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55-619: The river has a karst character . It receives much of its water through subterranean flow from the Reka River ( Slovenia ), but tracer studies have shown that other sinking rivers, Vipava , Soča , and Raša also contribute. From modelling results, the Timavo is believed to receive one third of its flow from the Reka and two-thirds of its flow from infiltration of precipitation into the Karst Plateau , and to

110-453: A /dʒənmə/ > Urdu جنم and Hindi जनम ja n a m /dʒənəm/ "Birth" More examples In case of a narrow range of Hungarian nouns, metathesis of a h sound and a liquid consonant occurs in nominative case , but the original form is preserved in accusative and other suffixed forms: The other instances are boholy [intestinal] villus/fluff/fuzz/nap vs. bolyhok , moholy vs. molyhos down/pubescence [on plants], and

165-485: A 1918 publication, Cvijić proposed a cyclical model for karst landscape development. Karst hydrology emerged as a discipline in the late 1950s and the early 1960s in France. Previously, the activities of cave explorers, called speleologists , had been dismissed as more of a sport than a science and so the underground karst caves and their associated watercourses were, from a scientific perspective, understudied. Karst

220-551: A Form X verbal noun). Perhaps the clearest example of metathesis in Egyptian Arabic is the modern name of the city of Alexandria : ( Al- ) Iskandariya ( الإسكندرية ). In addition to the metathesis of x /ks/ to /sk/, the initial Al of Alexandria has been reanalyzed as the Arabic definite article. Metathesis is responsible for some common speech errors , such as children acquiring spaghetti as pasketti . The word ask has

275-586: A different order"; Latin : transpositio ) is the transposition of sounds or syllables in a word or of words in a sentence. Most commonly, it refers to the interchange of two or more contiguous segments or syllables, known as adjacent metathesis or local metathesis : Metathesis may also involve interchanging non-contiguous sounds, known as nonadjacent metathesis , long-distance metathesis , or hyperthesis , as shown in these examples of metathesis sound change from Latin to Spanish: Many languages have words that show this phenomenon, and some even use it as

330-601: A fellow of the Royal Society , London, introduced the word karst to European scholars in 1689 to describe the phenomenon of underground flows of rivers in his account of Lake Cerknica . Jovan Cvijić greatly advanced the knowledge of karst regions to the point where he became known as the "father of karst geomorphology". Primarily discussing the karst regions of the Balkans, Cvijić's 1893 publication Das Karstphänomen describes landforms such as karren, dolines and poljes . In

385-517: A lesser extent from the other sinking river sources. The Roman authors Livy , Strabo , and Virgil mention the river. Virgil wrote that nine streams emerge from a mountain to form the river. A Roman settlement near the sources was called Fons Timavi. An Italian passenger liner called the Timavo ran aground during the Second World War on the east coast of South Africa near Cape Vidal. The engine of

440-521: A major role in the formation of ancient Lechuguilla Cave in the US state of New Mexico and is presently active in the Frasassi Caves of Italy. The oxidation of sulfides leading to the formation of sulfuric acid can also be one of the corrosion factors in karst formation. As oxygen (O 2 )-rich surface waters seep into deep anoxic karst systems, they bring oxygen, which reacts with sulfide present in

495-406: A pre-specified initial and final location in reference to the body of the person signing (such as the signs RESTAURANT, PARENT, or TWINS) can have the order of these two locations reversed in contexts which seem to be purely phonological. While not possible with all signs, this does happen with quite a few. For example, the sign DEAF, prototypically made with the "1" handshape making contact first with

550-489: A regular part of their grammar, such as Hebrew and Fur . The process of metathesis has altered the shape of many familiar words in English as well. The original form before metathesis may be deduced from older forms of words in the language's lexicon or, if no forms are preserved, from phonological reconstruction . In some cases it is not possible to settle with certainty on the original version. Dionysius of Halicarnassus

605-444: A variety of spatial and temporal scales in karst regions, with the purpose of understanding karst aquifers and ecosystems, and the development of the surface and underground structure, so that the environment can be protected and human activities planned effectively. Metathesis (linguistics) Metathesis ( / m ə ˈ t æ θ ə s ɪ s / mə- TATH -ə-siss ; from Greek μετάθεσις , from μετατίθημι "to put in

