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92-500: Tiwanaku was a multi-cultural network of powerful lineages that brought people together to build large monuments. These work feasts integrated people in powerful ceremonies, and this was probably the central dynamic that attracted people from hundreds of kilometers away, who may have traveled there as part of llama caravans to trade, make offerings, and honor the gods. Tiwanaku grew into the Andes' most important pilgrimage destination and one of

184-420: A herd . Their wool is soft and contains only a small amount of lanolin . Llamas can learn simple tasks after a few repetitions. When using a pack, they can carry about 25 to 30% of their body weight for 8 to 13 km (5–8 miles ). The name llama (in the past also spelled "lama" or "glama") was adopted by European settlers from native Peruvians . The ancestors of llamas are thought to have originated on

276-484: A pilgrimage center in Lake Titicaca. These vessels bear individualistic human likenesses and reveal much information about Tiwanaku clothing and jewellery styles. Radiocarbon dating revealed that they were interred in the ground between 900 and 1050 AD, so they were probably broken as part of a ritual abandonment of the island's temple by local elites and pilgrims during the collapse of Tiwanaku. Lukurmata, located in

368-419: A suka qullu produces impressive yields. While traditional agriculture in the region typically yields 2.4 metric tons of potatoes per hectare, and modern agriculture (with artificial fertilizers and pesticides) yields about 14.5 metric tons per hectare, suka qullu agriculture yields an average of 21 tons per hectare. Modern agricultural researchers have re-introduced the technique of suka qullu . Significantly,

460-434: A better idea of when the cria is expected can be determined. Hand mating is the most efficient method, but it requires the most work on the part of the human involved. A male and female llama are put into the same pen, and mating is monitored. They are then separated and re-mated every other day until one refuses the mating. Usually, one can get in two matings using this method, though some stud males routinely refuse to mate

552-627: A burnished polychrome incised ware". Later the Qeya style became popular during the Tiwanaku III phase, "Typified by vessels of a soft, light brown ceramic paste". These ceramics included libation bowls and bulbous-bottom vases. The Staff God was a common motif in Tiwanaku art. The effigy objects typically depicted herders, trophy heads, sacrificial victims, and felines, such as puma and jaguars . Such small, portable objects of ritual religious meaning were

644-434: A completely or partially domesticated state. Many are also descended from ancestors previously domesticated, a state that tends to produce a certain amount of variation from the original type. The four forms commonly distinguished by the inhabitants of South America are recognized as distinct species, though there are difficulties in defining their distinctive characteristics. These are: The llama and alpaca are only known in

736-415: A dramatic transformation between 600 and 700 that established new monumental standards for civic architecture and greatly increased the resident population." Early estimates suggested the city covered approximately 6.5 square kilometers at with 15,000 to 30,000 inhabitants. More recent surveys estimate the site's maximum size between 3.8 and 4.2 square kilometers and a population of 10,000 to 20,000. Instead of

828-523: A female more than once. The separation presumably helps to keep the sperm count high for each mating and also helps to keep the condition of the female llama's reproductive tract more sound. If the mating is unsuccessful within two to three weeks, the female is mated again. Options for feeding llamas are quite wide; various commercial and farm-based feeds are available. The major determining factors include feed cost, availability, nutrient balance and energy density required. Young, actively growing llamas require

920-474: A few decades. The end date for the Tiwanaku state is sometimes extended to 1150 AD, but this only considers raised fields, not urban occupation or ceramic production. One proposed explanation is that a severe drought rendered the raised-field systems ineffective, food surplus dropped, and with it, elite power, leading to state collapse. However, this narrative has been challenged, in part because of more refined cultural and climate chronologies, which now suggest that

1012-451: A good fossil record. Camel-like animals have been traced back through early Miocene forms from the thoroughly differentiated, modern species. Their characteristics became more general, and they lost those that distinguished them as camelids; hence, they were classified as ancestral artiodactyls. No fossils of these earlier forms have been found in the Old World , indicating that North America

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1104-509: A greater concentration of nutrients than mature animals because of their smaller digestive tract capacities. Llamas that are well-socialized and trained to halter and lead after weaning are very friendly and pleasant to be around. They are extremely curious, and most will approach people easily. However, llamas that are bottle-fed or over-socialized and over-handled as youth will become extremely difficult to handle when mature, when they will begin to treat humans as they treat each other, which

