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Tipasa , sometimes distinguished as Tipasa in Mauretania , was a colonia in the Roman province Mauretania Caesariensis , nowadays called Tipaza , and located in coastal central Algeria . Since 1982, it has been declared by UNESCO a World Heritage Site . It was declared a World Heritage Site in danger in 2002, but was removed from the danger list in 2006 following conservation efforts.

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158-407: Initially the city was a small ancient Punic trading-post. Conquered by Ancient Rome , it was turned into a military colony by the emperor Claudius for the conquest of the kingdoms of Mauretania . Afterwards it became a municipium called Colonia Aelia Augusta Tipasensium , that reached the population of 20,000 inhabitants in the fourth century according to historian Gsell. The Roman city

316-415: A South Arabian language and were known for their prowess in trade and seafaring, they controlled the southern part of Arabia and had a prosperous economy based on agriculture, commerce, and maritime trade, they were skilled in irrigation and terracing, which allowed them to cultivate crops in the arid environment. The Himyarites converted to Judaism in the 4th century CE, and their rulers became known as

474-502: A praetor . The existing power structures, infrastructure, and urbanized culture continued largely unchanged. In 216 BC, two Sardo-Punic notables from Cornus and Tharros, Hampsicora and Hanno, led a revolt against the Romans. Punic culture remained strong during the first centuries of the Roman domination, but over time the civic elites adopted Roman cultural practices and Latin became first

632-655: A branch of the Azd tribe . They fought alongside the Byzantines against the Sasanians and Arab Lakhmids. Most Ghassanids were Christians, converting to Christianity in the first few centuries, and some merged with Hellenized Christian communities. After the Muslim conquest of the Levant, few Ghassanids became Muslims, and most remained Christian and joined Melkite and Syriac communities within what

790-595: A branch of the Rabi'ah tribe , which was one of the largest Arab tribes in the pre-Islamic period. They were known for their military prowess and played a significant role in the early Islamic period, fighting in battles against the Byzantine and Sassanian empires and contributing to the expansion of the Arab empire. The Osroene Arabs , also known as the Abgarids , were in possession of

948-628: A brief time during the Byzantine occupation in the 6th century but was given the Arabic language name, Tefassed , when Arabs arrived there. The term translated means badly damaged . In the third century Christianity was worshipped by all the Romanised Berbers and Roman colonists of Tipasa. From this period comes the oldest Christian epitaph in Roman Africa dated October 17, 237 AD. In Tipasa were built

1106-539: A century, the population of Carthage rose to 30,000, meanwhile, the "mother city" of Tyre , once the economic and political capital of Phoenicia, began to lose its status in the seventh century BC. Phoenicia was eventually conquered by the Neo-Assyrian Empire , by which point Carthage had become the wealthiest and most powerful of all the Phoenician colonies. Around this time, a distinct culture began to emerge from

1264-534: A clade with ancient Canary Island inhabitants thought to be representative of the original founding population. Surprisingly, no individuals with large amounts of Levantine ancestry were detected in this group of Tunisian Punics. One possible explanation is that the colonial expansion of Phoenician city-states at the start of the Iron Age did not involve large amounts of population mobility, and may have been based on trade relationships rather than occupation. According to

1422-614: A craniometric analysis indicated likely Mediterranean / European ancestry as opposed to African or Asian. In 2016, it was revealed that the individual belonged to the rare U5b2c1, which is the earliest evidence of this European lineage in North Africa. Mitochondrial analysis of 10 Punic samples from the necropolis of Tharros in Sardinia (5th – 3rd century BC) shows affinities with North African and Iberian populations. A recent genetic study has linked haplogroups E-M81, E-FGC18960 and E-V65 to

1580-536: A few individuals, known as the hanifs , followed a form of monotheism . Currently, around 93% of Arabs are Muslims , while the rest are mainly Arab Christians , as well as Arab groups of Druze and Baháʼís . The earliest documented use of the word Arab in reference to a people appears in the Kurkh Monoliths , an Akkadian-language record of the Assyrian conquest of Aram (9th century BCE). The Monoliths used

1738-548: A large territory that extended from Yathrib in the south to parts of the Levant in the north. The Arab genealogies consider the Banu Lihyan to be Ishmaelites , and used Dadanitic language. The Kingdom of Ma'in was an ancient Arab kingdom with a hereditary monarchy system and a focus on agriculture and trade . Proposed dates range from the 15th century BCE to the 1st century CE Its history has been recorded through inscriptions and classical Greek and Roman books, although

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1896-690: A network of universities and libraries that became centers of learning in the Islamic world . They also promoted the arts, architecture, and literature, which flourished under their patronage. One of the most notable achievements of the Fatimids was the construction of the Al-Azhar Mosque and Al-Azhar University in Cairo. Founded in 970 CE, it is one of the oldest universities in the world and remains an important center of Islamic learning to this day. The Fatimids also had

2054-657: A number of high priests of the god El-Gabal , who were also influential in Roman politics and culture. The first ruler of the Emesene dynasty was Sampsiceramus I , who came to power in 64 CE. He was succeeded by his son, Iamblichus , who was followed by his own son, Sampsiceramus II . Under Sampsiceramus II, Emesa became a client kingdom of the Roman Empire , and the dynasty became more closely tied to Roman political and cultural traditions. The Ghassanids , Lakhmids and Kindites were

2212-580: A period of exemplary leadership and guidance. In 661, the Rashidun Caliphate fell into the hands of the Umayyad dynasty and Damascus was established as the empire's capital. The Umayyads were proud of their Arab identity and sponsored the poetry and culture of pre-Islamic Arabia. They established garrison towns at Ramla , Raqqa , Basra , Kufa , Mosul and Samarra , all of which developed into major cities. Caliph Abd al-Malik established Arabic as

2370-684: A powerful windstorm as punishment for their disobedience to God . ʿĀd is regarded as one of the original Arab tribes. The historian Herodotus provided extensive information about Arabia, describing the spices , terrain , folklore , trade , clothing , and weapons of the Arabs. In his third book, he mentioned the Arabs (Άραβες) as a force to be reckoned with in the north of the Arabian Peninsula just before Cambyses ’ campaign against Egypt. Other Greek and Latin authors who wrote about Arabia include Theophrastus , Strabo , Diodorus Siculus , and Pliny

2528-446: A province in the Ka'ba-ye Zartosht inscription of the second Sasanian King of Kings ( shahanshah ) Shapur I ( r.  240–270 ), which was erected in c. 262. The Emesene were a dynasty of Arab priest-kings that ruled the city of Emesa (modern-day Homs , Syria) in the Roman province of Syria from the 1st century CE to the 3rd century CE. The dynasty is notable for producing

2686-491: A quarry, but it is still possible to make out the plan of the building, which was divided into seven aisles. Under the foundations of the church are tombs hewn out of the solid rock. Of these one is circular, with a diameter of 18 m and space for 24 coffins. Under Roman rule the city acquired greater commercial and military importance because of its harbour and its central position on the system of Roman coastal roads in North Africa. A wall of approximately 7,500 feet (2,300 metres)

2844-533: A second at the end of the 9th century BC, documented in written references in both east and west, which culminated in the foundation of colonies in northwest Africa (the cities Auza, Carthage , and Kition ) and formed part of trading networks linked to Tyre , Arvad , Byblos , Berytus , Ekron , and Sidon in the Phoenician homeland. Although links with Phoenicia were retained throughout their history, they also developed close trading relations with other peoples of

3002-664: A significant impact on the development of Islamic theology and jurisprudence . They were known for their support of Shia Islam and their promotion of the Ismaili branch of Shia Islam. Despite their many achievements, the Fatimids faced numerous challenges during their reign. They were constantly at war with neighboring empires, including the Abbasid Caliphate and the Byzantine Empire . They also faced internal conflicts and rebellions, which weakened their empire over time. In 1171 CE,