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660-519: A well in a fracture trace or intersection of fracture traces increases the likelihood to encounter good water production. Voids in karst aquifers can be large enough to cause destructive collapse or subsidence of the ground surface that can initiate a catastrophic release of contaminants. Groundwater flow rate in karst aquifers is much more rapid than in porous aquifers. For example, in the Barton Springs Edwards aquifer, dye traces measured

715-529: Is [säɲo] , which is the base for "Tuesday" [maksäɲo] , which is often metathesized as [maskäɲo] . All of these examples show a pair of consonants reversed so that the stop begins the next syllable. Metathesis among neighbouring consonants happens very commonly in Azerbaijani: Some common nonstandard pronunciations of Danish words employ metathesis: But metathesis has also historically changed some words: A common example of metathesis in Egyptian Arabic

770-455: Is a topography formed from the dissolution of soluble carbonate rocks such as limestone and dolomite . It is characterized by features like poljes above and drainage systems with sinkholes and caves underground. There is some evidence that karst may occur in more weathering -resistant rocks such as quartzite given the right conditions. Subterranean drainage may limit surface water, with few to no rivers or lakes. In regions where

825-493: Is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Many karst-related terms derive from South Slavic languages , entering scientific vocabulary through early research in the Western Balkan Dinaric Alpine karst. The study of the various aspects of karst regions is called karstology. This includes biological, chemical, ecological, geomorphological, hydrogeological, hydrological, political, socio-economical, and other processes over

880-542: Is a development of karst observed in geological history and preserved within the rock sequence, effectively a fossil karst. There are for example palaeokarst surfaces exposed within the Clydach Valley Subgroup of the Carboniferous Limestone sequence of South Wales which developed as sub-aerial weathering of recently formed limestones took place during periods of non-deposition within the early part of

935-525: Is a karst landscape which is developed beneath a cover of insoluble rocks. Typically this will involve a cover of sandstone overlying limestone strata undergoing solution. In the United Kingdom for example extensive doline fields have developed at Cefn yr Ystrad , Mynydd Llangatwg and Mynydd Llangynidr in South Wales across a cover of Twrch Sandstone which overlies concealed Carboniferous Limestone ,

990-583: Is a metathesis of mendikai borrowed from Tamil : கொம்மட்டிக்காய் , romanized:  kommaṭṭikkāy . In Navajo , verbs have (often multiple) morphemes prefixed onto the verb stem. These prefixes are added to the verb stem in a set order in a prefix positional template. Although prefixes are generally found in a specific position, some prefixes change order by the process of metathesis. For example, prefix a- (3i object pronoun) usually occurs before di- , as in However, when a- occurs with

1045-468: Is developed in areas where salt is undergoing solution underground. It can lead to surface depressions and collapses which present a geo-hazard. Karst areas tend to have unique types of forests. The karst terrain is difficult for humans to traverse, so that their ecosystems are often relatively undisturbed. The soil tends to have a high pH, which encourages growth of unusual species of orchids, palms, mangroves, and other plants. Paleokarst or palaeokarst

1100-514: Is found in porous karst systems. The English word karst was borrowed from German Karst in the late 19th century, which entered German usage much earlier, to describe a number of geological, geomorphological, and hydrological features found within the range of the Dinaric Alps , stretching from the northeastern corner of Italy above the city of Trieste , across the Balkan peninsula along

1155-612: Is frequently unseen until the roof of a cavern suddenly collapses. Such events have swallowed homes, cattle, cars, and farm machinery. In the United States, sudden collapse of such a cavern-sinkhole swallowed part of the collection of the National Corvette Museum in Bowling Green, Kentucky in 2014. The world's largest limestone karst is Australia's Nullarbor Plain . Slovenia has the world's highest risk of sinkholes, while

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1210-402: Is moderate to heavy. This contributes to rapid downward movement of groundwater, which promotes dissolution of the bedrock, whereas standing groundwater becomes saturated with carbonate minerals and ceases to dissolve the bedrock. The carbonic acid that causes karst features is formed as rain passes through Earth's atmosphere picking up carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), which readily dissolves in

1265-428: Is most strongly developed in dense carbonate rock , such as limestone, that is thinly bedded and highly fractured . Karst is not typically well developed in chalk , because chalk is highly porous rather than dense, so the flow of groundwater is not concentrated along fractures. Karst is also most strongly developed where the water table is relatively low, such as in uplands with entrenched valleys , and where rainfall

