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108-463: The people and language are called Tigua (pronounced tiwa ). They have maintained a tribal identity and lands in Texas. Spanish mostly replaced the indigenous language in the early 1900s, and today, English is increasingly gaining ground in the community. Today there are efforts to revive the indigenous language. They are one of three federally recognized tribes in Texas . As of 2022, E. Michael Silvas

216-586: A diglossic spectrum with little conflict. For instance, the local Venetian dialects in Northeast Italy are widely used and locally promoted in the region; after all, Italian had been an integral part of the Republic of Venice since the 14th century, whose elites used to revere the most prominent Tuscan authors and tuscanize their own speech as well. On a survey made by Il Gazzettino in 2015, 70% of respondents told they spoke Venetian "very or quite often" in

324-507: A federally recognized tribe of Alabama and Koasati in Polk County, Texas , United States. These peoples are descended from members of the historic Muscogee or Creek Confederacy of numerous tribes in the Southeastern U.S. , particularly Georgia and Alabama. They are one of three federally recognized tribes in Texas . As of 2022, the tribe has over 1,200 members with 589 residing on

432-706: A French-only approach (mid-19th century), marginalizing Basque, and by the 1960s family transmission was grinding to a halt in many areas at the feet of the Pyrenees. By the 2010s, the receding trend has been somewhat mitigated by the establishment of Basque schooling (the ikastolak ) spearheaded by the network Seaska , as well as the influence of the Basque territories from Spain . According to Fañch Broudic , Breton has lost 80% of its speakers in 60 years. Other sources mention that 70% of Breton speakers are over 60. Furthermore, 60% of children received Breton from their parents in

540-487: A daily basis and at home during the 19th century (especially after the 1831 November Uprising and the 1863 January Uprising ) gradually returned back to the Lithuanian language. Before the 1930s, Italian was the only official language of Malta, although it was spoken only by the upper class, with Maltese being spoken by the lower class. Even though English has replaced Italian as a co-official language alongside Maltese,

648-501: A first language/dialect. Most Hong Kong residents prefer to communicate in Cantonese in daily life. Speakers of Mandarin Chinese and of Cantonese cannot mutually understand each other without learning the languages, due to vast differences in pronunciation, intonation, sentence structure and terminology. Furthermore, cultural differences between Hong Kong and China result in variations between

756-677: A language shift in the population, with emigration and genocide (by the Nazis during World War II) playing only a minor role. Despite the withdrawal of Belarus from the USSR proclaimed in 1991, use of the Belarusian language is declining. According to the 2009 Belarusian population census, 72% of Belarusians speak Russian at home, and Belarusian is used by only 11.9% of Belarusians. 52.5% of Belarusians can speak and read Belarusian. Only 29.4% can speak, read and write it. One in ten Belarusians do not understand

864-439: A nearly universal cultural and identity marker of mestizos (people of mixed Spanish and Amerindian ancestry), and also of culturally assimilated , upwardly mobile Amerindian people. Paraguayan Guarani has been used throughout Paraguayan history as a symbol of nationalistic pride. Populist dictators such as José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia and Alfredo Stroessner used the language to appeal to common Paraguayans, and upon

972-521: A non-state or pre-state context if the elite employs a specific combination of encouragements and punishments. Ethnohistorical cases ... demonstrate that small elite groups have successfully imposed their languages in non-state situations. Anthony gives the example of the Luo-speaking Acholi in northern Uganda in the 17th and 18th century, whose language spread rapidly in the 19th century. Anthony notes that "Indo-European languages probably spread in

1080-547: A restaurant, a café, and bars. Originally called the Speaking Rock Casino, the center has had Class II casino gaming since 2022. The Ysleta del Sur Pueblo is a U.S. federally recognized Native American tribe and sovereign nation. The tribal community known as Tigua established Ysleta del Sur in 1682. After leaving the homelands of Quarai Pueblo due to drought the Tigua sought refuge at Isleta Pueblo and were later captured by

1188-464: A rise of monolingual French-speakers after 1910. Halfway through the 20th century, the number of monolingual French-speakers began to predominate over the (mostly) bilingual Flemish inhabitants. Only since the 1960s, after the establishment of the Belgian language border and the socio-economic development of Flanders took full effect, could Dutch use stem the tide of increasing French use. French remains

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1296-507: A similar way among the tribal societies of prehistoric Europe", carried forward by "Indo-European chiefs" and their "ideology of political clientage". Anthony notes that "elite recruitment" may be a suitable term for this system. In urban settings, language change occurs due to the combination of three factors: the diversity of languages spoken, the high population density, and the need for communication. Urban vernaculars, urban contact varieties, and multiethnolects emerge in many cities around

1404-612: A trip to study the New Mexico Pueblos. While noting their assimilation or "Mexicanization," Fewkes published a short ethnographic article detailing the Tiguas' surviving Pueblo customs and traditions. He found that twenty-five could still speak the Tiwa language while many more could understand it. He noted that the Tiguas still performed several indigenous dances, including the scalp dance and a rattle dance. Ceremonies were accompanied by chants in