3160-591: Is a term widely used by early Syriac , Greek , and Armenian to describe the early Arab conquerors of Mesopotamia, Syria and Egypt, refers to the descendants of Hagar, who bore a son named Ishmael to Abraham in the Old Testament. In the Bible, the Hagarenes referred to as "Ishmaelites" or "Arabs." The Arab conquests in the 7th century was a sudden and dramatic conquest led by Arab armies, which quickly conquered much of

3318-551: Is also mentioned in Quranic verses, referring to people who were living in Madina and it might be a south Arabian loanword into Quranic language. The oldest surviving indication of an Arab national identity is an inscription made in an archaic form of Arabic in 328 CE using the Nabataean alphabet , which refers to Imru' al-Qays ibn 'Amr as 'King of all the Arabs'. Herodotus refers to

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3476-495: Is attested by Tertullian in his Apologeticus , where he reports that Tiberius crucified the priests of "Saturn" on the same trees they consecrated to the god. Tertullian also mentions the goddess Juno Caelestis as a romanization of Tanit. Carthage was rebuilt about 46 BC by Julius Caesar , and settlements in the surrounding area were granted to soldiers who had retired from the Roman army. People of Punic origin prospered again as traders, merchants and even politicians of

3634-511: Is believed to have converted to Christianity . The Abgarids played an important role in the early history of Christianity in the region, and Edessa became a center of Christian learning and scholarship . The Kingdom of Hatra was an ancient city located in the region of Mesopotamia , it was founded in the 2nd or 3rd century BCE and flourished as a major center of trade and culture during the Parthian Empire . The rulers of Hatra were known as

3792-469: Is called glory: the right to love beyond measure " (« Je comprends ici ce qu'on appelle gloire : le droit d'aimer sans mesure. »). In 1857, the area was settled again with the creation of the city of Tipaza that now has nearly 30,000 inhabitants. The town and its surroundings is home to the largest Berber-speaking group of western Algeria, the Chenoua people. As a coastal heritage site, Tipasa

3950-555: Is not shared by all scholars. In modern academic writing, the term Punic exclusively refers to Phoenicians in the western Mediterranean. Specific Punic groups are often referred to with hyphenated names, like Siculo-Punic or Sardo-Punic . (This practice has ancient roots: Hellenistic Greek authors sometimes referred to the Punic inhabitants of central northern Africa ( Libya ) as Liby-Phoenicians .) Like other Phoenician people, their urbanized culture and economy were strongly linked to

4108-566: Is now Jordan, Palestine, Syria, and Lebanon. The Salihids were Arab foederati in the 5th century, were ardent Christians, and their period is less documented than the preceding and succeeding periods due to a scarcity of sources. Most references to the Salihids in Arabic sources derive from the work of Hisham ibn al-Kalbi , with the Tarikh of Ya'qubi considered valuable for determining the Salihids' fall and

4266-476: Is only a corruption by one letter of the alphabet of what we would expect: What else should they reply except that they are " Chananei "? It has been argued by J.C. Quinn that this is a misreading, since although this term is "applied to Levantine people" in the Hebrew Bible, "there is no other evidence for self-identification as Canaanite, and so we might suspect him of learned optimism." However, this opinion

4424-510: Is regarded as one of the oldest ancient civilizations in the Middle East . which arose around the 4th millennium BCE and lasted to 538 BCE. Gerrha was an ancient city of Eastern Arabia , on the west side of the Gulf, Gerrha was the center of an Arab kingdom from approximately 650 BCE to circa CE 300. Thamud , which arose around the 1st millennium BCE and lasted to about 300 CE. From the beginning of

4582-536: Is the last ancient writer to indicate that the Punic language was widely spoken. The last remains of a distinct Punic culture probably disappeared somewhere in the chaos during the fall of the Western Roman Empire . The demographic and cultural characteristics of the region were thoroughly transformed by turbulent events such as the Vandals ' wars with Byzantines and the population movements that followed, as well as

4740-451: Is used to refer to Bedouins today, in contrast to ʿArab which refers to Arabs in general. Both terms are mentioned around 40 times in pre-Islamic Sabaean inscriptions. The term ʿarab ('Arab') occurs also in the titles of the Himyarite kings from the time of 'Abu Karab Asad until MadiKarib Ya'fur. According to Sabaean grammar, the term ʾaʿrāb is derived from the term ʿarab . The term

4898-619: Is vulnerable to sea level rise . In 2022, the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report included it in the list of African cultural sites which would be threatened by flooding and coastal erosion by the end of the century. Punic The Punic people , usually known as the Carthaginians (and sometimes as Western Phoenicians ), were a Semitic people who migrated from Phoenicia to the Western Mediterranean during

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5056-617: The 11th century BC , Phoenician merchants , sailors , and artisans begin to settle in western Sicily , having already started colonies on the nearby parts of North Africa . Within a century, they established major Phoenician settlements at Soloeis (Solunto), present day Palermo and Motya (an island near present-day Marsala ). Others included Drepana (Trapani) and Mazara del Vallo . As Carthage later grew in power, these settlements sometimes came into conflict with them, such as Motya, and Phoenician city-states in western Sicily were eventually fully integrated into Carthage by

5214-575: The 6th century BC . The Phoenicians integrated with the local Elymian population as shown in archaeology as a distinctive “West Phoenician cultural identity”. It is unclear when the Phoenicians began to seriously colonize North Africa. Writers in antiquity, such as Pliny the Elder , dated the beginning of the colonization efforts to the 12th and 11th centuries BC, as several legends describe interactions between Phoenician colonists and famous figures from

5372-551: The Akkadians who entered Mesopotamia around the late 4th millennium BCE. The origins of Semitic peoples are thought to include various regions Mesopotamia , the Levant, the Arabian Peninsula, and North Africa . Some view that Semitic may have originated in the Levant around 3800 BCE and subsequently spread to the Horn of Africa around 800 BCE from Arabia, as well as to North Africa. According to Arab– Islamic–Jewish traditions, Ishmael ,

5530-653: The Battle of Edessa in 260 CE. Valerian's capture by the Sassanian king Shapur I was a significant blow to Rome, and it left the empire vulnerable to further attacks. Zenobia was able to capture most of the Near East, including Egypt and parts of Asia Minor. However, their empire was short-lived, as Aurelian was able to defeat the Palmyrenes and recover the lost territories. The Palmyrenes were helped by their Arab allies, but Aurelian

5688-756: The Bible and Quran . Later, in 900 BCE, the Qedarites enjoyed close relations with the nearby Canaanite and Aramaean states, and their territory extended from Lower Egypt to the Southern Levant. From 1200 BCE to 110 BCE, powerful kingdoms emerged such as Saba , Lihyan , Minaean , Qataban , Hadhramaut , Awsan , and Homerite emerged in Arabia. According to the Abrahamic tradition, Arabs are descendants of Abraham through his son Ishmael . During classical antiquity ,

5846-813: The Early Iron Age . In modern scholarship, the term Punic , the Latin equivalent of the Greek-derived term Phoenician , is exclusively used to refer to Phoenicians in the western Mediterranean, following the line of the Greek East and Latin West . The largest Punic settlement was Ancient Carthage , but there were 300 other settlements along the North African coast from Leptis Magna in modern Libya to Mogador in southern Morocco , as well as western Sicily , southern Sardinia ,

6004-757: The Fertile Crescent for thousands of years. In the 9th century BCE, the Assyrians made written references to Arabs as inhabitants of the Levant , Mesopotamia , and Arabia . Throughout the Ancient Near East , Arabs established influential civilizations starting from 3000 BCE onwards, such as Dilmun , Gerrha , and Magan , playing a vital role in trade between Mesopotamia, and the Mediterranean . Other prominent tribes include Midian , ʿĀd , and Thamud mentioned in

6162-541: The Hebrew Bible describing the sacrifice of children by burning to Baal and Moloch at a place called Tophet . The ancient descriptions were seemingly confirmed by the discovering of the so-called Tophet of Salammbô in Carthage in 1921, which contained the urns of cremated children. However, modern historians and archaeologists debate the reality and extent of this practice. Some scholars propose that all remains at