1196-400: A group), consist of the vicuña ( Vicugna vicugna , prev. Lama vicugna ), guanaco ( Lama guanicoe ), Suri alpaca , and Huacaya alpaca ( Vicugna pacos , prev. Lama guanicoe pacos ), and the domestic llama ( Lama glama ). Guanacos and vicuñas live in the wild, while llamas and alpacas exist only as domesticated animals. Although early writers compared llamas to sheep , their similarity to

1288-697: A height of 1.7 to 1.8 m (5 ft 7 in to 5 ft 11 in) at the top of the head and can weigh between 130 and 272 kg (287 and 600 lb). At maturity, males can weigh 94.74 kg, while females can weigh 102.27 kg. At birth, a baby llama (called a cria ) can weigh between 9 and 14 kg (20 and 31 lb). Llamas typically live for 15 to 25 years, with some individuals surviving 30 years or more. The following characteristics apply especially to llamas. Dentition of adults: incisors ⁠ 1 / 3 ⁠ canines ⁠ 1 / 1 ⁠ , premolars ⁠ 2 / 2 ⁠ , molars ⁠ 3 / 3 ⁠ ; total 32. In

1380-467: A key to spreading religion and influence from the main site to the satellite centers. They were created in wood, engraved bone, and cloth and included incense burners, carved wooden hallucinogenic snuff tablets, and human portrait vessels. Like those of the Moche , Tiwanaku portraits expressed individual characteristics. One of the best collections of Tiwanaku human effigy vessels was found on the island of Pariti,

1472-503: A kush (lying down) position, similar to big cats and canines, which is unusual in a large animal. They mate for an extended time (20–45 minutes), also unusual in a large animal. The gestation period of a llama is 11.5 months (350 days). Dams (female llamas) do not lick off their babies, as they have an attached tongue that does not reach outside of the mouth more than 13 millimetres ( 1 ⁄ 2 inch). Rather, they will nuzzle and hum to their newborns. A cria (from Spanish for "baby")

1564-399: A large animal. Female llamas are induced ovulators . Through mating, the female releases an egg and is often fertilized on the first attempt. Female llamas do not go into estrus ("heat"). Like humans, llama males and females mature sexually at different rates. Females reach puberty at about 12 months old; males do not become sexually mature until around three years of age. Llamas mate in

1656-476: A large permanent population, the number of people at Tiwanaku probably fluctuated dramatically depending on the season as people made long visits to participate in work parties and festivals. In the rest of the southern Lake Titicaca Basin, hundreds of smaller settlements have been found. Some of the largest and most important were Lukurmata, Qeya Kuntu, Kirawi, Waka Kala, Sonaji, Kala Uyuni, and Khonkho Wankane. Archaeologists such as Paul Goldstein have showed that

1748-423: A larger brain cavity and orbits and less-developed cranial ridges due to its smaller size. The nasal bones are shorter and broader and are joined by the premaxilla. Vertebrae : The ears are rather long and slightly curved inward, characteristically known as "banana" shaped. There is no dorsal hump. The feet are narrow, the toes being more separated than in the camels, each having a distinct plantar pad. The tail

1840-621: A llama's purchase cost and annual maintenance. Although not every llama is suited to the job, most are a viable, nonlethal alternative for reducing predation, requiring no training and little care. Llamas have a fine undercoat, which can be used for handicrafts and garments . The coarser outer guard hair is used for rugs, wall hangings, and lead ropes. The fiber comes in many colors, ranging from white or grey to reddish-brown, brown, dark brown, and black. Doctors and researchers have determined that llamas possess antibodies that are well-suited to treat certain diseases. Scientists have been studying

1932-618: A massive immigration from the surrounding countryside, and large parts of the city were built or remodeled. New and larger carved monoliths were erected, temples were built, and a standardized polychrome pottery style was produced on a large scale. Tiwanaku's influence, most clearly documented by the presence of its decorated ceramics, expanded into the Yungas and influenced many other cultures in Peru , Bolivia , and northern Argentina and Chile . Some statues at Tiwanaku were taken from other regions, where

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2024-404: A militaristic style. Llama Camelus glama Linnaeus, 1758 The llama ( / ˈ l ɑː m ə / ; Spanish pronunciation: [ˈʎama] or [ˈʝama] ) ( Lama glama ) is a domesticated South American camelid , widely used as a meat and pack animal by Andean cultures since the pre-Columbian era . Llamas are social animals and live with others as

