toboali has a tropical rainforest climate (Af) with heavy rainfall year-round. This Bangka Belitung location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Black pepper Black pepper ( Piper nigrum )

5676-600: The molecules allow for widespread use of these "green" pesticides without harmful effects to anything else other than pests. Essential oils that have been investigated include rose, lemon grass, lavender, thyme, peppermint, basil, cedarwood, and eucalyptus. Although they may not be the perfect replacement for all synthetic pesticides, essential oils have prospects for crop or indoor plant protection, urban pest control, and marketed insect repellents, such as bug spray. Certain essential oils have been shown in studies to be comparable, if not exceeding, in effectiveness to DEET , which

5762-507: The most widely traded spice in the world, accounting for 20% of all spice imports. Black pepper is native to South Asia and Southeast Asia, and has been known to Indian cooking since at least 2000 BCE. J. Innes Miller notes that while pepper was grown in southern Thailand and in Malaysia , its most important source was India, particularly the Malabar Coast , in what is now the state of Kerala . The lost ancient port city of Muziris of

5848-894: The oils themselves are used in tiny quantities and usually in high dilutions. Where there is a concern about pesticide residues in food essential oils, such as mint or orange oils, the proper criterion is not solely whether the material is organically produced, but whether it meets the government standards based on actual analysis of its pesticide content. Some essential oils may contain impurities and additives that may be harmful to pregnant women. Certain essential oils are safe to use during pregnancy , but care must be taken when selecting quality and brand. Sensitivity to certain smells may cause pregnant women to have adverse side effects with essential oil use, such as headache, vertigo , and nausea. Pregnant women often report an abnormal sensitivity to smells and taste, and essential oils can cause irritation and nausea when ingested. The following table lists

5934-548: The outer fruit and the seed. Black pepper contains between 4.6 and 9.7% piperine by mass, and white pepper slightly more than that. Refined piperine, by weight, is about one percent as hot as the capsaicin found in chili peppers . The outer fruit layer, left on black pepper, also contains aroma -contributing terpenes , including germacrene (11%), limonene (10%), pinene (10%), alpha-phellandrene (9%), and beta-caryophyllene (7%), which give citrusy, woody, and floral notes. These scents are mostly missing in white pepper, as

6020-530: The outer layer of the drupe, resulting in a different overall flavour. Green pepper, like black pepper, is made from unripe drupes. Dried green peppercorns are treated in a way that retains the green colour, such as with sulfur dioxide , canning , or freeze-drying . Pickled peppercorns, also green, are unripe drupes preserved in brine or vinegar . Fresh, unpreserved green pepper drupes are used in some cuisines like Thai cuisine and Tamil cuisine . Their flavour has been described as "spicy and fresh", with

6106-640: The pepper plants climb rough bark more readily. Competing plants are cleared away, leaving only sufficient trees to provide shade and permit free ventilation. The roots are covered in leaf mulch and manure , and the shoots are trimmed twice a year. On dry soils, the young plants require watering every other day during the dry season for the first three years. The plants bear fruit from the fourth or fifth year, and then typically for seven years. The cuttings are usually cultivars , selected both for yield and quality of fruit. A single stem bears 20 to 30 fruiting spikes. The harvest begins as soon as one or two fruits at

6192-490: The pepper trade into Europe for a millennium and a half to come. With ships sailing directly to the Malabar coast, Malabar black pepper was now travelling a shorter trade route than long pepper, and the prices reflected it. Pliny the Elder 's Natural History tells us the prices in Rome around 77 CE: "Long pepper ... is 15 denarii per pound, while that of white pepper is seven, and of black, four." Pliny also complains, "There

6278-416: The pepper, accelerating enzymes that cause browning during drying. The pepper drupes can also be dried in the sun or by machine for several days, during which the pepper skin around the seed shrinks and darkens into a thin, wrinkled black layer containing melanoidin . Once dry, the spice is called black peppercorn. After the peppercorns are dried, pepper powder for culinary uses is obtained by crushing

6364-427: The products of different species differ greatly in characteristics and effects, but also the products of the very same tree can vary grossly. Lavender oil has long been used in the production of perfume . However, studies have shown it can be estrogenic and antiandrogenic, causing problems for prepubescent boys and pregnant women, in particular. Lavender essential oil is also used as an insect repellent. Rose oil

6450-476: The relatively large quantities of oil in citrus peel and low cost to grow and harvest the raw materials, citrus-fruit oils are cheaper than most other essential oils. Lemon or sweet orange oils are obtained as byproducts of the citrus industry. Before the discovery of distillation, all essential oils were extracted by pressing. Most flowers contain too little volatile oil to undergo expression, but their chemical components are too delicate and easily denatured by