1512-464: A vocal supporter of the liberal agenda of Democratic Presidents John F. Kennedy and his successor Lyndon Johnson, agreed to aid the group. Diamond helped the Tiguas reconnect with their relatives at Isleta Pueblo in New Mexico. Its governor, Andy Abieta, visited the Tiguas and was surprised at the level of Isleta traditions the band still maintained. He became a staunch advocate for the band. Under Diamond,

1620-540: A wholesale language shift, with islanders changing their language practices to the extent that there were no monolingual Corsican speakers left by the 1960s. By 1995, an estimated 65 percent of islanders had some degree of proficiency in Corsican, and a small minority, perhaps 10 percent, used Corsican as a first language. In Southern Schleswig , an area that belonged to Denmark until the Second Schleswig War , there

1728-437: A young population, with 42.3% under the age of 18 in contrast to 4.5% over the age of 65. Economically, 65.9% of the population is employed. The average household earning is $ 49,219, which is over $ 10,000 less than the national average, and 17.2% live in poverty, 8.6% higher than the national average. Additionally, 11.4% of the population has a bachelor's degree or higher, and 36.5% has only a high school degree or equivalent. Of

1836-495: Is a correlation of language shift with intrusive male Y chromosomes but not necessarily with intrusive female mtDNA . They conclude that technological innovation (the transition from hunting-gathering to farming , or from stone to metal tools) or military prowess (as in the abduction of British women by Vikings to Iceland ) causes immigration of at least some men, who are perceived to be of higher status than local men. Then, in mixed-language marriages, children would speak

1944-514: Is a shift towards Urdu in almost all domains. Pashtuns and other minorities in northern Pakistan use Urdu as a replacement for former native languages. Guarani, an indigenous language of South America belonging to the Tupi–Guarani family of the Tupian languages , and specifically the primary variety known as Paraguayan Guarani ( endonym avañe'ẽ [aʋãɲẽˈʔẽ] ; 'the people's language'),

2052-461: Is mainly occurring among Javanese people and in districts where Javanese is the dominant language, which is not what was expected. Another study suggests Javanese youths do not value Javanese language and culture as much as the national Indonesian language and culture because they perceive them as outdated and incompatible with modern society. An example is the shift from Canaanite and Phoenician and Hebrew to Aramaic in and around Jerusalem during

2160-523: Is one of the official languages of Paraguay (along with Spanish ), where it is spoken by the majority of the population, and where half of the rural population is monolingual. Guarani is one of the most-widely spoken indigenous languages of the Americas and the only one whose speakers include a large proportion of non-indigenous people. This represents a unique anomaly in the Americas, where language shift towards European colonial languages has otherwise been

2268-496: Is the governor of Ysleta del Sur Pueblo. The 2021 Tribal Council consists of Sheriff Bernardo Gonzales, Councilman Rudy Cruz Jr., Councilman Rafael Gomez Jr., Governor E. Michael Silvas, Cacique Jose Sierra Sr., Lt. Governor Adam Torres, War Captain Javier Loera, Councilman Raul Candelaria, and Councilman Andrew Torrez. In 2020, the tribal government employed 293 individuals, of which 58 percent were tribal citizens. In April 2008,

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2376-539: Is the process whereby a speech community shifts to a different language, usually over an extended period of time. Often, languages that are perceived to be of higher-status stabilize or spread at the expense of other languages that are perceived by their own speakers to be of lower-status. An example is the shift from Gaulish to Latin during the time of the Roman Empire . For prehistory , Forster et al . (2004) and Forster and Renfrew (2011) observe that there

2484-573: Is used in art and in everyday life. Instances of language shift appear to have occurred twice in the history of the Parthian Empire : once before its foundation, when the Parni invaded Parthia , eventually losing their Eastern Middle Iranian language and adopting Parthian instead; secondly, after the fall of the Parthian Empire, Parthian speakers shifted to Middle Persian or Armenian . In

2592-469: The African Great Lakes region and the other group settling in southern Ethiopia. There, the early Daasanach Nilotes would have come into contact with a Cushitic-speaking population, and eventually adopted this group's Afro-Asiatic language. Finland still has coastal Swedish-speaking enclaves , unlike Estonia where the last coastal Swedes were decimated or escaped to Sweden in 1944. As Finland

2700-521: The Bhumij language is one of the endangered languages of India. Indonesia is one of the most multilingual and multiethnic nations in the world. There is language shift of first language into Indonesian from other language in Indonesia caused by ethnic diversity than urbanicity. Regardless of urbanicity, Indonesian speakers are more prevalent in urban areas than rural ones. The study found that language shift

2808-454: The Philippines , Spanish -speaking families have gradually switched over to Tagalog or English since the end of World War II , so Spanish has ceased to be a practical everyday language in the country and is on the verge of extinction . Alabama-Coushatta Tribe The Alabama–Coushatta Tribe of Texas ( Alabama : Albaamaha–Kosaatihaha , Coushatta : Albaamoha–Kowassaatiha ) is