6320-572: The Hijra . Muhammad spent the last ten years of his life engaged in a series of battles to establish and expand the Muslim community. From 622 to 632, he led the Muslims in a state of war against the Meccans. During this period, the Arabs conquered the region of Basra , and under the leadership of Umar , they established a base and built a mosque there. Another conquest was Midian , but due to its harsh environment,

6478-785: The Kutama , in the West of the North African littoral, in Algeria, in 909 conquering Raqqada , the Aghlabid capital. In 921 the Fatimids established the Tunisian city of Mahdia as their new capital. In 948 they shifted their capital to Al-Mansuriya , near Kairouan in Tunisia, and in 969 they conquered Egypt and established Cairo as the capital of their caliphate. The Fatimids were known for their religious tolerance and intellectual achievements, they established

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6636-751: The Latin poenus and punicus , which were used mostly to refer to the Carthaginians and other western Phoenicians. These terms derived from the Ancient Greek word Φοῖνιξ ( "Phoinix" ), plural form Φοίνικες ( "Phoinikes" ), which was used indiscriminately to refer to both western and eastern Phoenicians. Latin later borrowed the Greek term a second time as "Phoenix" , plural form "Phoenices" , also used indiscriminately. Numismatic evidence from Sicily shows that some western Phoenicians made use of

6794-635: The Middle Ages , Islam fostered a vast Arab union, leading to significant Arab migrations to the Maghreb , the Levant , and neighbouring territories under the rule of Arab empires such as the Rashidun , Umayyad , Abbasid , and Fatimid , ultimately leading to the decline of the Byzantine and Sasanian empires. At its peak, Arab territories stretched from southern France to western China , forming one of history's largest empires . The Great Arab Revolt in

6952-415: The Muslim conquest of North Africa in the 7th century AD. After the Muslim conquest of the Maghreb , the geographer al-Bakri described a people who spoke a language which was not Berber , Latin, or Coptic , living in Sirte , where spoken Punic survived well past written use. Whether this refers to some remnant Punic population is uncertain; if it does, it represents the last known record of

7110-503: The Nabataeans established their kingdom with Petra as the capital in 300 BCE, by 271 CE, the Palmyrene Empire with the capital Palmyra , led by Queen Zenobia , encompassed the Syria Palaestina , Arabia Petraea , and Egypt , as well as large parts of Anatolia . The Arab Itureans inhabited Lebanon , Syria , and northern Palestine ( Galilee ) during the Hellenistic and Roman periods. The Osroene and Hatran were Arab kingdoms in Upper Mesopotamia around 200 CE. In 164 CE,

7268-466: The Roman Empire . The emperor Septimius Severus had Punic ancestry. As Christianity spread in the Roman Empire, it was especially successful in northwest Africa , and Carthage became a Christian city even before Christianity was legal. Saint Augustine , born in Thagaste (modern-day Algeria ), considered himself Punic, and left some important reflections on Punic cultural history in his writing. One of his more well known passages reads: Augustine

7426-419: The Sasanians recognized the Arabs as " Arbayistan ", meaning "land of the Arabs," as they were part of Adiabene in upper Mesopotamia. The Arab Emesenes ruled by 46 BCE Emesa ( Homs ), Syria . During late antiquity , the Tanukhids , Salihids , Lakhmids , Kinda , and Ghassanids were dominant Arab tribes in the Levant, Mesopotamia, and Arabia, they predominantly embraced Christianity . During

7584-486: The Semitic languages . with some scholars investigating if its origins are in the Levant . The ancient Semitic-speaking peoples lived in the ancient Near East , including the Levant, Mesopotamia, and the Arabian Peninsula from the 3rd millennium BCE to the end of antiquity. Proto-Semitic likely reached the Arabian Peninsula by the 4th millennium BCE, and its daughter languages spread outward from there, while Old Arabic began to differentiate from Central Semitic by

7742-510: The Sinai Peninsula . The Qedarites were influential in the ancient Near East , and their kingdom played a significant role in the political and economic affairs of the region for several centuries. Sheba ( Arabic : سَبَأٌ Saba ) is kingdom mentioned in the Hebrew Bible ( Old Testament ) and the Quran , though Sabaean was a South Arabian languaged and not an Arabic one. Sheba features in Jewish , Muslim , and Christian traditions, whose lineage goes back to Qahtan son of Hud , one of

7900-400: The Trojan War , such as Aeneas . Archaeological evidence, on the other hand, generally implies that the colonies began in the 8th century BC as, barring a few exceptional sites, any material evidence of Phoenician habitation before this time period is lacking. The Phoenician colonial system was motivated by economic opportunity, not expansionist ideology, and as such, the Phoenicians lacked

8058-427: The Wādī Sirḥān in the Syrian Desert . They were known for their nomadic lifestyle and for their role in the caravan trade that linked the Arabian Peninsula with the Mediterranean world. The Qedarites gradually expanded their territory over the course of the 8th and 7th centuries BCE, and by the 6th century BCE, they had consolidated into a kingdom that covered a large area in northern Arabia, southern Palestine, and

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8216-429: The cultural heritage that has been preserved through the archaeological sites like Ḥajar Asfal. The destruction of the city in the 7th century BCE by the king and Mukarrib of Saba' Karab El Watar is a significant event in the history of South Arabia. It highlights the complex political and social dynamics that characterized the region at the time and the power struggles between different kingdoms and rulers. The victory of

8374-415: The prestige language , and later the speech of the majority of the inhabitants. The island of Ibiza derives its name from Phoenician : 𐤀𐤁𐤔𐤌 , ʾBŠM , "Dedicated to Bes ". (Latin Ebusus ). A city, the Sa Caleta Phoenician Settlement , which has been excavated, was established in the mid-seventh century. Diodorus dates this foundation to 654 BC and attributes it to the Carthaginians. From

8532-416: The river of Egypt to the river Euphrates ; and they built Mecca ." Josephus also lists the sons and states that they "...inhabit the lands which are between Euphrates and the Red Sea , the name of which country is Nabathæa . The Targum Onkelos annotates ( Genesis 25:16 ), describing the extent of their settlements: The Ishmaelites lived from Hindekaia ( India ) to Chalutsa (possibly in Arabia), by

8690-434: The tophet were sacrificed, whereas others propose that only some were. Tunisia was among the areas settled during the first wave of Phoenician expansion into the west, with the foundation of Utica and Hippo Regius taking place around the end of the twelfth century. Further Phoenician settlements, were established in the following centuries, including Hippo Diarrhytus and Hadrumetum . The foundation of Carthage on

8848-426: The tophet , and by a marked degree of cosmopolitanism . Carthage gained direct control over the Cap Bon peninsula, operating a sandstone quarry at El Haouaria from the middle of the seventh city and establishing the city of Kerkouane in the early sixth century. The region was very fertile and allowed Carthage to be economically self-sufficient. The site of Kerkouane has been extensively excavated and provides

9006-402: The "Arabs" who lived in and near what was designated by the Romans as Arabia Petraea (Levant) and Arabia Deserta (Arabia). The Christians of Iberia used the term Moor to describe all the Arabs and Muslims of that time. Arabs of Medina referred to the nomadic tribes of the deserts as the A'raab, and considered themselves sedentary, but were aware of their close racial bonds. Hagarenes

9164-505: The "Kings of the Jews", this conversion was likely influenced by their trade connections with the Jewish communities of the Red Sea region and the Levant, however, the Himyarites also tolerated other religions, including Christianity and the local pagan religions. The Nabataeans were nomadic Arabs who settled in a territory centred around their capital of Petra in what is now Jordan. Their early inscriptions were in Aramaic , but gradually switched to Arabic, and since they had writing, it