1320-430: Is when the order of the word's root consonants has changed. The following examples of metathesis have been identified in Egyptian Arabic texts, but are not necessarily more common than their etymological spellings: The following loanwords are also sometimes found with metathesis: The likely cause for metathesis in the word "hospital" is that the result resembles a common word pattern familiar to Arabic speakers (namely

1375-450: The cheek and then moving to contact the jaw (as in the sentence FATHER DEAF), can have these locations reversed if the preceding sign, when part of the same constituent , has a final location more proximal to the jaw (as in the sentence MOTHER DEAF). Both forms of the sign DEAF are acceptable to native signers. A proposed prerequisite for metathesis to apply in ASL is that both signs must be within

1430-427: The coast of the eastern Adriatic to Kosovo and North Macedonia , where the massif of the Šar Mountains begins. The karst zone is at the northwesternmost section, described in early topographical research as a plateau between Italy and Slovenia . Languages preserving this form include Italian : Carso , German : Karst , and Albanian : karsti . In the local South Slavic languages , all variations of

1485-450: The complexity of karst aquifers, and need to be supplemented with dye traces , measurement of spring discharges, and analysis of water chemistry. U.S. Geological Survey dye tracing has determined that conventional groundwater models that assume a uniform distribution of porosity are not applicable for karst aquifers. Linear alignment of surface features such as straight stream segments and sinkholes develop along fracture traces . Locating

1540-443: The dissolved bedrock is covered (perhaps by debris) or confined by one or more superimposed non-soluble rock strata, distinctive karst features may occur only at subsurface levels and can be totally missing above ground. The study of paleokarst (buried karst in the stratigraphic column ) is important in petroleum geology because as much as 50% of the world's hydrocarbon reserves are hosted in carbonate rock , and much of this

1595-508: The early Middle English Period: "nosþyrlu" ( c. 1050); "nos-thirlys" ( c. 1500). In 1565 "nosthrille" appears; "thirl"/"thurl" survived even longer, until 1878). Metathesis is also a common feature of the West Country dialects . In the Kurdish language, there are many examples of metathesis, as both forms are used until now, the pre-inverted form and the post-inverted form (depending on

1650-553: The first consonant of the root is an alveolar or postalveolar fricative. Namely, the pattern hiṯ1a22ē3 (where the numbers signify the root consonants) becomes hi1ta22ē3 . Examples: Hebrew also features isolated historical examples of metathesis. For example, the words כֶּֽבֶשׂ keves and כֶּֽשֶׂב kesev (meaning "lamb") both appear in the Torah. Like many other natural languages Urdu and Hindi also have metathesis like in this diachronic example: Sanskrit जन्म ( جنمہ ) ja nm

1705-557: The fissures. The enlarged fissures allow a larger quantity of water to enter which leads to a progressive enlargement of openings. Abundant small openings store a large quantity of water. The larger openings form a conduit system that drains the aquifer to springs. Characterization of karst aquifers requires field exploration to locate sinkholes, swallets , sinking streams , and springs in addition to studying geologic maps . Conventional hydrogeologic methods such as aquifer tests and potentiometric mapping are insufficient to characterize

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1760-466: The global demand for drinkable water. Farming in karst areas must take into account the lack of surface water. The soils may be fertile enough, and rainfall may be adequate, but rainwater quickly moves through the crevices into the ground, sometimes leaving the surface soil parched between rains. The karst topography also poses peculiar difficulties for human inhabitants. Sinkholes can develop gradually as surface openings enlarge, but progressive erosion

1815-456: The karst groundwater flow rates from 0.5 to 7 miles per day (0.8 to 11.3 km/d). The rapid groundwater flow rates make karst aquifers much more sensitive to groundwater contamination than porous aquifers. Groundwater in karst areas is also just as easily polluted as surface streams, because Karst formations are cavernous and highly permeable, resulting in reduced opportunity for contaminant filtration. Well water may also be unsafe as

1870-552: The last-named locality having been declared a site of special scientific interest in respect of it. Kegelkarst is a type of tropical karst terrain with numerous cone-like hills, formed by cockpits, mogotes , and poljes and without strong fluvial erosion processes. This terrain is found in Cuba, Jamaica, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Puerto Rico, southern China, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos and Vietnam. Salt karst (or 'halite karst')