2916-525: The Sardinian population since then, the majority of the locals switched over to such politically dominant language and no longer speak their native ones, which have seen steady decline in use. The language has been in fact severely compromised to the point that only 13% of the children are able to speak it, and today is mostly kept as a heritage language . With the exception of a few sparsely populated areas where Sardinian can still be heard for everyday purposes,

3024-664: The Siwa Oasis , a local variety of Berber is also used alongside Arabic. In Ethiopia , various populations of Nilotic origin have shifted languages over the centuries, adopting the idioms of their Afro-Asiatic-speaking neighbors in the northern areas. Among these groups are the Daasanach or Marille, who today speak the Daasanach language . It belongs to the Cushitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic family. However, modern genetic analysis of

3132-520: The United States Congress restored eligibility to receive services from the federal government to this group, the southernmost tribe of the Pueblo peoples. 31°41′09″N 106°19′32″W  /  31.68583°N 106.32556°W  / 31.68583; -106.32556 Language shift Language shift , also known as language transfer , language replacement or language assimilation ,

3240-603: The catechism in Flemish in many parishes. Nonetheless, since French enjoyed a much higher status than Dutch, from about the interbellum onward, everybody became bilingual, the generation born after World War II being raised exclusively in French. In the countryside, the passing on of Flemish stopped during the 1930s or 1940s. Consequently, the vast majority of those still having an active command of Flemish are older than 60. Therefore, complete extinction of French Flemish can be expected in

3348-411: The longleaf pine trees that have been used by the tribe and their ancestors for basketry and homebuilding for centuries. According to The Nature Conservancy , 95% of the region's longleaf pine forests have been lost. Longleaf pines are dependent on fire to seed and grow. The Nature Conservancy funded the tribe to buy equipment and participate in training for wildland management. As a result, they manage

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3456-400: The "higher-status" language, yielding the language/Y-chromosome correlation seen today. Assimilation is the process whereby a speech-community becomes bilingual and gradually shifts allegiance to the second language. The rate of assimilation is the percentage of the speech-community that speaks the second language more often at home. The data are used to measure the use of a given language in

3564-472: The 1820s, around 97% of the inhabitants south of the line Villach - Klagenfurt - Diex spoke Slovene as their native language. In the course of the 19th century, this number fell significantly. By 1920, a third of the population of the area had already shifted to German as their main language of communication. After the Carinthian Plebiscite in the 1920s, and especially after World War II , most of

3672-525: The 1920s and only 6% in the 1980s. Since the 1980s, monolingual speakers are no longer attested. On the 27 October 2015, the Senate rejected the draft law on ratification of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages driving away the assumption of Congress for the adoption of the constitutional reform which would have given value and legitimacy to regional languages such as Breton. Corsican

3780-450: The 1940s and 50s, these dialects rapidly vanished. Most of Hong Kong's younger generation does not understand, let alone speak, their ancestral dialects. Beginning in the late 1990s, since Hong Kong's return to Chinese sovereignty, Mandarin Chinese has been more widely implemented in education and many other areas of official society. Though Mandarin Chinese has been quickly adopted into society, most Hong Kong residents would not regard it as

3888-627: The 1970s there was great public interest in Indigenous Americans, and for a time, this program was successful. It became apparent to Tiguas and their non-indigenous supporters, however, that limited state aid and economic development programs were not sufficient for tribal survival. Without federal tribal status, the Tiguas did not have access to federal programs of the Bureau of Indian Affairs; they could not exercise true self-government without federal tribal recognition. Public Law 100-89, 101 STAT. 666

3996-523: The 19th century, especially in the second half of it, Dutch was banned from all levels of education and lost most of its functions as a cultural language. The larger cities had become predominantly French-speaking by the end of the 19th century. However, in the countryside, many elementary schools continued to teach in Dutch until World War I , and the Roman Catholic Church continued to preach and teach

4104-478: The 20th century, the Tiguas maintained the syncretic Spanish-Indigenous political and religious offices introduced by the Spanish in the 16th century. Like other Pueblos, the Tiguas had offices that included Cacique (chief), who served for life as well as in spiritual matters, Lieutenant-cacique, Governor, Lieutenant-governor, War Captain, and subordinate captains. Local newspapers regularly reported on tribal elections and

4212-501: The Beijing dialect of Mandarin by the 19th century and the only Manchu speakers were garrisons left in their homeland of Heilongjiang . Today there are fewer than 100 native speakers of Manchu. At the current time, language shift is occurring all across China. Many languages of minority ethnic groups are declining, as well as the many regional varieties of Chinese . Generally the shift is in favour of Standard Chinese ( Mandarin ), but in

4320-495: The Belarusian language. In the last two centuries, Brussels has transformed from an exclusively Dutch-speaking city to a bilingual city with French as the majority language and lingua franca . The language shift began in the 18th century and accelerated as Belgium became independent and Brussels expanded out past its original city boundaries. From 1880 on, more and more Dutch-speaking people became bilingual, resulting in

4428-736: The Cantonese used in Hong Kong and that in Canton Province. In Egypt , the Coptic language , a descendant of the Afro-Asiatic Egyptian language , has been in decline in usage since the time of the Arab conquest in the 7th century. By the 17th century, it was eventually supplanted as a spoken language by Egyptian Arabic . Coptic is today mainly used by the Coptic Church as a liturgical language. In