9322-519: The 10th century; afterwards, in the 1190s, there was a revival of their power, which was ended by the Mongols , who conquered Baghdad in 1258 and killed the Caliph Al-Musta'sim . Members of the Abbasid royal family escaped the massacre and resorted to Cairo, which had broken from the Abbasid rule two years earlier; the Mamluk generals taking the political side of the kingdom while Abbasid Caliphs were engaged in civil activities and continued patronizing science, arts and literature. The Fatimid caliphate

9480-423: The 2nd century BCE, from their base around Mount Lebanon and the Beqaa Valley , they came to dominate vast stretches of Syrian territory , and appear to have penetrated into northern parts of Palestine as far as the Galilee . Tanukhids were an Arab tribal confederation that lived in the central and eastern Arabian Peninsula during the late ancient and early medieval periods. As mentioned earlier, they were

9638-460: The 2nd century CE, when it controlled much of the southern Arabian Peninsula. The kingdom was known for its impressive architecture , particularly its distinctive towers, which were used as watchtowers, defensive structures, and homes for wealthy families. The people of Hadhramaut were skilled in agriculture, especially in growing frankincense and myrrh. They had a strong maritime culture and traded with India, East Africa, and Southeast Asia. Although

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9796-411: The 2nd century CE. Arabs are first recorded in Palmyra in the late first millennium BCE. The soldiers of the sheikh Zabdibel, who aided the Seleucids in the battle of Raphia (217 BCE), were described as Arabs; Zabdibel and his men were not actually identified as Palmyrenes in the texts, but the name "Zabdibel" is a Palmyrene name leading to the conclusion that the sheikh hailed from Palmyra. After

9954-443: The 5th century BC, Hanno the Navigator played a significant role in exploring coastal areas of present-day Morocco and other parts of the African coast, specifically noting details of indigenous peoples, such as at Essaouira . Carthaginians pushed westerly into the Atlantic and established important settlements in Lixus , Volubilis , Chellah , and Mogador, among other locations. Being trade rivals with Magna Graecia ,

10112-400: The 6th century BCE in Yemen include the term 'Arab'. The most popular Arab account holds that the word Arab came from an eponymous father named Ya'rub , who was supposedly the first to speak Arabic. Abu Muhammad al-Hasan al-Hamdani had another view; he states that Arabs were called gharab ('westerners') by Mesopotamians because Bedouins originally resided to the west of Mesopotamia;

10270-428: The 8th century BC, Phoenicians founded several cities and strongholds on strategic points in the south and west of Sardinia , often peninsulas or islands near estuaries, easy to defend and natural harbours, such as Tharros , Bithia , Sulci , Nora and Caralis ( Cagliari ). The north, the eastern coast and the interior of the island continued to be dominated by the indigenous Nuragic civilization , whose relations with

10428-525: The 8th century, described the Arabs as having Ishmaelite origins. The Quran mentions that Ibrahim (Abraham) and his wife Hajar (Hagar) bore a prophetic child named Ishmael, who was gifted by God a favor above other nations. God ordered Ibrahim to bring Hajar and Ishmael to Mecca , where he prayed for them to be provided with water and fruits. Hajar ran between the hills of Safa and Marwa in search of water, and an angel appeared to them and provided them with water. Ishmael grew up in Mecca. Ibrahim

10586-454: The Arab was an Arab man who opposed Nehemiah in the Hebrew Bible ( Neh . 2:19 , 6:1 ). He was likely the chief of the Arab tribe "Gushamu" and have been a powerful ruler with influence stretching from northern Arabia to Judah. The Arabs and the Samaritans made efforts to hinder Nehemiah's rebuilding of the walls of Jerusalem . The term " Saracens " was a term used in the early centuries, both in Greek and Latin writings, to refer to

10744-427: The Arab empire expanded significantly, conquering territories such as Egypt, Syria , and Iraq . The reign of Uthman ibn Affan was marked by internal dissent and rebellion, which ultimately led to his assassination. Ali, the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad , succeeded Uthman as caliph but faced opposition from some members of the Islamic community who believed he was not rightfully appointed. Despite these challenges,

10902-430: The Arabia. Magan ( Arabic : مِجَانُ , Majan ), known for its production of copper and other metals, the region was an important trading center in ancient times and is mentioned in the Qur'an as a place where Musa ( Moses ) traveled during his lifetime. Midian ( Arabic : مَدْيَن , Madyan ), on the other hand, was a region located in the northwestern part of the Arabia, the people of Midian are mentioned in

11060-402: The Arabs as a distinct group is from an Assyrian scribe recording a battle in 853 BCE. The history of the Arabs during the pre-Islamic period in various regions, including Arabia, Levant, Mesopotamia, and Egypt. The Arabs were mentioned by their neighbors, such as Assyrian and Babylonian Royal Inscriptions from 9th to 6th century BCE, mention the king of Qedar as king of the Arabs and King of

11218-405: The Arabs in the Sinai, southern Palestine, and the frankincense region (Southern Arabia). Other Ancient-Greek historians like Agatharchides , Diodorus Siculus and Strabo mention Arabs living in Mesopotamia (along the Euphrates ), in Egypt (the Sinai and the Red Sea), southern Jordan (the Nabataeans ), the Syrian steppe and in eastern Arabia (the people of Gerrha ). Inscriptions dating to

11376-734: The Arabs might use the resource to manufacture weapons against the Assyrian army. The history of the Arabs in relation to the Bible shows that they were a significant part of the region and played a role in the lives of the Israelites. The study asserts that the Arab nation is an ancient and significant entity; however, it highlights that the Arabs lacked a collective awareness of their unity. They did not inscribe their identity as Arabs or assert exclusive ownership over specific territories. Magan , Midian , and ʿĀd are all ancient tribes or civilizations that are mentioned in Arabic literature and have roots in

11534-404: The Arabs of Adiabene which was an ancient kingdom in northern Mesopotamia , its chief city was Arbela ( Arba-ilu ), where Mar Uqba had a school, or the neighboring Hazzah, by which name the later Arabs also called Arbela. This elaborate Arab presence in upper Mesopotamia was acknowledged by the Sasanians , who called the region Arbayistan , meaning "land of the Arabs", is first attested as

11692-561: The Arsacid dynasty, which was a branch of the Parthian ruling family. However, in the 2nd century CE, the Arab tribe of Banu Tanukh seized control of Hatra and established their own dynasty. The Arab rulers of Hatra assumed the title of "malka," which means king in Arabic, and they often referred to themselves as the "King of the Arabs." The Osroeni and Hatrans were part of several Arab groups or communities in upper Mesopotamia, which also included

11850-566: The Caliphate's official language in 686. Caliph Umar II strove to resolve the conflict when he came to power in 717. He rectified the disparity, demanding that all Muslims be treated as equals, but his intended reforms did not take effect, as he died after only three years of rule. By now, discontent with the Umayyads swept the region and an uprising occurred in which the Abbasids came to power and moved

12008-625: The Carthaginians had several clashes with the Greeks over the island of Sicily in the Sicilian Wars from 600 to 265 BC. The Carthaginians eventually also fought Rome in three Punic Wars between 265 and 146 BC but they were defeated in each one. In the First Punic War , they lost control of Sicily. In the Second Punic War , an invasion of Italy by Hannibal was unsuccessful in forcing

12166-501: The Catholic church by the Vandal king Huneric, the Catholic bishop of Tipasa was expelled and replaced with an Arian bishop—prompting many inhabitants of the city to flee to Spain. In the ensuing decades the city fell into ruin. Encyclopædia Britannica Commercially Tipasa was of considerable importance, but it was not distinguished in art or learning. Christianity was early introduced, and in

12324-889: The Central Arabian tribes with the Kindites with the Lakhmids eventually destroying the Kingdom of Kinda in 540 after the fall of their main ally Himyar . The Persian Sassanids dissolved the Lakhmid dynasty in 602, being under puppet kings, then under their direct control. The Kindites migrated from Yemen along with the Ghassanids and Lakhmids, but were turned back in Bahrain by the Abdul Qais Rabi'a tribe. They returned to Yemen and allied themselves with

