The Tarnovo Constitution ( Bulgarian : Търновска конституция ) was the first constitution of Bulgaria .
117-624: After the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878, the 1878 Treaty of Berlin set up an autonomous state, the Principality of Bulgaria , within the Ottoman Empire . Although remaining under Ottoman sovereignty, it functioned independently, taking Alexander of Battenberg as its first prince in 1879. In 1885 Alexander took control of the still-Ottoman Eastern Rumelia , officially under a personal union . Following Prince Alexander's abdication (1886),
234-556: A Bulgarian Assembly elected Ferdinand I as prince in 1887. Full independence from Ottoman control was declared in 1908. In the 1912–1913 Balkan Wars , Bulgaria initially formed an alliance with Greece , Serbia and Montenegro against the Ottoman Empire, and together they conquered a great deal of Ottoman territory . Bulgaria, however, unhappy with the resulting division of territory , soon went to war against its former allies Serbia and Greece and lost territory it had gained in
351-690: A combined Bulgarian-Serbian task force. A second armistice followed in March, with the Ottomans losing all their European possessions west of the Midia-Enos line, not far from Istanbul. Bulgaria gained possession of most of Thrace, including Adrianople and the Aegean port of Dedeagach (today Alexandroupoli ). Bulgaria also gained a slice of Macedonia, north and east of Thessaloniki (which went to Greece), but only some small areas along her western borders. Bulgaria sustained
468-643: A counterattack. The Serbian army was pushed deeply into Serbian territory, but Bulgaria was forced to halt its advance after the Austro-Hungarian Empire threatened to intervene on the Serbian side. The unification was accepted by the Powers in the form of personal union. These events made Alexander very popular in Bulgaria, but Russia was increasingly dissatisfied with his liberal tendencies. In August 1886 they fomented
585-453: A coup, in the course of which Alexander was forced to abdicate and was exiled to Russia. Stambolov, however, acted quickly and the participants in the coup were forced to flee the country. Stambolov tried to reinstate Alexander, but strong Russian opposition forced the prince to abdicate again. In July 1887 the Bulgarians elected Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha as their new Prince. Ferdinand was
702-516: A court. This rule was ignored by the "People's Tribunal" of 1945, during the Soviet occupation of the country . The tribunal did not hold the statute of а court yet passed on more than 10,000 sentences to people who were seen as a threat by the Bulgarian Communist Party , which was coming to power at the time. The article prohibiting censorship was suspended in the 1880s by a law enforced by
819-422: A factor of 600% from 20,000 population in 1878 to 120,000 in 1912, primarily from peasants who arrived from the villages to become labourers tradesmen and office seekers. Refugees from Turkish Macedonia also arrived, while there was relatively little emigration. Ethnic diversity characterized Bulgaria, with an Orthodox Bulgarian base, and numerous enclaves of Turks, Greeks and others. Bulgarian revolutionaries from
936-720: A fleet in September 1860. Fearing that a unilateral intervention would increase French influence in the region at their expense, the British joined the French expedition . Faced with further European pressure, the Sultan agreed to appoint a Christian governor in Lebanon, whose candidacy was to be submitted by the Sultan and approved by the European powers. The Cretan Revolt , which began in 1866, resulted from
1053-452: A joint attack on the Ottomans. In February 1912 a secret treaty was signed between Bulgaria and Serbia, and in May 1912 a similar treaty was signed with Greece. Montenegro was also brought into the pact . The treaties provided for the partition of Macedonia and Thrace between the allies, although the lines of partition were left dangerously vague. After the Ottomans refused to implement reforms in
1170-688: A nationalist reaction, and on 9 June there was a coup after which Stamboliykski was assassinated (beheaded). A right wing government under Aleksandar Tsankov took power, backed by the Tsar, the army and the VMRO, who waged a White terror against the Agrarians and the Communists. The Communist leader Georgi Dimitrov fled to the Soviet Union. There was savage repression in 1925 following the second of two failed attempts on
1287-535: A parliament whose members were elected by the people. The monarch bore the title of Prince and not tsar , as it was during the First and the Second Bulgarian Empire , since the treaty of Berlin from 1878 restricted Bulgaria's independence to a certain degree and made it a de facto vassal state of Turkey . The Prince was supposed to be male and of Orthodox religion, although, in a legal act, an exception to