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4536-585: The Civil War, as few spoke English and they had difficulty finding jobs. Today, the tribe operates two primary economic enterprises: Naskila Casino, a casino , and A.C.T. Holdings, an investment and economic development LLC . The tribe also has a 26-acre campground open to the public located on Lake Tombigbee . The reservation also includes a truck stop , a smoke shop, and a souvenir shop. The casino comprises over 790 bingo games in an over 30,000 square foot facility. The tribe has engaged in two lawsuits against

4644-778: The Coushattas" but never followed through. The Coushatta began to live with the Alabama on their reservation. They acquired more land, so the reservation is 4,593.7 acres (1,859.0 ha), located 17 miles (27 km) east of Livingston, Texas , in the Big Thicket area. As of the 2020 census, the reservation comprises a total population of 679 individuals. Of those individuals, 86.7% (589) are American Indian, 8.2% (56) are Hispanic or Latino, 6.4% (44) identify as two or more races, 5.5% (38) are White, 0.88% identify as some other race, and 0.14% (1) are African American or Black. The reservation has

4752-696: The Daasanach indicates that they are more closely related to Nilo-Saharan and Niger-Congo -speaking populations inhabiting Tanzania than they are to the Cushitic and Semitic Afro-Asiatic-speaking populations of Ethiopia. This suggests that the Daasanach were originally Nilo-Saharan speakers, sharing common origins with the Pokot . In the 19th century, the Nilotic ancestors of these two populations are believed to have begun separate migrations, with one group heading southwards into

4860-463: The Dutch origin of several town names in the region, such as that of 'Dunkerque' ( Dunkirk ) which is a French phonetic rendition of the original Dutch name 'Duinkerke' (meaning 'church in the dunes'). The linguistic situation did not change dramatically until the French Revolution in 1789, and Dutch continued to fulfill the main functions of a cultural language throughout the 18th century. During

4968-547: The Italian-speaking population has since grown, but the growth of English in the country now threatens the status of Maltese. A trend among the younger generations is to mix English and Italian vocabulary patterns, in making new Maltese words. For example, the Maltese word bibljoteka has been overtaken by librerija , formed from library with an Italian ending. In addition to mixing English with Italian, Maltenglish involves

5076-525: The Middle Ages, the territory of Lithuanian language was reaching vicinities of Łomża , Tykocin and Białystok , but shrank to the north – to the rural outskirts of Sejny , Punsk and Wiżajny before the 1900s as a consequence of acculturation . The Polish-speaking island to the north of Kaunas and south of Panevėžys almost fully disappeared between the 1920s and the 1940s, as the local Lithuanian population, who increasingly began to speak Polish on

5184-532: The New Mexico Pueblos. During the 1930s the Tiguas did not seek aid from the federal government during President Franklin Roosevelt's important Indian New Deal like many unrecognized Indian tribes. They were still recognized, however, as indigenous people by local and state officials. The tribe was invited to take part in the 1936 Texas Centennial Celebration in Dallas. Donning Plains Indian regalia, Tigua officials rode in

5292-581: The Southeast into Louisiana and finally East Texas when it was under Spanish rule in the late 18th century. They settled in an area known as Big Thicket and adapted their culture to the environment of forests and waters. When the area began to be settled by European Americans from the United States, the tribes established friendly relations and traded with the new settlers. Sam Houston helped protect them during years of conflicts with other Native Americans in

5400-454: The Spanish during the 1680 Pueblo Revolt and forced to walk south for over 400 miles. The Tigua settled and built the Ysleta del Sur Pueblo and soon after built the acequia (canal) system that sustained a thriving agricultural-based community. The tribe's early economic and farming efforts helped pave the way for the development of the region. Throughout the 19th century and into the first half of

5508-455: The State of Texas regarding the casino. In 2001, the tribe filed a complaint against the state for officials obstructing the tribe's legal right to operate a casino on tribal land. That resulted in a ruling in favor of the state, prohibiting the tribe from operating their casino. In 2016, Texas filed a complaint against the tribe to stop the tribe from operating a bingo hall. The judge ruled in favor of

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5616-799: The Texas reservation. They are one of eight federally recognized tribes whose members are descended from the Muscogee Confederacy of the Southeast. Four tribes are located in Oklahoma, where most of the Muscogee were forcibly removed from the Indigenous Muscogee homeland in Alabama and western Georgia in the 1830s during the Trail of Tears under Indian Removal . One tribe is in Louisiana, where another band of Muscogee fled European encroachment in two waves in

5724-414: The Tiguas pursued a significant lands claims case through the post-war Indian Claims Commission, an effort that generated considerable documentation on the tribal survival of the Tiguas, as well as the consequences that stemmed from the federal government's failure to fulfill its trust responsibilities to the band. In 1966, Diamond helped introduce the Tiguas to Vine Deloria, Jr., a noted Lakota scholar who