12482-495: The Elder . The Jewish historian Flavius Josephus wrote about the Arabs and their king, mentioning their relationship with Cleopatra , the queen of Egypt. The tribute paid by the Arab king to Cleopatra was collected by Herod , the king of the Jews, but the Arab king later became slow in his payments and refused to pay without further deductions. This sheds some light on the relations between the Arabs, Jews, and Egypt at that time. Geshem

12640-545: The Himyarites who installed them as a vassal kingdom that ruled Central Arabia from "Qaryah Dhat Kahl" (the present-day called Qaryat al-Faw). They ruled much of the Northern/Central Arabian peninsula, until they were destroyed by the Lakhmid king Al-Mundhir , and his son 'Amr . The Ghassanids were an Arab tribe in the Levant in the early third century. According to Arab genealogical tradition, they were considered

12798-610: The Ishmaelites. Of the names of the sons of Ishmael the names "Nabat, Kedar, Abdeel, Dumah, Massa, and Teman" were mentioned in the Assyrian Royal Inscriptions as tribes of the Ishmaelites. Jesur was mentioned in Greek inscriptions in the 1st century BCE. There are also records from Sargon's reign that mention sellers of iron to people called Arabs in Ḫuzaza in Babylon , causing Sargon to prohibit such trade out of fear that

12956-581: The Mediterranean and beyond, to Atlantic Iberia, the British Isles , the Canaries . Technical achievements of the Punic people of Carthage include the development of uncolored glass and the use of limestone from lakeside deposits to improve the purity of smelted iron . The Punic religion was a direct continuation of the Phoenician variety of the polytheistic ancient Canaanite religion . At Carthage,

13114-666: The Middle East, North Africa, and Spain. It was a significant moment for Islam , which saw itself as the successor of Judaism and Christianity. The term ʾiʿrāb has the same root refers to the Bedouin tribes of the desert who rejected Islam and resisted Muhammad.( Quran 9:97 ) The 14th century Kebra Nagast says "And therefore the children of Ishmael became kings over Tereb , and over Kebet , and over Nôbâ , and Sôba , and Kuergue , and Kîfî , and Mâkâ , and Môrnâ , and Fînḳânâ , and ’Arsîbânâ , and Lîbâ , and Mase'a , for they were

13272-595: The Punic population of Ibiza was primarily male dominated. According to Olalde et al. (2018): According to Fernandes et al. (2020): According to Marcus et al. (2020): Two other studies published in 2021 in the journal Annals of Human Biology also show a strong genetic proximity with the populations of North Africa of several individuals from Sardinia and Italy. According to Sarno, Cillion, de Fanti, et al. (2021): Accorging to de Angelis, Veltre, Romboni, et al. (2021): In 2022, 30 ancient individuals from Carthaginian and Etruscan port cities around

13430-495: The Qur'an as having worshiped idols and having been punished by God for their disobedience. Moses also lived in Midian for a time, where he married and worked as a shepherd. ʿĀd ( Arabic : عَادَ , ʿĀd ), as mentioned earlier, was an ancient tribe that lived in the southern Arabia, the tribe was known for its wealth, power, and advanced technology, but they were ultimately destroyed by

13588-731: The Rashidun Empire, the Umayyad Empire, the Abbasid Empire, the Fatimid Empire, among others. These empires were characterized by their expansion, scientific achievements, and cultural flourishing, extended from Spain to India . The region was vibrant and dynamic during the Middle Ages and left a lasting impact on the world. The rise of Islam began when Muhammad and his followers migrated from Mecca to Medina in an event known as

13746-636: The Rashidun era is remembered as a time of great progress and achievement in Arab and Islamic history, the caliphs established a system of governance that emphasized justice and equality for all members of the Islamic community. They also oversaw the compilation of the Quran into a single text and spread Arabic teachings and principles throughout the empire. Overall, the Rashidun era played a crucial role in shaping Arab history and continues to be revered by Muslims worldwide as

13904-411: The Rashidun era, the Arab community expanded rapidly, conquering many territories and establishing a vast Arab empire, which is marked by the reign of the first four caliphs, or leaders, of the Arab community. These caliphs are Abu Bakr , Umar , Uthman and Ali , who are collectively known as the Rashidun, meaning "rightly guided." The Rashidun era is significant in Arab and Islamic history as it marks

14062-487: The Romans as Sardus Pater and apparently an indigenous deity) received worship as the son of Melqart and was particularly associated with the island. The Carthaginians appear to have had both part-time and full-time priests, the latter called khnm (singular khn , cognate with the Hebrew term kohen ), led by high priests called rb khnm , as well as lower-ranking religious officials, called "servants" or "slaves" of

14220-557: The Romans to surrender and the Carthaginians were subsequently defeated by Scipio Africanus in Spain and at the Battle of Zama in northern Africa in 202 BC, marking the end of Carthage's position as a major Mediterranean power. Finally, in the Third Punic War , Carthage was destroyed in 146 BC. Victory in the Punic Wars enabled Roman settlement of Africa and eventual domination of

14378-482: The Sabaeans over Awsān is also a testament to the military might and strategic prowess of the Sabaeans, who were one of the most powerful and influential kingdoms in the region. The Himyarite Kingdom or Himyar, was an ancient kingdom that existed from around the 2nd century BCE to the 6th century CE. It was centered in the city of Zafar , which is located in present-day Yemen. The Himyarites were an Arab people who spoke

14536-498: The Sardo-Punic cities were mixed, including both trade and military conflict. Intermarriage and cultural mixing took place on a large scale. The inhabitants of the Sardo-Punic cities were a mixture of Phoenician and Nuragic stock, with the latter forming the majority of the population. Sardinia had a special position because it was central in the western Mediterranean between Carthage, Spain, the river Rhône , and Etruria . Iglesiente

14694-620: The addition of Steppe-related ancestry . A second cluster contains seven individuals who are genetically similar to Bronze Age Sicilian and central Italian populations, as well as some individuals from the Hellenistic Iberian Greek colony of Empúries . A last individual, who projects near modern Mozabite and Moroccan populations in PCA space can be modelled with a combination Morocco Early Neolithic and Anatolia Neolithic ancestry. When compared to other ancient individuals, this individual forms

14852-476: The admixture of local customs with Phoenician traditions, which also gave rise to a nascent sense of national identity. Tyre's status and power continued to diminish under Neo-Assyrian, and subsequently Neo-Babylonian , vassalage, and by the sixth century BC, its voluntary submission to the Achaemenid Empire had severely circumscribed what little power it retained. Its status as the pre-eminent Phoenician city

15010-550: The ancestors of the Arabs, Sheba was mentioned in Assyrian inscriptions and in the writings of Greek and Roman writers. One of the ancient written references that also spoke of Sheba is the Old Testament, which stated that the people of Sheba supplied Syria and Egypt with incense, especially frankincense, and exported gold and precious stones to them. The Queen of Sheba who travelled to Jerusalem to question King Solomon , great caravan of camels , carrying gifts of gold , precious stones , and spices , when she arrived, she

15168-507: The authors: Arabs The Arabs ( Arabic : عَرَب , DIN 31635 : ʿarab , Arabic pronunciation : [ˈʕɑ.rɑb] ), also known as the Arab people ( الشَّعْبَ الْعَرَبِيّ ), are an ethnic group mainly inhabiting the Arab world in West Asia and North Africa . A significant Arab diaspora is present in various parts of the world. Arabs have been in

15326-424: The beginning of the Arab empire and the spread of Islam beyond the Arabian Peninsula. During this time, the Arab community faced numerous challenges, including internal divisions and external threats from neighboring empires. Under the leadership of Abu Bakr, the Arab community successfully quelled a rebellion by some tribes who refused to pay Zakat , or Islamic charity. During the reign of Umar ibn al-Khattab,

15484-507: The best-known example of a Punic city from North Africa. Punic control also extended inland over the Libyans . Punic influence on inland regions is seen from the early 6th century, notably at Althiburos , where Punic construction techniques and red-slip pottery appear at the time. Armed conflicts with the Libyans are first attested in the early 5th century, with several revolts attested in