1925-579: The metathetized form: Sporadic examples include the word vih r eä "green", which derives from older vihe r ä , and the vernacular change of the word j uo heva "jovial" to j ou heva (also a separate word meaning "bristly"). Etymological metathesis occurs in the following French words: Deliberate metathesis also occurs extensively in the informal French pattern of speech called verlan (itself an example: verlan < l'envers , meaning "the reverse" or "the inverse"). In verlan new words are created from existing words by reversing

1980-637: The most dramatic of these formations can be seen in Thailand 's Phangnga Bay and at Halong Bay in Vietnam . Calcium carbonate dissolved into water may precipitate out where the water discharges some of its dissolved carbon dioxide. Rivers which emerge from springs may produce tufa terraces, consisting of layers of calcite deposited over extended periods of time. In caves, a variety of features collectively called speleothems are formed by deposition of calcium carbonate and other dissolved minerals. Interstratal karst

2035-1082: The nonstandard variant ax pronounced /æks/ ; the spelling ask is found in Shakespeare and in the King James Bible and ax in Chaucer, Caxton, and the Coverdale Bible . The word "ask" derives from Proto-Germanic *aiskōną . Some other frequent English pronunciations that display metathesis are: The process has shaped many English words historically. Bird and horse came from Old English bridd and hros ; wasp and hasp were also written wæps and hæps . The Old English beorht "bright" underwent metathesis to bryht , which became Modern English bright . The Old English þrēo "three" formed þridda "thrid" and þrēotene "thriteen". These underwent metathesis to forms which became Modern English third and thirteen . The Old English verb wyrċan "to work" had

2090-456: The obsolete vehem animal's fetus (cf. vemhes "pregnant [animal]"). The first of them is often used in the regular form ( bolyh ). The following are examples of argot used in the entertainment industry. Metathesis from earlier protoform, though not so prevalent in Malay, can still be seen, as in the following: Loanwords can also be products of metathesis. The word tembikai "watermelon"

2145-529: The order of syllables. Verlanization is applied mostly to two-syllable words and the new words that are created are typically considerably less formal than the originals, and/or take on a slightly different meaning. The process often involves considerably more changes than simple metathesis of two phonemes but this forms the basis for verlan as a linguistic phenomenon. Some of these words have become part of standard French. A few well known examples are: Some Verlan words are metathesized more than once: In Greek ,

2200-400: The passive participle ġeworht "worked". This underwent metathesis to wroht , which became Modern English wrought . The Old English þyrl "hole" underwent metathesis to þryl . This gave rise to a verb þrylian "pierce", which became Modern English thrill , and formed the compound nosþryl "nose-hole" which became Modern English nostril (May have occurred in

2255-704: The period. Sedimentation resumed and further limestone strata were deposited on an irregular karst surface, the cycle recurring several times in connection with fluctuating sea levels over prolonged periods. Pseudokarsts are similar in form or appearance to karst features but are created by different mechanisms. Examples include lava caves and granite tors —for example, Labertouche Cave in Victoria, Australia —and paleocollapse features. Mud Caves are an example of pseudokarst. Karst formations have unique hydrology, resulting in many unusual features. A karst fenster (karst window) occurs when an underground stream emerges onto

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2310-533: The present stem often consists of the root with a suffix of y ( ι ˰ in Greek). If the root ends in the vowel a or o , and the consonant n or r , the y exchanges position with the consonant and is written i : For metathesis of vowel length, which occurs frequently in Attic and Ionic Greek , see quantitative metathesis . In Hebrew the verb conjugation ( binyan ) hitpaēl ( התפעל ) undergoes metathesis if

2365-503: The regions). Example:(Befr-Berf)this word means snow . The formula ( Berf ) was used in Afrin and many Kurdish regions in Syria , and the formula ( Befr ) was used in many Kurdish regions of Turkey . In western dialects of Finnish , historical stem-final /h/ has been subject to metathesis (it is lost in standard Finnish). That leads to variant word forms: Some words have been standardized in

2420-757: The river flows into a cave in a formation known as the Madison Limestone and then rises again 800 m ( 1 ⁄ 2  mi) down the canyon in a placid pool. A turlough is a unique type of seasonal lake found in Irish karst areas which are formed through the annual welling-up of water from the underground water system. Main Article Aquifer#Karst Karst aquifers typically develop in limestone . Surface water containing natural carbonic acid moves down into small fissures in limestone. This carbonic acid gradually dissolves limestone thereby enlarging