5832-614: The Tiguas' primary religious celebration on St. Anthony's Day honoring St. Anthony the patron saint of their mission church and community. Lacking a well-bounded and defined federal Indian reservation, the Tiguas intermarried extensively with Mexican Americans and assimilated many cultural and material traits of their Hispanic neighbors. Over time, many lost the Tiwa language and many Isleta Pueblo customs and traditions. Important for their later federal tribal recognition, in 1901 noted anthropologist Jesse Walter Fewkes (later famous for his excavations of Mesa Verde) visited Ysleta del Sur as part of

5940-465: The Tiguas. As part of the Tiguas' outreach for assistance, the University of Arizona Anthropology Department sent a graduate student to study the group in 1966. He took a census, finding that 166 individuals served as the core of the Tigua community while others were more peripherally involved. The War Captain, Trinidad Granillo, still maintained the tribe's ceremonial center (kiva) in his home. He also kept

6048-404: The Tiwa language. Tiguas still called their community by a Tigua name, "Chiawipia." The group continued to hold elections for tribal officers. At the time, Fewkes wrote that José Piarote served as Cacique, Mariano Manero served as Governor, and Tomal Granillo was War Captain. Significantly, Manero still carried a baton or staff of office that Fewkes concluded was just like those carried by leaders at

6156-727: The Tribal Census Department reported 1,615 enrolled citizens. By 2020, there were 4,696 enrolled citizens of Ysleta del Sur Pueblo. For almost 40 years, the Pueblo has owned and operated tribal businesses that provide employment for its members and the El Paso community. These businesses include the Big Bear Oil Co., Inc., and the Tigua Indian Cultural Center, and Speaking Rock Entertainment Center. The Speaking Rock Entertainment Center in El Paso features live concerts,

6264-401: The advent of Paraguayan democracy in 1992, Guarani was enshrined in the new constitution as a co-equal language along with Spanish. Jopara , the mixture of Spanish and Guarani, is spoken by an estimated 90% of the population of Paraguay. Code-switching between the two languages takes place on a spectrum where more Spanish is used for official and business-related matters, whereas more Guarani

6372-637: The area. After the annexation of Texas by the United States, settlements increased and the tribes were under pressure again. They appealed to the state to set aside land for their exclusive use. As part of the Indian termination policy followed by the US government between the 1940s and 1960s, the Alabama Coushatta Tribe was targeted. On 23 August 1954, the United States Congress passed laws to terminate

6480-858: The city's predominant language, while Dutch is spoken by a minority. Historically, one of the most important language shifts in China has been the near disappearance of the Manchu language . When China was ruled by the Qing dynasty , whose Emperors were Manchu, Chinese and Manchu had co-official status, and the Emperor heavily subsidized and promoted education in Manchu, but because most of the Manchu Eight Banners lived in garrisons with Mandarin-speaking Han Bannermen located across Han Chinese civilian populated cities, most Manchus spoke

6588-661: The coming decades. The French Basque Country has been subject to intense French-language pressure exerted over the Basque-speaking communities. In the late 1800s, the Basque language was both persecuted and excluded from administration and official public use during the takeover of the National Convention , during the War of the Pyrenees , and during the Napoleonic period . The compulsory national education system imposed early on

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6696-481: The cultural, economic and military choices made by the local population in question. The group bringing new traits may initially be small, contributing features that can be fewer in number than those of the already local culture. The emerging combined group may then initiate a recurrent, expansionist process of ethnic and language shift. David Anthony notes that the spread of the Indo-European languages probably did not happen through "chain-type folk migrations", but by

6804-419: The effort to secure status and aid for the band, Diamond gained the support of the Texas delegation to Congress and the Senate for Tigua tribal recognition. Due to termination sentiment in Congress, federal officials were not willing to grant full federal tribal acknowledgment at the time. The Ysleta band as a result only was recognized as the Tigua Indians of El Paso in 1967 as a Texas Indian tribe; House Bill 888

6912-431: The family, while 68% with friends. A much lower percentage reported to use it at work (35%); the local language is less used in formal situations. However, the frequency of use within the family networks and friendship stopped respectively at -4 and -11 percentage points, suggesting a slow morphing to Italian, while the use in the workplace dropped to -22 percentage points. A visible generational gap has also been noted, since

7020-425: The federal relationship with the tribe. Public Law ch. 831, §1, 68 Stat. 768 provided that the Secretary of the Interior was to transfer to the State of Texas the tribal lands for the benefit of the tribe. In addition, it terminated the federal trust relationship with the tribe and the individual members of the tribe and canceled any federal debts. In 1965, under House Bill 1096, 59th Texas Legislature, Regular Session,

7128-468: The federal state of Schleswig-Holstein . Cumans , seeking refuge from the Mongols , settled in Hungary and were later Magyarized . The Jassic people of Hungary originally spoke the Jassic dialect of Ossetic , but they fully adopted Magyar , forgetting their former language. The territory of today's Hungary was formerly settled by Slavonic tribes, which gradually assimilated to Magyar. Also, language shift may have happened in Hungarian pre-history, as

7236-583: The introduction of these languages by ritual and political elites, which are emulated by large groups of people. Anthony explains: Language shift can be understood best as a social strategy through which individuals and groups compete for positions of prestige, power, and domestic security ... What is important, then, is not just dominance, but vertical social mobility and a linkage between language and access to positions of prestige and power ... A relatively small immigrant elite population can encourage widespread language shift among numerically dominant indigenes in