6536-577: The same meaning. In the 16th century, people began using pepper to also mean the New World chili pepper (genus Capsicum ), which is not closely related. Processed peppercorns come in a variety of colours, any one of which may be used in food preparation, especially common peppercorn sauce . Black pepper is produced from the still-green, unripe drupe of the pepper plant. The drupes are cooked briefly in hot water, both to clean them and to prepare them for drying. The heat ruptures cell walls in

6622-602: The section of ICS 71.100.60 The resins of aromatics and plant extracts were retained to produce traditional medicines and scented preparations, such as perfumes and incense, including frankincense , myrrh , cedarwood, juniper berry and cinnamon in ancient Egypt may have contained essential oils. In 1923, when archaeologists opened Pharaoh Tutankhamun ’s tomb, they found 50 alabaster jars of essential oils. Essential oils have been used in folk medicine over centuries. The Persian physician Ibn Sina , known as Avicenna in Europe,

6708-419: The skin in their undiluted form. Some can cause severe irritation, provoke an allergic reaction and, over time, prove toxic to the liver . If ingested or rubbed into the skin, essential oils can be highly poisonous, causing confusion, choking, loss of muscle coordination, difficulty in breathing, pneumonia , seizures , and possibly severe allergic reactions or coma . Some essential oils, including many of

6794-428: The skin. Most common essential oils such as lavender , peppermint , tea tree oil , patchouli , and eucalyptus are distilled. Raw plant material, consisting of the flowers , leaves , wood , bark , roots , seeds , or peel , is put into an alembic (distillation apparatus) over water. As the water is heated, the steam passes through the plant material, vaporizing the volatile compounds. The vapors flow through

6880-465: The southern tip of Africa was only a modest success, the Portuguese quickly returned in greater numbers and eventually gained much greater control of trade on the Arabian Sea. The 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas granted Portugal exclusive rights to the half of the world where black pepper originated. However, the Portuguese monopolized the spice trade for 150 years. Portuguese even became the lingua franca of

6966-409: The term " peppercorn rent " as a token payment for something that is, essentially, a gift. The ancient history of black pepper is often interlinked with (and confused with) that of long pepper , the dried fruit of closely related Piper longum . The Romans knew of both and often referred to either as just piper . In fact, the popularity of long pepper did not entirely decline until the discovery of

7052-603: The then known world. The spice trade made Portugal rich. However in the 17th century, the Portuguese lost most of their valuable Indian Ocean trade to the Dutch and the English , who, taking advantage of the Spanish rule over Portugal during the Iberian Union (1580–1640), occupied by force almost all Portuguese interests in the area. The pepper ports of Malabar began to trade increasingly with

7138-549: The wild source gradually decreasing as the quality and yield of the cultivated variety improved. No successful grafting of commercial pepper on wild pepper has been achieved to date. In 2020, Vietnam was the world's largest producer and exporter of black peppercorns, producing 270,192 tonnes or 36% of the world total (table). Other major producers were Brazil , Indonesia , India , Sri Lanka , China , and Malaysia . Global pepper production varies annually according to crop management, disease, and weather. Peppercorns are among

7224-553: Was first to derive the fragrance of flowers from distillation, while the earliest recorded mention of the techniques and methods used to produce essential oils may be Ibn al-Baitar (1188–1248), an Arab Al-Andalusian (Muslim Spain) physician , pharmacist and chemist . Rather than refer to essential oils themselves, modern works typically discuss specific chemical compounds of which the essential oils are composed, such as referring to methyl salicylate rather than "oil of wintergreen". Essential oils are used in aromatherapy ,

7310-913: Was in the 20th century when essential oils were considered as Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) by the United States’ Food and Drug Administration (FDA). GRAS substances according to the FDA The most commonly used essential oils with antimicrobial action are: β-caryophyllene , eugenol , eugenol acetate , carvacrol , linalool , thymol , geraniol , geranyl acetate , bicyclogermacrene , cinnamaldehyde , geranial , neral , 1,8-cineole , methyl chavicol , methyl cinnamate , methyl eugenol , camphor , α-thujone , viridiflorol , limonene , ( Z )-linalool oxide , α-pinene , p -cymene , ( E )-caryophyllene , γ-terpinene . Some essential oils are effective antimicrobials and have been evaluated for food incorporation in vitro . However, actual deployment

7396-524: Was probably an uncommon and expensive item that only the very rich could afford. By the time of the early Roman Empire , especially after Rome's conquest of Egypt in 30 BCE, open-ocean crossing of the Arabian Sea direct to Chera dynasty southern India 's Malabar Coast was near routine. Details of this trading across the Indian Ocean have been passed down in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea . According to

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