2116-574: A quarry 10 kilometers (6.2 miles) away—a remarkable distance considering that the largest of these stones weighs 131 metric tons . The green andesite stones that were used to create the most elaborate carvings and monoliths originate from the Copacabana peninsula, located across Lake Titicaca . One theory is that these giant andesite stones, which weigh over 40 tons, were transported some 90 kilometers (56 miles) across Lake Titicaca on reed boats , then laboriously dragged another 10 kilometers (6.2 miles) to

2208-481: A social obligation to work his best for the general welfare of the people, [an] obligation both material and spiritual. Traditionally, shokunin honoured their tools of trade at New Year's – the sharpened and taken-care of tools would be placed in a tokonoma (a container or box still found in Japanese houses and shops), and two rice cakes and a tangerine (on top of rice paper) were placed on top of each toolbox, to honour

2300-425: A solar mask, and at the base thirty running or kneeling figures. Some scientists believe that this statue is a representation of the calendar with twelve months and thirty days in each month. Other evidence points to a system of ancestor worship at Tiwanaku. The preservation, use, and reconfiguration of mummy bundles and skeletal remains, as with the later Inca, may suggest that this is the case. Later cultures within

2392-436: A strange noise or feels threatened, an alarm call - a loud, shrill sound that rhythmically rises and falls - is sent out, and all others become alert. They will often hum to each other as a form of communication. The llama's groaning noises or going "mwa" (/mwaʰ/) is often a sign of fear or anger. Unhappy or agitated llamas will lay their ears back, while ears being perked upwards is a sign of happiness or curiosity. An "orgle"

2484-519: Is characterized by bouts of spitting, kicking and neck wrestling. Llamas are now utilized as certified therapy animals in nursing homes and hospitals. Rojo the Llama , located in the Pacific Northwest was certified in 2008. The Mayo Clinic says animal-assisted therapy can reduce pain, depression, anxiety, and fatigue. This type of therapy is growing in popularity, and several organizations throughout

2576-426: Is considered a continuation of the birthing patterns observed in the wild. Their crias are up and standing, walking, and attempting to suckle within the first hour after birth. Crias are partially fed with llama milk that is lower in fat and salt and higher in phosphorus and calcium than cow or goat milk. A female llama will only produce about 60 millilitres (2 US fluid ounces) of milk at a time when she gives milk, so

2668-643: Is generally more expensive but not always more valuable. Alpacas tend to have a more consistent color throughout the body. The most apparent visual difference between llamas and camels is that camels have a humps and llamas do not. Llamas are not ruminants , pseudo-ruminants, or modified ruminants. They do have a complex three-compartment stomach that allows them to digest lower quality, high cellulose foods. The stomach compartments allow for fermentation of tricky foodstuffs, followed by regurgitation and re-chewing. Ruminants (cows, sheep, goats) have four compartments, whereas llamas have only three stomach compartments:

2760-436: Is instinctively very effective in preventing predation. Some llamas bond more quickly to sheep or goats if introduced just before lambing . Many sheep and goat producers indicate a special bond quickly develops between lambs and their guard llama, and the llama is particularly protective of the lambs. Using llamas as guards has reduced the losses to predators for many producers. The value of the livestock saved each year exceeds

2852-479: Is little evidence that Tiwanaku leaders controlled the territory or people in between, that is, its territory was not contiguous. With a few important exceptions, Tiwanaku's influence outside the Lake Titicaca Basin was "soft power" that blossomed into a powerful, widespread, and enduring cultural hegemony. The city of Tiwanaku lies at an altitude of roughly 3,800 meters (12,500 feet) above sea level, making it

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2944-443: Is short, and the fiber is long, woolly, and soft. In essential structural characteristics, as well as in general appearance and habits, all the animals of this genus very closely resemble each other, so whether they should be considered as belonging to one, two, or more species is a matter of controversy among naturalists . The question is complicated by the circumstances of most individuals who have come under observation, either in

3036-598: Is that they picture them as "workers" in the modern sense: employed by someone. The most influential group among the artisans were the masters, the business owners. The owners enjoyed a high social status in their communities, and organised into guilds in towns and cities. Shokunin is a Japanese word for "artisan" or "craftsman", which also implies a pride in one's own work. In the words of shokunin Tashio Odate: Shokunin means not only having technical skill, but also implies an attitude and social consciousness...