2475-409: The same region on the body. Constraints on the applications of metathesis in ASL has led to discussions that the phonology breaks down the body into regions distinct from settings. Amharic has a few minor patterns of metathesis, as shown by Wolf Leslau . For example, "matches" [kəbrit] is sometimes pronounced as [kərbit] , [mogzit] "nanny" is sometimes pronounced as [mozgit] . The word "Monday"

2530-625: The surface between layers of rock, cascades some distance, and then disappears back down, often into a sinkhole. Rivers in karst areas may disappear underground a number of times and spring up again in different places, even under a different name, like Ljubljanica , the "river of seven names". Another example of this is the Popo Agie River in Fremont County, Wyoming , where, at a site named "The Sinks" in Sinks Canyon State Park ,

2585-415: The surface, complex underground drainage systems (such as karst aquifers ) and extensive caves and cavern systems may form. Erosion along limestone shores, notably in the tropics , produces karst topography that includes a sharp makatea surface above the normal reach of the sea, and undercuts that are mostly the result of biological activity or bioerosion at or a little above mean sea level . Some of

2640-1002: The system ( pyrite or hydrogen sulfide ) to form sulfuric acid (H 2 SO 4 ). Sulfuric acid then reacts with calcium carbonate, causing increased erosion within the limestone formation. This chain of reactions is: This reaction chain forms gypsum . The karstification of a landscape may result in a variety of large- or small-scale features both on the surface and beneath. On exposed surfaces, small features may include solution flutes (or rillenkarren), runnels , limestone pavement (clints and grikes), kamenitzas collectively called karren or lapiez. Medium-sized surface features may include sinkholes or cenotes (closed basins), vertical shafts, foibe (inverted funnel shaped sinkholes), disappearing streams, and reappearing springs . Large-scale features may include limestone pavements , poljes , and karst valleys. Mature karst landscapes, where more bedrock has been removed than remains, may result in karst towers , or haystack/eggbox landscapes. Beneath

2695-461: The water may have run unimpeded from a sinkhole in a cattle pasture, bypassing the normal filtering that occurs in a porous aquifer . Sinkholes have often been used as farmstead or community trash dumps . Overloaded or malfunctioning septic tanks in karst landscapes may dump raw sewage directly into underground channels. Geologists are concerned with these negative effects of human activity on karst hydrology which, as of 2007 , supplied about 25% of

2750-417: The water. Once the rain reaches the ground, it may pass through soil that provides additional CO 2 produced by soil respiration . Some of the dissolved carbon dioxide reacts with the water to form a weak carbonic acid solution, which dissolves calcium carbonate . The primary reaction sequence in limestone dissolution is the following: In very rare conditions, oxidation can play a role. Oxidation played

2805-507: The western Highland Rim in the eastern United States is at the second-highest risk of karst sinkholes. In Canada, Wood Buffalo National Park , Northwest Territories contains areas of karst sinkholes. Mexico hosts important karst regions in the Yucatán Peninsula and Chiapas . The West of Ireland is home to The Burren , a karst limestone area. The South China Karst in the provinces of Guizhou , Guangxi , and Yunnan provinces

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2860-449: The word are derived from a Romanized Illyrian base (yielding Latin : carsus , Dalmatian : carsus ), later metathesized from the reconstructed form * korsъ into forms such as Slovene : kras and Serbo-Croatian : krš , kras , first attested in the 18th century, and the adjective form kraški in the 16th century. As a proper noun, the Slovene form Grast

2915-475: The wreck is still visible from the beach, now situated within the Isimangaliso Wetland Park . In his 2019 work Underland , British author Robert Macfarlane tracks the source of the Timavo and discusses the history of its exploration. 45°47′38″N 13°34′48″E  /  45.794°N 13.58°E  / 45.794; 13.58 Karst topography Karst ( / k ɑːr s t / )

2970-430: Was a historian and scholar in rhetoric living in 1st century BC Greece. He analysed classical texts and applied several revisions to make them sound more eloquent . One of the methods he used was re-writing documents on a mainly grammatical level: changing word and sentence orders would make texts more fluent and "natural", he suggested. He called this way of re-writing metathesis . In ASL , several signs which have

3025-569: Was first attested in 1177. Ultimately, the word is of Mediterranean origin. It has also been suggested that the word may derive from the Proto-Indo-European root karra- 'rock'. The name may also be connected to the oronym Kar(u)sádios oros cited by Ptolemy , and perhaps also to Latin Carusardius . Johann Weikhard von Valvasor , a pioneer of the study of karst in Slovenia and

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