SECTION 10
#17328545526321404-635: A poll tax in lieu of service, the army itself was divided into four categories: the Nizam (standing army), who served for four years (five for cavalry and engineers); the Ithiat, or first reserve, where a further two years were served (one year for the cavalry and artillery); the Redif, which took veterans of the Nizam and Ithiat categories and men who did not serve; and the Moustafiz, where all men who had completed their service in
1521-404: A poor, underdeveloped agricultural country, with little industry or natural resources. Most of the land was owned by small farmers, with peasants comprising 80% of the population of 3.8 million in 1900. The few Turkish nobles left and large land holdings were uncommon, but there were many poor peasants living on the margins. Agrarianism was the dominant political philosophy in the countryside, as
1638-516: A violation of the pre-war agreements, and discreetly encouraged by Germany and Austria-Hungary , Tsar Ferdinand declared war on Serbia and Greece and the Bulgarian army attacked on June 29. The Serbian and the Greek forces were initially on the retreat on the western border, but they soon took the upper hand and forced Bulgaria into retreat. The fighting was very harsh, with many casualties, especially during
1755-470: The 8cm and 9cm types for field usage, with 12 cm and 15cm guns also being used (but less commonly) and various older guns found primarily in fortresses. At the outbreak of war, the Ottoman army was divided into several groups. The largest was the 168,000-man contingent under the command of Abdülkerim Nadir Pasha , based out of Shumla . 140,000 were assigned to the general task of fighting threats in
1872-620: The Balkan Wars , a five-sided struggle for control of these areas which lasted through World War I ( Bulgaria during World War I ). In 1903 there was a Bulgarian insurrection in Ottoman Macedonia and war seemed likely. In 1908 Ferdinand used the struggles between the Great Powers to declare Bulgaria a fully independent kingdom, with himself as Tsar, which he did on 5 October (though celebrated on 22 September, as Bulgaria remained officially on
1989-565: The Black Sea and supporting the political movement attempting to free Balkan nations from the Ottoman Empire. The Russian-led coalition won the war, pushing the Ottomans back all the way to the gates of Constantinople , leading to the intervention of the Western European great powers. As a result, Russia succeeded in claiming provinces in the Caucasus, namely Kars and Batum , and also annexed
2106-456: The Budjak region. The principalities of Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro, each of which had had de facto sovereignty for some years, formally proclaimed independence from the Ottoman Empire. After almost five centuries of Ottoman domination (1396–1878), Bulgaria emerged as an autonomous state with support and military intervention from Russia. Article 9 of the 1856 Paris Peace Treaty , concluded at
2223-613: The Coup d'état of 1944 organized by the Bulgarian Communist Party . The Referendum of 1946 led to the transition from a constitutional monarchy to a people's republic . The referendum took place during the Soviet occupation of the country and was also technically illegal since the Tarnovo Constitution did not provide for a change in the type of government. The Tarnovo Constitution was permanently abolished in 1947 when another one, bearing
2340-508: The Fatherland Front . Partisans operated in the mountainous west and south. By 1944 it was obvious that Germany was losing the war and the regime began to look for a way out. Bozhilov resigned in May, and his successor Ivan Ivanov Bagryanov tried to arrange negotiations with the western Allies. Meanwhile, the capital Sofia was bombed by Allied aircraft in late 1943 and early 1944, with raids on other major cities following later. But it
2457-691: The Julian Calendar until 1916) in the St Forty Martyrs Church in Veliko Tarnovo. The main external political problem confronting Bulgaria throughout the period up to World War I was the fate of Macedonia and Eastern Thrace. At the end of 19th century the Internal Macedonian-Adrianople Revolutionary Organization was founded and began the preparation of an armed uprising in the regions still occupied by
SECTION 20