3128-498: Is the mating sound of a llama or alpaca, made by the sexually aroused male. The sound is reminiscent of gargling but with a more forceful, buzzing edge. Males begin the sound when they become aroused and continue throughout copulation . Using llamas as livestock guards in North America began in the early 1980s, and some sheep producers have used llamas successfully since then. Some would even use them to guard their smaller cousins,

3220-485: Is the name for a baby llama, alpaca , vicuña , or guanaco . Crias are typically born with all the herd's females gathering to protect against the male llamas and potential predators. Llamas give birth standing. Birth is usually quick and problem-free, over in less than 30 minutes. Most births occur between 8 am and noon, during the warmer daylight hours. This may increase cria survival by reducing fatalities due to hypothermia during cold Andean nights. This birthing pattern

3312-599: The Akapana and Pumapunku structures include conduits composed of red sandstone blocks held together by ternary (copper/arsenic/nickel) bronze architectural cramps. The I -shaped architectural cramps of the Akapana were created by cold hammering of ingots. In contrast, the cramps of the Pumapunku were created by pouring molten metal into I -shaped sockets. The blocks have flat faces that do not need to be fitted upon placement because

3404-855: The Altiplano is an area of very dry arid land. The Titicaca Basin also provides a unique landscape with many sources of water ranging from natural springs to large rivers like the Tiwanaku River. The abundance of water resources were crucial to the development of the Tiwanaku since they provided large areas of fertile land that the Tiwanaku culture developed and expanded into farming spaces using large irrigation projects like raised fields, terraces, and qochas. The Tiwanaku culture developed many distinctive farming techniques. Known as "flooded- raised field " agriculture ( suka qullu ), these fields were used widely in regional agriculture, together with irrigated fields, pasture, terraced fields and artificial ponds. Water from

3496-656: The Great Plains of North America about 40 million years ago and subsequently migrated to South America about three million years ago during the Great American Interchange . By the end of the last ice age (10,000–12,000 years ago), camelids were extinct in North America. As of 2007, there were over seven million llamas and alpacas in South America. Some were imported to the United States and Canada late in

3588-566: The Katari and Tiwanaku rivers was used to water raised fields, that covered up to 130 km (50 sq mi). In the Titicaca Basin, these fields were large planting platforms ranging from 5–20 metres (16–66 feet) in width, and 200 metres (660 feet) in length. Artificially raised planting mounds were separated by shallow canals filled with water. The canals supply moisture for growing crops, but they also absorb heat from solar radiation during

3680-862: The Mapuche language obtained many loanwords from Puquina language including antu (sun), calcu (warlock), cuyen (moon), chadi (salt) and ñuque (mother). Tom Dillehay and co-workers suggest that the decline of Tiwanaku would have led to the spread of agricultural techniques into Mapuche lands in south-central Chile . These techniques include the raised fields of Budi Lake and the canalized fields found in Lumaco Valley . Some aspects of Andean religion among Mapuches and Huilliches have also been suggested to be linked to an influence from Tiwanaku. ... dispersing populations in search of new suitable environments might have caused long-distance ripple effects of both migration and technological diffusion across

3772-466: The Middle Ages , the term "artisan" was applied to those who made things or provided services. It did not apply to unskilled manual labourers . Artisans were divided into two distinct groups: those who operated their own businesses and those who did not. The former were called masters , while the latter were the journeymen and apprentices . One misunderstanding many people have about this social group

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3864-548: The Rocky Mountains and in Central America . Some of the fossil llamas were much larger than current forms. Some species remained in North America during the last ice ages. North American llamas are categorized as an extinct genus, Hemiauchenia . Llama-like animals would have been a common sight 25,000 years ago in modern-day California , Texas , New Mexico , Utah , Missouri , and Florida . The camelid lineage has

3956-514: The bleak and elevated parts of the mountain range bordering the region of perpetual snow , amidst rocks and precipices, occurring in various suitable localities throughout Peru , in the southern part of Ecuador , and as far south as the middle of Bolivia . Its manners very much resemble those of the chamois of the European Alps ; it is as vigilant, wild, and timid. Vicuña fiber is extremely delicate and soft and highly valued for weaving, but

4048-480: The camel was soon recognized. They were included in the genus Camelus along with alpaca in the Systema Naturae ( 1758 ) of Carl Linnaeus . They were, however, separated by Georges Cuvier in 1800 under the name of lama along with the guanaco . DNA analysis has confirmed that the guanaco is the wild ancestor of the llama, while the vicuña is the wild ancestor of the alpaca; the latter two were placed in