7344-449: The island's indigenous languages have by now been therefore largely replaced by Italian; the language contact ultimately resulted in the emergence of a specific variety of Italian , slightly divergent from the standard one. Due to language shift, ethnographic borders of Lithuanian language from the Middle Ages to the late 1930s shrank sharply to the north and west from the territory what is now Grodno oblast in Belarus , giving way to

7452-421: The late 18th century and the early 19th century. Another tribe comprises the Poarch Band of Creeks , which remained in Alabama. The Seminole Indian Nation in Florida also includes many descendants of the Creek Confederacy who relocated there and merged with another tribe. Under pressure from European American settlement, the ancestors of this tribe were Alabama and Coushatta peoples who migrated from Alabama and

7560-434: The late 19th century. Since the times of the Renaissance , a trans-Italian language was developed in central Italy , based on Florentine Tuscan ; in light of its cultural prestige, it was used for formal, literary and written purposes among the literate classes from the various states of mainland Italy, Sicily and Corsica (France), sidelining the other dialects in education and formal settings. Thus, literary Florentine

7668-430: The laws of the state of Texas. Both the Alabama and Koasati languages are Muskogean languages . The Alabama–Coushatta Reservation was established in 1854, when the state bought 1,110.7 acres (449.5 ha) of land for the Alabama Indian reservation. About 500 tribe members settled on this land during the winter of 1854–55. In 1855, the Texas legislature appropriated funds to purchase 640 acres (260 ha) for

7776-595: The lifetime of a person, or most often across generations. When a speech-community ceases to use their original language, language death is said to occur. In the context of the Indo-European migrations, it has been noted that small groups can change a larger cultural area. Michael Witzel refers to Ehret's model "which stresses the osmosis , or a "billiard ball," or Mallory 's Kulturkugel , effect of cultural transmission." According to Ehret, ethnicity and language can shift with relative ease in small societies, due to

7884-426: The local dialects ( Basilicata , 69.4%; Calabria 68.6%; Campania, 75.2%; Sicily, 68.8%). Trentino 's Cimbrian , a Germanic language related to Bavarian , was spoken by at least 20,000 people in the 19th century, with 3,762 people in 1921 and fewer than 300 in 2007. The same scenario goes for Mòcheno and Walser . Unlike the neighbouring island of Corsica (France) and elsewhere in today's Italy, where Italian

7992-415: The mid-1950s, specified that tribal members would be ineligible for any services, claims or demands from the United States as Indians. Under Texas jurisdiction, the state created a reservation for the Tiguas. Tiguas and state officials created economic development programs. The most important was a tourism venture on the reservation. Here Tiguas were hired to demonstrate indigenous crafts and lifeways. During

8100-672: The mixed language Petuh combining Danish and German elements. As late as in 1851 (in the period of nationalization) the Danish government tried to stop the language shift, but without success in the long run. After the Second Schleswig War the Prussians introduced a number of language policy measures in the opposite direction to expand the use of (High) German as the language of administration, schooling and church services. Today, Danish and North Frisian are recognized as minority languages in

8208-578: The native Germanic dialect has been declining after a period of being banned at school by the French government after the First World War and the Second World War . It is being replaced by French. French Flanders , which gradually became part of France between 1659 and 1678, was historically part of the Dutch sprachraum , the native dialect being West Flemish ( French Flemish ). This is corroborated by

8316-615: The newly formed Texas Indian Commission took over state administration and supervision for the Alabama–Coushatta Indian Reservation . On 22 March 1983, Texas Attorney General Jim Mattox released an opinion (JM-17) stating that the state's assumption of power over the property of the Alabama–Coushatta violated the Texas Constitution. He stated that as the federal government's withdrawal of its recognition,

8424-405: The opening ceremony parade. Tigua leaders made Franklin Roosevelt "Honorary Cacique" and Eleanor Roosevelt "Honorary Squaw" at the time. By the 1950s the Tigua community was in dire circumstances. Having lost their valuable tribal lands, most members lived in poverty near the old mission church while others moved to other parts of El Paso for better economic opportunities. That decade the community

8532-530: The over 200 acres (81 ha) of pine trees they planted in 2012 and the additional 200 acres (81 ha) of older growth trees. The Alabama–Coushatta Tribe of Texas is headquartered in Livingston, Texas. They operate as a tribal council , with a Principal Chief and Chief serving as advisors to an elected tribal council comprising a chair, vice-chair, and five additional members. The tribe's constitution and by-laws were adopted on June 16, 1971. As of May 2024,

8640-533: The perception of population as Lithuanian language was seen as of lower status by its peripheral speakers as well as deliberate policy by German and Russian imperial administrations, notably – a 40-year ban on Lithuanian language and press by the Tsarist government . In Lithuania Minor , where Lithuanian culture began to decline after The Great Plague between 1708 and 1711, Kristijonas Donelaitis ' poem – The Seasons addressed this issue. In Northern Poland during