#17328545526322574-724: The Ottoman Turks . Relying in part on nationwide support on the part of the Principality of Bulgaria, IMARO got down to organizing a network of committees in Macedonia and Thrace. On 2 August 1903 a mass armed uprising, known in history as the Ilinden–Preobrazhenie Uprising , broke out in Macedonia and Thrace. Its aim was to liberate those regions, or at least to draw the attention of the Great Powers and make them advocate for
2691-539: The Russian general Sobolev ; this law restricted media to seven selected newspapers and magazines, and limited comments critical of the government. Similar regulations were in effect in the late era of Stefan Stambolov 's government. In 1881, the Grand National Assembly (the supreme form of parliament) was manipulated by the principal Alexander I of Battenberg in order to suspend the entire constitution. During
2808-401: The military school during his reign to educate officers. However, the turnout of this academy was poor and only 1,600 of the 20,000 regular officers of the army were academy trained, though the artillery saw the highest concentration of academy trained officers at 20% of the total. For the entire Ottoman army, only 132 academy-trained generals were available. The Ottoman army was organised at
2925-709: The "Austrian candidate" and the Russians refused to recognize him despite his friendship with Tsar Alexander III. Ferdinand initially worked with Stambolov, but by 1894 their relationship worsened. Stambolov resigned and was assassinated in July 1895. Ferdinand then decided to restore relations with Russia, which meant returning to a conservative policy. There was a substantial Bulgarian population still living under Ottoman rule, particularly in Macedonia . To complicate matters, Serbia and Greece too made claims over parts of Macedonia. Thus began
3042-510: The "independence" of the Ottoman Empire, it would be wholly impossible to afford to it again the support we had afforded in the Crimean war . Although on the winning side in the Crimean War, the Ottoman Empire continued to decline in power and prestige. The financial strain on the treasury forced the Ottoman government to take a series of foreign loans at such steep interest rates that, despite all
3159-539: The 19th century, with the central government occasionally losing control over whole provinces. Reforms imposed by European powers did little to improve the conditions of the Christian population, while managing to dissatisfy a sizable portion of the Muslim population. Bosnia and Herzegovina suffered at least two waves of rebellion by the local Muslim population, the most recent ending in 1862 . Austria-Hungary consolidated after
3276-678: The Balkans would encourage their own Slavic subjects to seek independence. As a result, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck and British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli , supervised a revised Treaty of Berlin (1878), one that scaled back the proposed Bulgarian state. An autonomous Principality of Bulgaria was created, between the Danube and the Stara Planina range, with its seat at the old Bulgarian capital of Veliko Tarnovo , and including Sofia. This state
3393-546: The Bulgarian cause led to a nationwide surge in patriotism on a scale comparable with the one during the Patriotic War of 1812 . From autumn 1875, the movement to support the Bulgarian uprising involved all classes of Russian society. This was accompanied by sharp public discussions about Russian goals in this conflict: Slavophiles , including Fyodor Dostoevsky , saw in the impending war the chance to unite all Orthodox nations under Russia's helm, thus fulfilling what they believed
3510-514: The Bulgarian government until the 1970s. They were protected as a minority group under international law by various treaties and agreements, including the Treaty of Berlin (1878). For over a century, this protection enabled Bulgaria's Turks to develop separate religious and cultural organizations, schools, a local Turkish press, and a literature. The first decade of the century saw sustained prosperity, with steady urban growth. The capital of Sofia grew by
3627-558: The Crimean War ;– and Russian annexation of the port of Batum on the east coast of the Black Sea . Bulgaria was to become autonomous (independent, according to the Russian records). As the fighting in Bosnia and Herzegovina continued, Serbia suffered a string of setbacks and asked the European powers to mediate an end to the war. A joint ultimatum by the European powers forced
History of Bulgaria (1878–1946) - Misplaced Pages Continue
3744-411: The Crimean War; some were Islamized Bulgarians. The Ottoman army suppressed the revolt, massacring up to 30,000 people in the process. Five thousand out of the seven thousand villagers of Batak were put to death. Both Batak and Perushtitsa , where the majority of the population was also massacred, participated in the rebellion. Many of the perpetrators of those massacres were later decorated by