15642-549: The biggest basilicas of actual Algeria: the Alexander basilica and the basilica of Saint Salsa. At the end of the seventh century the city was destroyed by the Arabs and reduced to ruins. Inside the Roman ruins, facing the sea and Mount Chenoua, a stele was erected in 1961 in honor of Albert Camus with this phrase in French, extracted from his work Noces à Tipas a: “I understand here what

15800-568: The capital to Baghdad . Umayyads expanded their Empire westwards capturing North Africa from the Byzantines. Before the Arab conquest, North Africa was conquered or settled by various people including Punics , Vandals and Romans. After the Abbasid Revolution , the Umayyads lost most of their territories with the exception of Iberia. Their last holding became known as the Emirate of Córdoba . It

15958-706: The central Mediterranean, in Tunisia, Sardinia, and central Italy were sequenced. In Tunisia a highly heterogeneous population was observed in Kerkouane , spanning from modern Mozabite populations to modern Sicilian populations, consisting of three primary genetic clusters. One of the genetic groups includes four individuals who have genetic continuity with preceding Maghrebi neolithic farmers, suggesting that these individuals represent an autochthonous North African population. One individual can be modeled with 100% Morocco Late Neolithic farmer ancestry, while three individuals can be modeled predominantly with this component, along with

16116-690: The chief gods were Baal Hammon (purportedly "Lord of the Brazier ") and his consort Tanit , but other deities are attested, such as Eshmun , Melqart , Ashtart , Reshef , Sakon, and Shamash . The Carthaginians also adopted the Greek goddesses Demeter and Kore in 396 BC, as well as the Egyptian deities Bes , Bastet , Isis , Osiris , and Ra . Different Punic centres had their own distinct pantheons; in Punic Sardinia, for example, Sid or Sid Babi (known to

16274-486: The city of Baghdad and declared it the capital of the Caliphate. Unlike the Umayyads, the Abbasids had the support of non-Arab subjects. The Islamic Golden Age was inaugurated by the middle of the 8th century by the ascension of the Abbasid Caliphate and the transfer of the capital from Damascus to the newly founded city of Baghdad . The Abbasids were influenced by the Quranic injunctions and hadith such as "The ink of

16432-470: The city of Edessa in the ancient Near East for a significant period of time. Edessa was located in the region of Osroene, which was an ancient kingdom that existed from the 2nd century BCE to the 3rd century CE. They established a dynasty known as the Abgarids, which ruled Edessa for several centuries. The most famous ruler of the dynasty was Abgar V , who is said to have corresponded with Jesus Christ and

16590-561: The death of Muhammad in 632, Rashidun armies launched campaigns of conquest, establishing the Caliphate , or Islamic Empire, one of the largest empires in history . It was larger and lasted longer than the previous Arab empire Tanukhids of Queen Mawia or the Arab Palmyrene Empire . The Rashidun state was a completely new state and unlike the Arab kingdoms of its century such as the Himyarite , Lakhmids or Ghassanids . During

16748-411: The destruction of Carthage in 146 BC, but the Punic language and Punic culture endured under Roman rule, surviving in some places until late antiquity . The English adjective "Punic" is used in modern academic writing to refer to the western Phoenicians. The proper nouns "Punics" and "Punes" were used in the 16th century, but are obsolete and there is no proper noun in current use. "Punic" derives from

16906-500: The diffusion of the Phoenician language in the Western Mediterranean. According to Penninx (2019): Recent genetics studies based on Ancient DNA showed that Punic people from Sardinia, Ibiza, South Iberia and Italy had strong genetic relationships to ancient north African and eastern Mediterranean sources. Zalloua, P., Collins, C.J., Gosling, A. et al. in 2018 showed that Eastern Mediterranean and North African influence in

17064-436: The early 1st millennium BCE till the late 1st or 2nd centuries CE. It developed into a centralized state in the 6th century BCE with two co-kings ruling poles. Qataban expanded its territory, including the conquest of Ma'in and successful campaigns against the Sabaeans. It challenged the supremacy of the Sabaeans in the region and waged a successful war against Hadramawt in the 3rd century BCE. Qataban's power declined in

17222-523: The early 20th century aided in dismantling the Ottoman Empire , ultimately leading to the formation of the Arab League on 22 March 1945, with its Charter endorsing the principle of a " unified Arab homeland ". Arabs from Morocco to Iraq share a common bond based on ethnicity, language , culture , history , identity , ancestry , nationalism , geography , unity , and politics , which give

17380-456: The emergence of the name. It is also possible that some forms were metathetical from ʿ-B-R , 'moving around' (Arabic: ʿ-B-R , 'traverse') and hence, it is alleged, 'nomadic'. Arabic is a Semitic language that belongs to the Afroasiatic language family . The majority of scholars accept the " Arabian peninsula " has long been accepted as the original Urheimat (linguistic homeland) of

17538-668: The entire Sassanid Empire and more than two-thirds of the Eastern Roman Empire . However, the reign of Ali ibn Abi Talib , the fourth caliph, was marred by the First Fitna , or the First Islamic Civil War, which lasted throughout his rule. After a peace treaty with Hassan ibn Ali and the suppression of early Kharijite disturbances, Muawiyah I became the Caliph. This marked a significant transition in leadership. After

17696-406: The entire Mediterranean Sea. The destruction of Carthage did not mean the end of the Punic people. After the wars, the city of Carthage was completely razed and the land around it was turned into farmland for Roman citizens. There were, however, other Punic cities in northwest Africa, and Carthage itself was rebuilt and regained some importance, if a shadow of its ancient influence. Although the area

17854-535: The exact start and end dates of the kingdom are still debated. The Ma'in people had a local governance system with councils called "Mazood," and each city had its own temple that housed one or more gods. They also adopted the Phoenician alphabet and used it to write their language. The kingdom eventually fell to the Arab Sabaean people. Qataban was an ancient kingdom located in the South Arabia , which existed from

18012-498: The first millennium BCE, Proto-Arabic , or Ancient North Arabian , texts give a clearer picture of the Arabs' emergence. The earliest are written in variants of epigraphic south Arabian musnad script, including the 8th century BCE Hasaean inscriptions of eastern Saudi Arabia, the Thamudic texts found throughout the Arabian Peninsula and Sinai . The Qedarites were a largely nomadic ancient Arab tribal confederation centred in

18170-402: The following centuries, leading to its annexation by Hadramawt and Ḥimyar in the 1st century CE. The Kingdom of Hadhramaut it was known for its rich cultural heritage , as well as its strategic location along important trade routes that connected the Middle East , South Asia , and East Africa . The Kingdom was established around the 3rd century BCE, and it reached its peak during

18328-491: The fourth century (398, 370s, 310-307 BC). In the late 4th century, Aristotle reports that the Carthaginians dealt with local discontent by resettling poor citizens in cities in Libya. These settlements had to provide tribute and military manpower when required, but remained self-governing. There is some onomastic evidence for intermarriage between Punic people and Libyans in the 4th and 3rd centuries BC. From

18486-497: The harbour, in a small chapel which gave place subsequently to the stately basilica. Salsa's martyrdom took place in the 4th century. In 484 the Vandal king Huneric (477‑484) sent an Arian bishop to Tipaza; whereupon many of the inhabitants fled to Spain , while many of the remainder were cruelly persecuted. Tipasa was partially destroyed by the Vandals in 430, but was rebuilt by the Byzantines one century later. Tipasa revived for

18644-422: The kingdom declined in the 4th century, Hadhramaut remained a cultural and economic center. Its legacy can still be seen today. The ancient Kingdom of Awsān (8th–7th century BCE) was indeed one of the most important small kingdoms of South Arabia , and its capital Ḥajar Yaḥirr was a significant center of trade and commerce in the ancient world. It is fascinating to learn about the rich history of this region and