8748-399: The population shifted from Slovene to German. In the same region, today only some 13% of the people speak Slovene, while more than 85% of the population speak German. The figures for the whole region are equally telling: in 1818, around 35% of the population of Carinthia spoke Slovene; by 1910, this number had fallen to 15.6% and by 2001 to 2.3%. These changes were almost entirely the result of

8856-461: The prehistoric culture of Magyars shows very little similarity to that of speakers of other Uralic languages . In India, many languages are assimilated into standard language like Hindi , Bengali and other administrative languages. For example, the Austroasiatic -speaking Bhumij tribe for over two centuries nearly abandoned their native language and adopted Bengali and Odia instead. Today,

8964-459: The prewar era and especially the postwar era and the "escape from the countryside" of the 1960s changed the demography of the major cities and led to Finnish dominating. While Helsinki was a predominantly Swedish-speaking city prior to the turn of the 20th century, the Swedish-speaking minority is now about 6% of the population. In Alsace , France , a longtime Alsatian -speaking region,

9072-431: The province of Guangdong the cultural influence of Cantonese has meant local dialects and languages are being abandoned for Cantonese instead. Languages like Tujia and Evenki are also disappearing due to language shift. In Hong Kong , Cantonese has become the dominant language spoken in society since widespread immigration to Hong Kong began in the 1940s. With immigrants of differing mother tongues, communication

9180-626: The region's linguistic heritage. Like the aforementioned case of Northeast Italy, even in Southern Italy and Sicily the local dialects from the Italo-Dalmatian family are widely used in combination with standard Italian, depending upon the social context. More specifically, Italian as the prevalent language spoken among family members is spoken the least in Campania (20.7%), Calabria (25.3%) and Sicily (26.6%), contrary to frequency of use of

9288-583: The southern parts of Schleswig. Added to this was the influence of German-speaking Holsatian nobility and traders. German was (occasionally) also spoken at the royal court in Copenhagen. This political and economic development led gradually to a German language dominating in the southern parts of Schleswig. Native dialects such as the Angel Danish and Eiderstedt Frisian vanished. In the Flensburg area, there arose

9396-487: The spreading Polish and Belarusian languages , while in Prussian Lithuania out of 10 administrative units with prevailing Lithuanian language in the early 1800s, only the extreme northern part – Klaipėda region had still relative Lithuanian language majority in the 1910s with all the eastern and southern territories in some hundred or so years almost fully Germanized . These processes were happening both because of

9504-524: The students and young people under the age of 25 are the social group where the use of dialect fell below the threshold of absolute majority (respectively 43 and 41%). Nonetheless, despite some tendencies signalling the slow advancement of standard Italian, the local dialects of Veneto and the Province of Trieste are still widely spoken alongside Italian; like in much of Italy, the presence of Italian in Northeast Italy does not seem to take anything away from

9612-613: The time of Classical Antiquity. Another example is during the Middle Ages, when shifting from Aramaic to Arabic through the advent of Islam. A third shift took place in Modern times, under the influence of Zionism , from Jewish languages such as Yiddish , Ladino and various dialects of Judeo-Arabic to Modern Hebrew . The Italian peninsula , the Po river basin and the nearby islands are home to various languages , most of which are Latin-derived. Italy would be politically organized into states until

9720-424: The total population, 38.5% do not have at-home internet, which is 11.5% higher than the national average of 14.5%. The homeownership rate on the reservation is 76.3%, which is 10.9% higher than the national average of 65.4%. The tribe has its own wildland fire department and land management program that uses fire suppression tactics to manage the woodlands on their tribal land. This is particularly important for

9828-492: The tribal chiefs and council members are as follows: Principal Chief Donnis B. Batisse was inaugurated as Mikko Choba or Principal Chief on January 1, 2023. Millie Thompson Williams was inaugurated as Mikko Istimatokla, or Second Chief/Vice Chief, on January 1, 2023. She is the first female to serve as Second Chief for the Alabama-Coushatta Tribe. The Alabama and Coushatta people of Polk County struggled after

9936-523: The tribe because bingo is not prohibited in the state of Texas. In December 2021, the tribe joined Ysleta del Sur Pueblo to file an amicus brief with the United States Supreme Court to ensure their rights to operate bingo halls on their reservations. The Supreme Court agreed to review the case on its docket in 2022. On June 15, 2022, the Court sided with both tribes in a 5-4 ruling. The judgment

10044-401: The tribe was "merely an unincorporated association under Texas law, with the same legal status as other private associations ... the 3,071-acre tract is entirely free from any legally meaningful designation as an 'Indian Reservation.'" In response to concerns by the tribe, Representative Ronald D. Coleman of Texas introduced a federal bill on 28 February 1985 to restore federal jurisdiction for

10152-471: The tribe. Because the initial bill, HR 1344, allowed gambling, amendments were made and the Yselta del Sur Pueblo and Alabama and Coushatta Indian Tribes of Texas Restoration Act was reintroduced as HR 318. Public Law 100–89, 101 STAT. 666 was enacted on 18 August 1987 and restored the federal relationship with the tribe. Section 207 (25 U.S.C. § 737) [1] specifically prohibits all gaming activities prohibited by