4140-447: The 1990s. Instead, they were used on a larger scale planting since they could be planted and harvested before other fields. This essentially allowed for two harvests per year: one for hosting feasts and the other for daily consumption. Coordinating this labor schedule was a key activity for leading families at Tiwanaku because they had to attract volunteers to work the raised fields in addition to their own fields. Another technique used by

4232-418: The 20th century; their descendants now number more than 158,000 llamas and 100,000 alpacas. In Aymara mythology, llamas are important beings. The Heavenly Llama is said to drink water from the ocean and urinates as it rains. According to Aymara eschatology , llamas will return to the water springs and ponds where they come from at the end of time. Lamoids, or llamas (as they are more generally known as

4324-434: The Akapana. The people of Tiwanaku also made ceramics and textiles, composed of bright colors and stepped patterns. Common textile forms included tapestries and tunics. An important ceramic artifact is the qiru , a drinking cup that was ritually smashed after ceremonies and placed with other goods in burials. Over time, the style of ceramics changed. The earliest ceramics were "coarsely polished, deeply incised brownware and

4416-519: The Gateway of the Sun. This statue is believed to be associated with the weather: a celestial high god that personified various elements of natural forces intimately associated the productive potential of altiplano ecology: the sun, wind, rain, hail – in brief, a personification of atmospherics that most directly affect agricultural production in either a positive or negative manner It has twelve faces covered by

4508-573: The Katari valley was a large settlement with close ties to Tiwanaku. First established nearly two thousand years ago, it grew to be a major ceremonial center. After Tiwanaku collapsed, Lukurmata rapidly declined, becoming once again a small village. The Tiwanaku shared domination of the Middle Horizon with the Wari culture (based primarily in central and south Peru) although found to have built important sites in

4600-644: The Omo site and the main site of Tiwanaku is also being used for this argument. Tiwanaku established several colonies as far as 300 km away. One of the better researched is the colony in Moquegua Valley in Peru, which is 150 km from lake Titicaca and flourished between 400 and 1100. This colony was an agricultural and mining center, producing copper and silver. Small colonies were also established in Chile's Azapa Valley . As

4692-499: The Putuni complex was burned and food storage jars smashed. This indicates an event of destruction, followed by abandonment of the site. Colonies in Moquegua and on Isla del Sol were also abandoned around this time. It has been conjectured that the collapse of the Tiwanaku empire caused a southward migratory wave leading to a series of changes in Mapuche society in Chile. This explains how

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4784-557: The Tiwanaku diaspora expanded outside of the altiplano area and into the Moquegua Valley in Peru. After 750 AD, there is growing Tiwanaku presence at the Chen Chen site and the Omo site complex, where a ceremonial center was built. Excavations at Omo settlements show signs of similar architecture characteristic of Tiwanaku, such as a temple and terraced mound. Evidence of similar types of artificial cranial deformation in burials between

4876-524: The Tiwanaku was the usage of terrace structures on hills and mountainsides. These terraces were good at providing water year-round from reservoirs at higher elevations in the mountains. These terraces modified hill slopes into step-like structures that were good at increasing the amount of space for agriculture in a smaller, more limited area, were less vulnerable to frost in higher altitudes, and most importantly, were good at retaining water. Today, these fields have been modified by modern agriculture. The walls of

4968-579: The Tragulina ( chevrotains ), the Pecora ( ruminants ), and the Whippomorpha ( hippos and cetaceans , which belong to Artiodactyla from a cladistic , if not traditional, standpoint). The Tylopoda have more or less affinity to each of the sister taxa , standing in some respects in a middle position between them, sharing some characteristics from each, but in others showing special modifications not found in any of

5060-609: The United States participate. When correctly reared, llamas spitting at a human is a rare thing. Llamas are very social herd animals, however, and sometimes spit at each other to discipline lower-ranked llamas. A llama's social rank in a herd is never static. They can always move up or down the social ladder by picking small fights. This is usually done between males to see which will become dominant. Their fights are visually dramatic, characterized by spitting, ramming each other with their chests, neck wrestling, and kicking, mainly to knock

5152-527: The afterlife. The Moche of pre-Columbian Peru depicted llamas quite realistically in their ceramics. In the Inca Empire , llamas were the only beasts of burden, and many of the people dominated by the Inca had long traditions of llama herding. For the Inca nobility, the llama was symbolic, and llama figures were often buried with the dead. In South America, llamas are still used as beasts of burden, as well as for