3861-515: The European balance. Bismarck did not wish the breakup of the Ottoman Empire to create rivalries that might lead to war, so he took up Tsar Alexander II of Russia 's earlier suggestion that arrangements be made in case the Ottoman Empire fell apart, creating the Three Emperors' League with Austria-Hungary and Russia to keep France isolated on the continent. France responded by supporting self-determination movements, particularly if they concerned
3978-690: The European provinces of the Empire, with 45,000 in various garrisons in Anatolia, Europe, and Crete. With the Caucasus army containing 70,000 men, the total of number of troops amounted to 378,000. Olender gives a breakdown of Ottoman troops in the spring of 1877 as containing 571 infantry battalions (181 of which were Nizam), 147 cavalry squadrons and 143 artillery batteries not including the fortress and garrison companies or irregulars. On paper this would amount to 441,954 infantry (140,094 being nizam troops), 21,021 cavalry and 858 guns. However, due to other conflicts and
4095-412: The French language and to gain prestige and business for France. Indeed, French became the primary foreign language in Bulgaria and the wealthy typically sent their children to elite Roman Catholic French language schools taught by Frenchmen. The prosperous Greek community of southern Bulgaria set up their own network of Greek language primary and secondary schools that promoted Hellenism in order to counter
4212-572: The Liberals. He also supported the Unification of Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia , which was brought about by a coup in Plovdiv in September 1885. The Powers did not intervene because of the power struggles between them. Shortly after, Serbia declared war on Bulgaria in the hope of grabbing territory while the Bulgarians were distracted. The Bulgarians defeated them at Slivnitsa and used the momentum to launch
4329-567: The Macedonian area (then under Ottoman rule) used Bulgaria as a base, beginning in 1894, to agitate for a formal independence from the Ottoman Empire in order to later more easily reunite Macedonia and Bulgaria. They launched a poorly planned uprising in 1903 that was brutally suppressed, and led to tens of thousands of additional refugees pouring into Bulgaria. Russo-Turkish War (1877%E2%80%931878) The Russo-Turkish War ( Turkish : 93 Harbi , lit. 'War of '93', named for
4446-526: The Ottoman Empire. Small as the amount of attention is which can be given by the people of England to the affairs of Turkey ... enough was transpiring from time to time to produce a vague but a settled and general impression that the Sultans were not fulfilling the "solemn promises" they had made to Europe; that the vices of the Turkish government were ineradicable; and that whenever another crisis might arise affecting
4563-647: The Ottoman high command. Word of the bashi-bazouks' atrocities filtered to the outside world by way of the American-run Robert College located in Constantinople . The majority of the students were Bulgarian, and many received news of the events from their families back home. Soon the Western diplomatic community in Constantinople was abuzz with rumours, which eventually found their way into newspapers in
4680-553: The Ottoman offensive into Serbia. Meanwhile, Alexander II of Russia and Prince Gorchakov met Austria-Hungary's Franz Joseph I and Count Andrássy in the Reichstadt castle in Bohemia . No written agreement was made, but during the discussions, Russia agreed to support Austrian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Austria-Hungary, in exchange, agreed to support the return of Southern Bessarabia – lost by Russia during
4797-451: The Ottomans in the war. An uprising against Ottoman rule began in Herzegovina in July 1875. By August almost all of Herzegovina had been seized and the revolt had spread into Bosnia . Supported by nationalist volunteers from Serbia and Montenegro, the uprising continued as the Ottomans committed more and more troops to suppress it. With its origin in the vicinity of the town of Nevesinje
History of Bulgaria (1878–1946) - Misplaced Pages Continue
4914-629: The Ottomans, won military victories against Serbia and Romania, occupying much of Macedonia (taking Skopje in October), advancing into Greek Macedonia, and taking Dobruja from the Romanians in September 1916, the war soon became unpopular with the majority of Bulgarian people, who suffered great economic hardship and also disliked fighting their fellow Orthodox Christians in alliance with the Muslim Ottomans. The Agrarian Party leader, Aleksandar Stamboliyski ,