18802-499: The largest and most powerful of these city-states by the 5th century BC and gained increasingly close control over Punic Sicily and Sardinia in the 4th century BC, but communities in Iberia remained outside their control until the second half of the 3rd century BC. In the course of the Punic wars (264–146 BC), the Romans challenged Carthaginian hegemony in the western Mediterranean, culminating in

18960-550: The last major migration of pre-Islamic Arabs out of Yemen to the north. The Ghassanids increased the Semitic presence in then-Hellenized Syria , the majority of Semites were Aramaic peoples. They mainly settled in the Hauran region and spread to modern Lebanon , Palestine and Jordan . Greeks and Romans referred to all the nomadic population of the desert in the Near East as Arabi. The Romans called Yemen " Arabia Felix ". The Romans called

19118-465: The leader of a Berber rebellion that had overrun the nearby cities of Caesarea (modern Cherchell) and Icosium (modern Algiers). Tipasa then served as the base for the Roman counter-campaign. However, Tipasa's fortifications did not prevent the city from being conquered by the Vandals about 429, bringing to an end the prosperity that the city had enjoyed during the Roman period. In 484, during the persecution of

19276-531: The numbers or even the desire to establish an "empire" overseas. The colonies were therefore independent city-states, though most were relatively small, probably having a population of less than 1,000. Some colonies, such as Carthage , were able to grow much larger. Effectively establishing a monopoly on the continent's natural resources, the colonies' wealth exploded, which was compounded by an influx of Phoenician traders fleeing from increasing tributary obligations to foreign powers and trade interference. Within

19434-506: The people's existence. In 1994, a Punic burial crypt was discovered on Byrsa Hill, near the entry to the National Museum of Carthage in Tunisia. Inside this crypt were the remains of a young man along with a range of burial goods, all dating to the late 6th century BCE. An osteological analysis of the young man from Byrsa, or Ariche, as he has become known, determined that he was approximately 1.7 m tall and aged between 19 and 24 years, and

19592-401: The ramparts can be distinctly traced and at the foot of the eastern hill the remains of the ancient harbour. The basilicas are surrounded by cemeteries, which are full of coffins, all of stone and covered with mosaics . The basilica of St. Salsa, which has been excavated by Stéphane Gsell, consists of a nave and two aisles, and still contains a mosaic. The Great Basilica served for centuries as

19750-707: The region a distinct identity and distinguish it from other parts of the Muslim world . They also have their own customs, literature , music , dance , media , food , clothing , society, sports , architecture , art and, mythology . Arabs have significantly influenced and contributed to human progress in many fields, including science , technology , philosophy , ethics , literature , politics , business , art , music , comedy , theatre, cinema , architecture , food , medicine , and religion . Before Islam , most Arabs followed polytheistic Semitic religion , while some tribes adopted Judaism or Christianity and

19908-413: The sanctuary (male: ˤbd , female: ˤbdt or mt ), and functionaries like cooks, butchers, singers, and barbers. Sanctuaries had associations, referred to as mrzḥ in Punic and Neo-Punic inscriptions, who held ritual banquets. Some Phoenician communities practiced sacred prostitution ; in the Punic sphere this is archeologically attested at Sicca Veneria ( El Kef ) in western Tunisia and

20066-583: The sanctuary of Venus Erycina at Eryx in western Sicily. Punic sacred prostitution is mentioned by Latin author Valerius Maximus , who describes how Carthaginian women gained gifts by engaging in prostitution with visitors at Sicca Veneria. Various Greek and Roman sources describe and criticize the Carthaginian practice of sacrificing children by burning. Many ancient Greek and Latin authors describe some version of child sacrifice to "Cronos" (Baal Hammon). These descriptions were compared to those found in

20224-822: The scholar is more holy than the blood of martyrs" stressing the value of knowledge. During this period the Arab Empire became an intellectual centre for science, philosophy, medicine and education as the Abbasids championed the cause of knowledge and established the " House of Wisdom " ( Arabic : بيت الحكمة ) in Baghdad. Rival dynasties such as the Fatimids of Egypt and the Umayyads of al-Andalus were also major intellectual centres with cities such as Cairo and Córdoba rivaling Baghdad . The Abbasids ruled for 200 years before they lost their central control when Wilayas began to fracture in

20382-464: The sea. They settled over Northwest Africa in what is now Algeria , Morocco, Tunisia and Libya and established some colonies in Southern Iberia, Sardinia, Sicily, Ebusus , Malta and other small islands of the western Mediterranean. In Sardinia and Sicily, they had strong economic and political ties to the independent natives in the hinterland. Their naval presence and trade extended throughout

20540-499: The seed of Shem ." Limited local historical coverage of these civilizations means that archaeological evidence, foreign accounts and Arab oral traditions are largely relied on to reconstruct this period. Prominent civilizations at the time included, Dilmun civilization was an important trading centre which at the height of its power controlled the Arabian Gulf trading routes. The Sumerians regarded Dilmun as holy land . Dilmun

20698-439: The settlers eventually moved to Kufa . Umar successfully defeated rebellions by various Arab tribes, bringing stability to the entire Arabian peninsula and unifying it. Under the leadership of Uthman , the Arab empire expanded through the conquest of Persia , with the capture of Fars in 650 and parts of Khorasan in 651. The conquest of Armenia also began in the 640s. During this time, the Rashidun Empire extended its rule over

20856-400: The side of Mizraim (Egypt), and from the area around Arthur ( Assyria ) up towards the north. This description suggests that the Ishmaelites were a widely dispersed group with a presence across a significant portion of the ancient Near East. The nomads of Arabia have been spreading through the desert fringes of the Fertile Crescent since at least 3000 BCE, but the first known reference to

21014-421: The site of modern Tunis is dated to the late 9th century BC by Greek literary sources and archaeological evidence. The literary sources attribute the foundation to a group of Tyrian refugees led by Dido and accompanied by Cypriots . Archaeologically, the new foundation is characterised by the focus of religious cult on the gods Tanit and Baal Hammon , by the development of a new religious structure,

21172-447: The son of Abraham and Hagar was "father of the Arabs". The Book of Genesis narrates that God promised Hagar to beget from Ishmael twelve princes and turn his descendants into a " great nation" . Ishmael was considered the ancestor of the Islamic prophet Muhammad , the founder of Islam . The tribes of Central West Arabia called themselves the "people of Abraham and the offspring of Ishmael." Ibn Khaldun , an Arab scholar in

21330-524: The southern and eastern coasts of the Iberian Peninsula , Malta , and Ibiza . Their language, Punic , was a variety of Phoenician , one of the Northwest Semitic languages originating in the Levant . Literary sources report two moments of Tyrian settlements in the west, the first in the 12th century BC (the cities Utica , Lixus , and Gadir ) that hasn't been confirmed by archaeology, and

21488-405: The start of the 1st millennium BCE. Central Semitic is a branch of the Semitic language includes Arabic, Aramaic , Canaanite , Phoenician , Hebrew and others. The origins of Proto-Semitic may lie in the Arabian Peninsula, with the language spreading from there to other regions. This theory proposes that Semitic peoples reached Mesopotamia and other areas from the deserts to the west, such as

21646-408: The term "Phoinix", but it is not clear what term (if any) they used for themselves; they may have called themselves 𐤊𐤍𐤏𐤍𐤌 ( knʿnm , " Canaanites "). A passage from Augustine has often been interpreted as indicating that they called themselves Canaanites ( Chanani in Latin ), Augustine writes: When our rural peasants are asked what they are , they reply, in Punic, " Chanani ", which

21804-547: The term to refer to Bedouins of the Arabian Peninsula under King Gindibu , who fought as part of a coalition opposed to Assyria . Listed among the booty captured by the army of the Assyrian king Shalmaneser III in the Battle of Qarqar (853 BCE) are 1000 camels of " Gîndibuʾ the Arbâya " or "[the man] Gindibu belonging to the Arabs " ( ar-ba-a-a being an adjectival nisba of the noun ʿArab ). The related word ʾaʿrāb