5244-464: The alpaca. They are used most commonly in the western regions of the United States , where larger predators, such as coyotes and feral dogs, are prevalent. Typically, a single gelding (castrated male) is used. Research suggests using multiple guard llamas is not as effective as one. Multiple males tend to bond with one another rather than with the livestock and may ignore the flock. A gelded male of two years of age bonds closely with its new charges and

5336-639: The area made use of large "above ground burial chambers for the social elite... known as " chullpas ". Similar, though smaller, structures were found within the site of Tiwanaku. Kolata suggests that, like the later Inca, the inhabitants of Tiwanaku may have practiced similar rituals and rites in relation to the dead. The Akapana East Building has evidence of ancestor burial. The human remains at Akapana East seem to be less for show and more for proper burial. The skeletons show many cut marks that were most likely made by defleshing or excarnation after death. The remains were then bundled up and buried rather than left out in

5428-606: The city. Tiwanaku sculpture is comprised typically of blocky, column-like figures with huge, flat square eyes, and detailed with shallow relief carving. They are often holding ritual objects, such as the Ponce Stela or the Bennett Monolith. Some have been found holding severed heads, such as the figure on the Akapana, who possibly represents a puma-shaman. These images suggest the culture practiced ritual human beheading. As additional evidence, headless skeletons have been found under

5520-425: The continent's largest Pre-Columbian cities, reaching a maximum population of 10,000 to 20,000 around AD 800. Outside of the core area in the southern Lake Titicaca Basin, there were Tiwanaku colonies on the coast of Peru, where highland people imitated Tiwanaku temples and ceramics, and cemeteries in northern Chile with elaborate grave goods in the Tiwanaku style. Despite the clear connections to these enclaves, there

5612-547: The crafting of handmade food products, such as bread , beverages , cheese or textiles . Many of these have traditionally been handmade, rural or pastoral goods but are also now commonly made on a larger scale with automated mechanization in factories and other industrial areas. Artisans were the dominant producers of commodities before the Industrial Revolution . In ancient Greece , artisans were drawn to agoras and often built workshops nearby. During

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5704-417: The cria must frequently suckle to receive the nutrients it requires. In harem mating , the male is left with females most of the year. For field mating , a female is turned into a field with a male llama and left there for some time. This is the easiest method in terms of labor but the least useful in predicting a likely birth date. An ultrasound test can be performed, and together with the exposure dates,

5796-584: The day. This heat is gradually emitted during the bitterly cold nights and provided thermal insulation against the endemic frost in the region. Traces of similar landscape management have been found in the Llanos de Moxos region (Amazonian flood plains of the Moxos). Over time, the canals also were used to farm edible fish. The resulting canal sludge from small aquatic plants was dredged for fertilizer, continuously providing nutrient-rich soil for crops. Though labor-intensive,

5888-425: The domestic state and are variable in size and of many colors, often white, brown, or piebald. Some are grey or black. The guanaco and vicuña are wild. The guanaco is endangered; it has a nearly uniform light-brown color, passing into white below. The guanaco and vicuña certainly differ: The vicuña is more petite, more slender in its proportions, and has a shorter head than the guanaco. The vicuña lives in herds on

5980-399: The drought did not start until after the collapse. This lends greater support to alternative theories of collapse that suggest internal social dynamics led to Tiwanaku's demise. Some areas of the capital show signs of intentional destruction, though this could have taken place at any time. Monolithic gates, like Gateway of the Sun, were tipped over and broken. By the end of Tiwanaku V period

6072-435: The earlier Pukara culture in the northern Titicaca Basin. The Tiwanaku created a powerful ideology, using previous Andean icons that were widespread throughout their sphere of influence. They used extensive trade routes and shamanistic art. Tiwanaku art consisted of legible, outlined figures depicted in curvilinear style with a naturalistic manner, while Wari art used the same symbols in a more abstract, rectilinear style with

6164-645: The experimental suka qullu fields recreated in the 1980s by University of Chicago 's Alan Kolata and Oswaldo Rivera suffered only a 10% decrease in production following a 1988 freeze that killed 70-90% of the rest of the region's production. While impressive yields are possible in experiments, these fields are vulnerable to potato parasites and if used continuously, are less efficient than traditional rain-fed fields. This led independent researchers like Bandy (2005) to suggest that raised fields were not in fact hyper-productive, noting that local people did not continue using them once experiments and development programs ended in