5031-482: The Porte to give Serbia a one-month truce and start peace negotiations. Turkish peace conditions however were refused by European powers as too harsh. In early October, after the truce expired, the Turkish army resumed its offensive and the Serbian position quickly became desperate. On 31 October, Russia issued an ultimatum requiring the Ottoman Empire to stop the hostilities and sign a new truce with Serbia within 48 hours. This
5148-531: The Question of the East calling upon Britain to withdraw its support for Turkey and proposing that Europe demand independence for Bulgaria and Bosnia and Herzegovina. As the details became known across Europe, many dignitaries, including Charles Darwin , Oscar Wilde , Victor Hugo and Giuseppe Garibaldi , publicly condemned the Ottoman abuses in Bulgaria. The strongest reaction came from Russia. Widespread sympathy for
5265-400: The Redif (approximately 300,000 troops) served for a further six years. The Redif itself was divided into four categories: the first category consisted of veterans of the Nizam category, who served in the first Redif subcategory for four years before entering the second Redif sub-category; men who were not conscripted served in the third sub-category of the Redif for four years before entering
5382-573: The Soviets could not be put off, and on September 8 they declared war on Bulgaria – which thus found itself for a few days at war with both Germany and the Soviet Union. On September 16, the Soviet army entered Sofia. The Fatherland Front took office in Sofia following a coup d'état , setting up a broad coalition under the former ruler Kimon Georgiev and including the Social Democrats and the Agrarians. Under
5499-455: The Tsar's life in the bomb attack on Sofia Cathedral (the first attempt took place in the mountain pass of Arabakonak ). But in 1926 the Tsar persuaded Tsankov to resign and a more moderate government under Andrey Lyapchev took office. An amnesty was proclaimed, although the Communists remained banned. The Agrarians reorganised and won elections in 1931 under the leadership of Nikola Mushanov . Just when political stability had been restored,
5616-752: The West. While in Constantinople in 1879, Protestant missionary George Warren Wood reported Turkish authorities in Amasia brutally persecuting Christian Armenian refugees from Soukoum Kaleh . He was able to coordinate with British diplomat Edward Malet to bring the matter to the attention of the Sublime Porte , and then to the British Foreign Secretary Robert Gascoyne-Cecil (the Marquess of Salisbury ). In Britain, where Disraeli's government
5733-444: The agreement heard. When they were rejected by the Great Powers, the Ottoman Empire announced its decision to disregard the results of the conference. On 15 January 1877, Russia and Austria-Hungary signed a written agreement confirming the results of the earlier Reichstadt Agreement of July 1876. This assured Russia of the benevolent neutrality of Austria-Hungary in the impending war. These terms meant that in case of war Russia would do
5850-489: The army disbanded. Under the Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine (November 1919), Bulgaria lost its Aegean coastline to Greece and nearly all of its Macedonian territory to the new state of Yugoslavia , and had to give Dobruja back to the Romanians (see also Dobruja , Western Outlands , Western Thrace ). Elections in March 1920 gave the Agrarians a large majority, and Stamboliyski formed Bulgaria's first genuinely democratic government. Stamboliyski faced huge social problems in what
5967-476: The army. In 1858, stirred by their clergy, the Maronite peasants of northern Lebanon revolted against their predominantly Druze feudal overlords and established a peasant republic. In southern Beirut vilayet , where both Maronite and Druze peasants worked under Druze overlords, Druze peasants sided with their co-religious and against the Maronites, transforming the conflict into a civil war . Although both sides suffered, about 10,000 Maronites were massacred at
SECTION 50
#17328545526326084-470: The battalion level with a battalion nominally holding 800 men subdivided into companies of 100 men, for formations above the battalion level these were to be assembled ad-hoc this results in difficulty at estimating Ottoman troop strength throughout the war as many units were below strength before entering the war due to the many rebellions affecting the empire. However, the Ottoman army was well prepared for war, as it had increasingly called up its reserves up to