10260-412: The tribes' sacred drum or tombe which was revered for its spiritual power. The scholar also reported that the Tiguas still maintained their St. Anthony's Day ceremonials, tribal dances, and indigenous chants. The 1960s were important years for the Tigua community. With the aid of a Latino friend, the Tiguas reached out to a young attorney, Tom Diamond, to aid them in their economic struggles. Diamond,

10368-436: The use of English words in Maltese sentences. Trends show that English is becoming the language of choice for more and more people, and is transforming the Maltese language. Urdu, the lingua franca of South Asian Muslims and the official and national language of Pakistan since its independence, is spoken by most educated Pakistanis . Despite positive attitudes towards Punjabi in the urban areas of Pakistani Punjab , there

10476-449: The world as a result of language change in urban settings. These factors lead to phenomena such as dialect levelling, koineization , and/or language shift toward a dominant language. Historical examples for status shift are the early Welsh and Lutheran Bible translations . Until the mid-19th century, southern Carinthia in Austria had an overwhelming Slovene -speaking majority: in

10584-586: Was a language shift from the 17th to the 20th centuries from Danish and North Frisian dialects to Low German and later High German. Historically, most of the region was part of the Danish and North Frisian language area, adjacent in the south to the German-speaking Holstein. But with the Reformation in the 16th century German became the language of the Church, and in the 19th century also that of schools in

10692-619: Was enacted August 16, 1987 and restored the federal relationship with the tribe simultaneously with those of the Alabama-Coushatta Tribe . The restoration act renamed the tribe to the Ysleta Del Sur Pueblo, repealed the Tiwa Indians Act , and specifically prohibited all gaming activities prohibited by the laws of the state of Texas. The Tigua have maintained a federal relationship continuously since 1987. The legislation of

10800-571: Was established as the most representative dialect of Italy long before its political unification in 1861, Tuscan having been officially adopted by the preunitarian states. Italian further expanded as a common language for everyday use throughout the country after World War II. Most other languages, with the exception of those spoken by specific ethno-linguistic groups , long served as local vernaculars alongside Italian; therefore they have been mislabelled "dialects" by their own speakers, but they are still usually spoken just as much as standard Italian in

10908-467: Was hard without a dominant language. Cantonese originated from the capital of neighboring Canton province, and it became the dominant language by extension, and other similar dialects started to vanish from use in Hong Kong. Original residents, or aboriginals, of Hong Kong used their own languages including the Tanka , Hakka and Waitau dialect , but with a majority of Hong Kong's population being immigrants by

11016-521: Was long employed as a conglomerate of local vernaculars in combination with Italian , the official language in Corsica until 1859; afterwards Italian was replaced by French, owing to the acquisition of the island by France from Genoa in 1768. Over the next two centuries, the use of French grew to the extent that, by the Liberation in 1945, all islanders had a working knowledge of French. The 20th century saw

11124-638: Was passed during the 60th Legislature, Regular Session, transferring all trust responsibilities for the Tigua Indians to the Texas Indian Commission. On April 12, 1968, under Public Law 90–287 82 Stat. 93 the United States Congress relinquished all responsibility for the Tiwa Indians of Ysleta, Texas to the State of Texas. The Tiwa Indians Act, borrowing word-for-word from the Lumbee Indian Act of

11232-522: Was the standard language shared by the various local elites since the late Middle Ages, Italian was first officially introduced to Sardinia, to the detriment of both Spanish and Sardinian (the only surviving Neo-Latin language from the Southern branch ), only in 1760 and 1764 by the then-ruling House of Savoy , from Piedmont . Because of the promotion and enforcement of the Italian language and culture upon

11340-475: Was then serving as Executive Director of the National Congress of American Indians (NCAI). The NCAI lobbied to have the Tiguas recognized as a federally recognized Indian tribe. Deloria also featured the Tiguas prominently in his seminal book, Custer Died for Your Sins: An Indian Manifesto , highlighting the band as an important symbol of the survival of indigenous values in modern American society. As part of

11448-620: Was threatened when the City of El Paso annexed Ysleta, imposing new taxes. Tigua leaders reached out for aid. In 1961, the Mayor of El Paso wrote to the Bureau of Indian Affairs asking for assistance for the group. As this was during the Termination Era when the U.S. government was "getting out of the Indian business" and terminating tribal governments and reservations, the government denied any responsibility for

11556-509: Was under Swedish rule from the Middle Ages until 1809, the language of education was Swedish , with Finnish being allowed as a medium of education at the university only in the 19th century, and the first thesis in Finnish being published in 1858. Several of the coastal cities were multilingual; Viipuri had newspapers in Swedish , Finnish , Russian and German . However, the industrialization in

11664-419: Was vacated, and the case was remanded to the lower court. In 1994, ground was broken for the now open Alabama–Coushatta Cultural Center. In April 2022, the tribe broke ground on the 49,000 square-foot Aati Imaabachi Imiisa Education Center to house the education department, library, a gym, play areas, and youth education programs. The reservation has two churches: a Christian First Assembly of God church and

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