6256-566: The genus Vicugna . The genera Lama and Vicugna are, with the two species of true camels, the sole existing representatives of a very distinct section of the Artiodactyla or even-toed ungulates, called Tylopoda , or "bump-footed", from the peculiar bumps on the soles of their feet. The Tylopoda consists of a single family, the Camelidae, and shares the order Artiodactyla with the Suina ( pigs ),

6348-441: The grooves make it possible for the blocks to be shifted by ropes into place. The main architectural appeal of the site comes from the carved images and designs on some of these blocks, carved doorways, and giant stone monoliths. The quarries that supplied the stone blocks for Tiwanaku lie at significant distances from this site. The red sandstone used in this site's structures has been determined by petrographic analysis to come from

6440-447: The handmade clockwork movement of a watchmaker . Artisans practice a craft and may through experience and aptitude reach the expressive levels of an artist . The adjective "artisanal" is often used in describing hand-processing in contrast to an industrial process, such as in the phrase artisanal mining . Thus, "artisanal" is sometimes used in marketing and advertising as a buzz word to describe or imply some relation with

6532-470: The highest state capital of the ancient world. The site of Tiwanaku was founded around 110 AD during the Late Formative Period, when there were a number of growing settlements in the southern Lake Titicaca Basin. Between 450 and 550 AD, other large settlements were abandoned, leaving Tiwanaku as the pre-eminent center in the region. Beginning around 600 AD its population grew rapidly, probably due to

6624-422: The lake and dry highlands provided key resources of fish, wild birds, plants, and herding grounds for camelids , particularly llamas . Tiwanaku's economy was based on exploiting the resources of Lake Titicaca, herding of llamas and alpacas, and organized farming in raised field systems. The Tiwanaku consumed llama meat, potatoes, quinoa, beans, and maize. Because of the variable climate in the high altitude regions,

6716-428: The landscape today. Their sunken nature, allowed for the pooling of water to occur. This was especially useful during seasons of drought since these minibasins would retain some of their moisture. Sometimes these features were used for multiple purposes at the same time. Around 1000 AD, Tiwanaku ceramics stopped being produced as the state's largest colony (Moquegua) and the urban core of the capital were abandoned within

6808-456: The lower jaw, the three incisors are long, spatulate, and procumbent; the outer ones are the smallest. Next to these is a curved, suberect canine, followed after an interval by an isolated minute and often deciduous simple conical premolar; then a contiguous series of one premolar and three molars, which differ from those of Camelus in having a small accessory column at the anterior outer edge. The skull generally resembles that of Camelus , with

6900-455: The north as well (Cerro Papato ruins). Their culture rose and fell around the same time; it was centered 500 miles north in the southern highlands of Peru. The relationship between the two polities is unknown. Definite interaction between the two is proved by their shared iconography in art. Significant elements of both of these styles (the split eye, trophy heads, and staff-bearing profile figures, for example) seem to have been derived from that of

6992-442: The open. The Tiwanaku conducted human sacrifices on top of a building known as the Akapana. People were disemboweled and torn apart shortly after death and laid out for all to see. It is speculated that this ritual was a form of dedication to the gods. The type of human sacrifice included victims being hacked in pieces, dismembered, exposed to the elements and carnivores before being deposited in trash. Research showed that one man who

7084-429: The other off balance. The females are usually only seen spitting to control other herd members. One may determine how agitated the llama is by the materials in the spit. The more irritated the llama is, the further back into each of the three stomach compartments it will try to draw materials from for its spit. While the social structure might constantly change, they live as a family and care for each other. If one notices

7176-462: The other taxa. The 19th-century discoveries of a vast and previously unexpected extinct Paleogene fauna of North America, as interpreted by paleontologists Joseph Leidy , Edward Drinker Cope , and Othniel Charles Marsh , aided understanding of the early history of this family. Llamas were not always confined to South America ; abundant llama-like remains were found in Pleistocene deposits in

7268-455: The population grew, occupational niches developed, and people began to specialize in certain skills. There was an increase in artisans , who worked in pottery, jewelry and textiles. Like the later Incas, the Tiwanaku had few commercial or market institutions. Instead, the culture relied on elite redistribution. In this view of Tiwanaku as a bureaucratic state, elites controlled the economic output, but were expected to provide each commoner with all

7360-502: The production of fiber and meat . The Inca deity Urcuchillay was depicted in the form of a multicolored llama. Artisan An artisan (from French : artisan , Italian : artigiano ) is a skilled craft worker who makes or creates material objects partly or entirely by hand . These objects may be functional or strictly decorative , for example furniture , decorative art , sculpture , clothing , food items , household items, and tools and mechanisms such as