6201-503: The country in preparation for the Axis invasions of Greece and Yugoslavia . When Yugoslavia and Greece were defeated, Bulgaria was allowed to occupy all of Greek Thrace and most of Macedonia. Bulgaria declared war on Britain and the United States , but resisted German pressure to declare war on the Soviet Union, fearful of pro-Russian sentiment in the country. In August 1943 Tsar Boris died suddenly after returning from Germany (possibly assassinated, although this has never been proved) and
6318-427: The crushing French defeat and the support of a grateful Germany , Russia achieved international recognition of its earlier denouncement of Article 11 of the Paris Peace Treaty, thus enabling it to revive the Black Sea Fleet. Other clauses of the Paris Peace Treaty, however, remained in force, specifically Article 8 with guarantees of Ottoman territorial integrity by Great Britain, France and Austria. Therefore, Russia
6435-450: The disputed areas, the First Balkan War broke out in October 1912. (See Balkan Wars for details.) The allies had an astonishing success. The Bulgarian army inflicted several defeats on the Ottoman forces and advanced threateningly against Istanbul, while the Serbs and the Greeks took control of Macedonia. The Ottomans sued for peace in December. Negotiations broke down, and fighting resumed in February 1913. The Ottomans lost Adrianople to
6552-401: The end of the Crimean War , obliged the Ottoman Empire to grant Christians equal rights with Muslims. Before the treaty was signed, the Ottoman government issued an edict, the Edict of Gülhane , which proclaimed the principle of the equality of Muslims and non-Muslims, and produced some specific reforms to this end. For example, the jizya tax was abolished and non-Muslims were allowed to join
6669-399: The establishment of a large Russian client state in the Balkans, the other Great Powers , especially Great Britain and Austria-Hungary, refused to agree to the treaty and insisted it be revised. The British were concerned over the safety of their routes to the Suez Canal and India. The sovereigns of the Austro-Hungarian Empire feared that the establishment of a large independent Slavic state in
6786-453: The fact that there were numerous regular Turkish troops in those areas. A special Turkish military committee was established to quell the uprising. Regular troops ( Nizam ) and irregulars ( Redif or Bashi-bazouk ) were directed to fight the Bulgarians (11 May – 9 June 1876). The irregulars were mostly drawn from the Muslim inhabitants of the Bulgarian region. Many were Circassians from the Caucasus or Crimean Tatars who were expelled during
6903-428: The failure of the Ottoman Empire to apply reforms for improving the life of the population and the Cretans' desire for enosis – union with Greece . The insurgents gained control over the whole island, except for five fortified cities where the Muslims took refuge. The Greek press claimed that Muslims had massacred Greeks and the word was spread throughout Europe. Thousands of Greek volunteers were mobilized and sent to
7020-459: The fighting and Austria-Hungary would derive most of the advantage. Russia therefore made a final effort for a peaceful settlement. After reaching an agreement with its main Balkan rival and with anti-Ottoman sympathies running high throughout Europe due to the Bulgarian atrocities and the rejection of the Constantinople agreements, Russia finally felt free to declare war. The Ottoman army at this time solely conscripted Muslims with non-Muslims paying
7137-491: The first war. The First World War (1914–1918) saw Bulgaria fighting (1915–1918) alongside Germany , Austria-Hungary , and the Ottoman Empire. Defeat led to the Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine (27 November 1919), in accordance with which Bulgaria lost further territory. Social problems and political instability persisted throughout the Interwar period . In the Second World War (1939–1945), Bulgaria again allied with Germany (March 1941). Although Sofia attempted to pull out of
SECTION 60
#17328545526327254-452: The fiscal reforms that followed, pushed it into unpayable debts and economic difficulties. This was further aggravated by the need to accommodate more than 600,000 Muslim Circassians , expelled by the Russians from the Caucasus, to the Black Sea ports of north Anatolia and the Balkan ports of Constanța and Varna , which cost a great deal in money and in civil disorder to the Ottoman authorities. The Concert of Europe established in 1814
7371-471: The fourth subcategory. The Redif itself was grouped into battalions and classes, with whole battalions taken out to serve as new units. The annual draft conscripted 37,500 men; following mobilisation of the Nizam and Ithiat, these two portions of the army totaled approximately 210,000 men. An additional 20,000 men of the Gendarme were included in the Nizam. The Redif was theoretically capable of providing 190,000–200,000 troops. Sultan Abdulaziz had reorganised