21962-548: The term was then corrupted into Arab . Yet another view is held by al-Masudi that the word Arab was initially applied to the Ishmaelites of the Arabah valley. In Biblical etymology, Arab (Hebrew: arvi ) comes from the desert origin of the Bedouins it originally described ( arava means 'wilderness'). The root ʿ-r-b has several additional meanings in Semitic languages—including 'west, sunset', 'desert', 'mingle', 'mixed', 'merchant' and 'raven'—and are "comprehensible" with all of these having varying degrees of relevance to

22120-449: The terms of their foedus with the Byzantines. During the Middle Ages , Arab civilization flourished and the Arabs made significant contributions to the fields of science , mathematics , medicine , philosophy , and literature , with the rise of great cities like Baghdad , Cairo , and Cordoba , they became centers of learning, attracting scholars, scientists, and intellectuals. Arabs forged many empires and dynasties, most notably,

22278-409: The third century Tipasa was an episcopal see , now inscribed in the Catholic Church 's list of titular sees . Most of the inhabitants continued to be non-Christian until, according to the legend, Salsa, a Christian maiden, threw the head of their serpent idol into the sea, whereupon the enraged populace stoned her to death. The body, miraculously recovered from the sea, was buried, on the hill above

22436-445: The vassal nomadic states within the Roman Empire Arabia Petraea , after the city of Petra , and called unconquered deserts bordering the empire to the south and east Arabia Magna . The Lakhmids as a dynasty inherited their power from the Tanukhids , the mid Tigris region around their capital Al-Hira . They ended up allying with the Sassanids against the Ghassanids and the Byzantine Empire . The Lakhmids contested control of

22594-422: The western Mediterranean, such as Sicilians, Sardinians, Berbers , Greeks, and Iberians , and developed some cultural traits distinct from those of their Phoenician homeland. Some of these were shared by all western Phoenicians, while others were restricted to individual regions within the Punic sphere. The western Phoenicians were arranged into a multitude of self-governing city-states. Carthage had grown to be

22752-439: Was a powerful and highly organized ancient Arab kingdom that played a vital cultural and economic role in the north-western region of the Arabian Peninsula and used Dadanitic language. The Lihyanites were known for their advanced organization and governance, and they played a significant role in the cultural and economic life of the region. The kingdom was centered around the city of Dedan (modern-day Al Ula ), and it controlled

22910-404: Was also able to leverage his own alliances to defeat Zenobia and her army. Ultimately, the Palmyrene Empire lasted only a few years, but it had a significant impact on the history of the Roman Empire and the Near East. Most scholars identify the Itureans as an Arab people who inhabited the region of Iturea, emerged as a prominent power in the region after the decline of the Seleucid Empire in

23068-474: Was an important mining area for the metals lead and zinc . The island came under Carthaginian dominance around 510 BC, after that a first attempt at conquest in 540 BC that ended in failure. They expanded their influence to the western and southern coast from Bosa to Caralis, consolidating the existing Phoenician settlements, administered by plenipotentiaries called Suffetes , and founding new ones such as Olbia , Cornus , and Neapolis ; Tharros

23226-455: Was based on the cultivation of frankincense and myrrh, these highly valued aromatic resins were exported to Egypt, Greece, and Rome , making the Sabaeans wealthy and powerful, they also traded in spices, textiles, and other luxury goods. The Maʾrib Dam was one of the greatest engineering achievements of the ancient world, and it provided water for the city of Maʾrib and the surrounding agricultural lands. Lihyan also called Dadān or Dedan

23384-441: Was built around the city for defense against nomadic tribes, and Roman public buildings and districts of houses were constructed within the enclosure. Tipasa became an important centre of Christianity in the 3rd century. The first Christian inscription in Tipasa dates to 238, and the city saw the construction of numerous Christian religious buildings in the later 3rd and 4th centuries.....About 372 Tipasa withstood an assault by Firmus,

23542-449: Was built on three small hills which overlooked the sea, nearly 20 km. east from Caesarea (capital of Mauretania Caesariensis ). Of the houses, most of which stood on the central hill, no traces remain; but there are ruins of three churches — the Great Basilica and the Basilica Alexander on the western hill, and the Basilica of St Salsa on the eastern hill, two cemeteries, the baths, theatre, amphitheatre and nymphaeum. The line of

23700-415: Was divided into small kingdoms . The Abbasids were the descendants of Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib , one of the youngest uncles of Muhammad and of the same Banu Hashim clan. The Abbasids led a revolt against the Umayyads and defeated them in the Battle of the Zab effectively ending their rule in all parts of the Empire with the exception of al-Andalus. In 762, the second Abbasid Caliph al-Mansur founded

23858-418: Was founded by al-Mahdi Billah , a descendant of Fatimah , the daughter of Muhammad, the Fatimid Caliphate was a Shia that existed from 909 to 1171 CE. The empire was based in North Africa, with its capital in Cairo , and at its height, it controlled a vast territory that included parts of modern-day Egypt , Libya , Tunisia , Algeria , Morocco , Syria , and Palestine . The Fatimid state took shape among

24016-602: Was impressed by the wisdom and wealth of King Solomon, and she posed a series of difficult questions to him. King Solomon was able to answer all of her questions, and the Queen of Sheba was impressed by his wisdom and his wealth.( 1 Kings 10 ) Sabaeans are mentioned several times in the Hebrew Bible . In the Quran , they are described as either Sabaʾ ( سَبَأ , not to be confused with Ṣābiʾ , صَابِئ ), or as Qawm Tubbaʿ (Arabic: قَوْم تُبَّع , lit.   'People of Tubbaʿ'). They were known for their prosperous trade and agricultural economy, which

24174-443: Was later ordered to sacrifice Ishmael in a dream, but God intervened and replaced him with a goat. Ibrahim and Ishmael then built the Kaaba in Mecca, which was originally constructed by Adam . According to the Samaritan book Asaṭīr adds: "And after the death of Abraham, Ishmael reigned twenty-seven years; And all the children of Nebaot ruled for one year in the lifetime of Ishmael; And for thirty years after his death from

24332-422: Was not until the rule of the grandson of the founder of this new emirate that the state entered a new phase as the Caliphate of Córdoba . This new state was characterized by an expansion of trade, culture and knowledge, and saw the construction of masterpieces of al-Andalus architecture and the library of Al-Ḥakam II which housed over 400,000 volumes. With the collapse of the Umayyad state in 1031 CE, Al-Andalus

24490-434: Was partially romanized and some of the population adopted the Roman religion , while fusing it with aspects of their beliefs and customs, the language and the ethnicity persisted for some time. The cult to Baal Hammon, and the consequent sacrifice of children, though banned by Rome, continued openly under the guise of worshipping Saturn until at least the proconsulate of Tiberius Iulius Secundus in Africa (131–132). This

24648-418: Was probably the main centre. Carthage encouraged the cultivation of grain and cereals and prohibited fruit trees . Tharros, Nora, Bithia, Monte Sirai etc. are now important archaeological sites where Punic architecture and city planning can be studied. In 238 BC, following the First Punic War the Romans took over the whole island, incorporating it into the province of Corsica et Sardinia , under

24806-401: Was then usurped by its rival city-state, Sidon – but Sidon too was under Persian subjugation, leading the way for Carthage to fill the power vacuum as the leading Phoenician political power. With Phoenicia's decline, Carthage had become effectively independent from Tyre by 650 BC. Carthaginians carried out significant sea explorations around Africa and elsewhere from their base in Carthage. In

24964-575: Was they who made the first inscriptions in Arabic. The Nabataean alphabet was adopted by Arabs to the south, and evolved into modern Arabic script around the 4th century. This is attested by Safaitic inscriptions (beginning in the 1st century BCE) and the many Arabic personal names in Nabataean inscriptions. From about the 2nd century BCE, a few inscriptions from Qaryat al-Faw reveal a dialect no longer considered proto-Arabic , but pre-classical Arabic . Five Syriac inscriptions mentioning Arabs have been found at Sumatar Harabesi , one of which dates to

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