7452-416: The quantity that each animal produces is small. Alpacas are primarily descended from wild vicuña ancestors. In contrast, domesticated llamas are descended primarily from wild guanaco ancestors, although a considerable amount of hybridization between the two species has occurred. Differential characteristics between llamas and alpacas include the llama's larger size, longer head, and curved ears. Alpaca fiber

7544-516: The resources needed to perform his or her function. Selected occupations include agriculturists, herders, pastoralists , etc. Such separation of occupations was accompanied by hierarchichal stratification . The elites gained their status by control of the surplus of food obtained from all regions, which they then redistributed among all the people. Control of llama herds became very significant to Tiwanaku. The animals were essential for transporting staple and prestige goods. Tiwanaku's location between

7636-466: The rumen, omasum, and abomasum. In addition, the llama (and other camelids) have an extremely long and complex large intestine (colon). The large intestine's role in digestion is to reabsorb water, vitamins, and electrolytes from food waste passing through it. The length of the llama's colon allows it to survive on much less water than other animals. This is a major advantage in arid climates where they live. Llamas have an unusual reproductive cycle for

7728-400: The site. It was found at Kalasasaya , but due to the similarity of other gateways found at Pumapunku , it is thought to have been originally part of a series of doorways there. It is recognized for its singular, great frieze. This is thought to represent a main deity figure surrounded by either calendar signs or natural forces for agricultural worship. Along with Viracocha, another statue is in

7820-527: The south-central and south Andes between c.AD 1100 and 1300 ... What is known of Tiwanaku religious beliefs is based on archaeological interpretation and some myths, which may have been passed down to the Incas and the Spanish. They seem to have worshipped many gods. The Gateway of the Sun is a monolithic structure of regular, non-monumental size. Its dimensions suggest that other regularly sized buildings existed at

7912-430: The step-like structure have been removed for plowing and the building of adjusted property lines. This has led to an increase in erosion and a sloping terrain. One other technique used by the Tiwanaku were the qochas . These are sunken regions of land also known as minibasins connected by a system of canals. These were used as agricultural fields, grazing areas, and water reservoirs and are often still found as clusters in

8004-502: The stones were placed in a subordinate position to the Gods of the Tiwanaku. Archaeologists have documented Tiwanaku ceramics at a large number of sites in and beyond the Lake Titicaca Basin, attesting to the expansive influence of Tiwanaku symbols and attached messages of power. The population grew rapidly between 600 and 800, the site became an important regional power in the southern Andes . William H. Isbell states that "Tiahuanaco underwent

8096-401: The storability of food became important, prompting the development of technologies for freeze-dried potatoes and sun-dried meat. Covering approximately 200 km, the Titicaca Basin is the most productive environment in the area, with predictable and abundant rainfall due to the presence of Lake Titicaca. This body of water provides a warmer temperature and more humid environment. To the east,

8188-519: The upper jaw, a compressed, sharp, pointed laniariform incisor near the hinder edge of the premaxilla is followed in the male at least by a moderate-sized, pointed, curved true canine in the anterior part of the maxilla. The isolated canine-like premolar that follows in the camels is not present. The teeth of the molar series, which are in contact with each other, consist of two very small premolars (the first almost rudimentary) and three broad molars , generally constructed like those of Camelus . In

8280-445: The way llamas might contribute to the fight against coronaviruses, including MERS and SARS-CoV-2 (which causes COVID-19 ). Scholar Alex Chepstow-Lusty has argued that the switch from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle to widespread agriculture was only possible because of the use of llama dung as fertilizer . The Moche people frequently placed llamas and their parts in the burials of important people as offerings or provisions for

8372-507: Was sacrificed was not a native to the Titicaca Basin, leaving room to think that sacrifices were most likely of people originally from other societies. Tiwanaku monumental architecture is characterized by large stones of exceptional workmanship. In contrast to the masonry style of the later Inca , Tiwanaku stone architecture usually employs rectangular ashlar blocks laid in regular courses. Their monumental structures were frequently fitted with elaborate drainage systems. The drainage systems of

8464-594: Was the original home of camelids and that the ancestors of Old World camels crossed over via the Bering Land Bridge from North America. The formation of the Isthmus of Panama three million years ago allowed camelids to spread to South America as part of the Great American Interchange , where they evolved further. Meanwhile, North American camelids died out at the end of the Pleistocene . A full-grown llama can reach

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