7488-535: The full effects of the Great Depression hit Bulgaria, and social tensions rose again. In May 1934 there was another coup , the Agrarians were again suppressed, and an authoritarian regime headed by Kimon Georgiev established with the backing of Tsar Boris. In April 1935 Boris took power himself, ruling through puppet Prime Ministers Georgi Kyoseivanov (1935–1940) and Bogdan Filov (1940–1943). The Tsar's regime banned all opposition parties and took Bulgaria into alliance with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy . Although
7605-417: The function and competence of the central organs of state authority according to the principle of separation of powers among an executive , a legislative , and a judiciary branch. It provided for ministerial responsibility, immunity of the deputies, and inviolability of private property. The constitution included a clause that formally established the Bulgarian Orthodox Church as the official religion of
7722-500: The hands of the Druze. Fearing European intervention, the Ottoman foreign minister Mehmed Fuad Pasha was dispatched to Syria and immediately set about trying to resolve the conflict as swiftly as possible. Mehmed sought out and executed the agitators on all sides, including the governor and other officials. Order was soon restored, and preparations made to give Lebanon new autonomy. These efforts were ultimately not enough to prevent European intervention, however, with France deploying
7839-477: The heaviest casualties of any of the allies, and on this basis felt entitled to the largest share of the spoils. The Serbs in particular did not see things this way, and refused to vacate any of the territory they had seized in northern Macedonia (that is, the territory roughly corresponding to the modern North Macedonia ), stating that the Bulgarian army had failed to accomplish its pre-war goals at Adrianople (i. e., failing to capture it without Serbian help) and that
7956-411: The improvement of the living conditions for the population through legal and economic reforms. After three months of fierce battles the Ottoman army crushed the uprising using much cruelty against the civilian population. In 1911 the Nationalist Prime Minister, Ivan Evstratiev Geshov , set about forming an alliance with Greece and Serbia, and the three allies agreed to put aside their rivalries to plan
8073-422: The insurrection was suppressed, but the Porte offered some concessions, introducing island self-rule and increasing Christian rights on the island. Although the Cretan crisis ended better for the Ottomans than almost any other diplomatic confrontation of the century, the insurrection, and especially the brutality with which it was suppressed, led to greater public attention in Europe to the oppression of Christians in
8190-469: The island. The siege of Arkadi Monastery became particularly well known. In November 1866, about 250 Cretan Greek combatants and around 600 women and children were besieged by about 23,000 mainly Cretan Muslims aided by Ottoman troops, and this became widely known in Europe. After a bloody battle with a large number of casualties on both sides, the Cretan Greeks finally surrendered when their ammunition ran out but were killed upon surrender. By early 1869,
8307-476: The joint control of European powers. The Ottomans, however, refused to sacrifice their independence by allowing international representatives to oversee the institution of reforms and sought to discredit the conference by announcing on 23 December, the day the conference was closed, that a constitution was adopted that declared equal rights for religious minorities within the Empire. The Ottomans attempted to use this manoeuver to get their objections and amendments to
8424-514: The key Battle of Bregalnica . Soon Romania entered the war and attacked Bulgaria from the north. The Ottoman Empire also attacked from the south-east. The war was now definitely lost for Bulgaria, which had to abandon most of her claims of Macedonia to Serbia and Greece, while the revived Ottomans retook Adrianople. Romania took possession of southern Dobruja . In the aftermath of the Balkan Wars Bulgarian opinion turned against Russia and
8541-436: The monarch and his successor, must pay taxes to the state. All (male) citizens were obliged to serve in the military; this requirement included the monarch (who was head of the military forces) and his successors. All citizens were allowed freedom of association, and were free to form political parties or start their own companies. The Tarnovo Constitution prohibited punishment of a citizen whose case had not been examined by
8658-524: The name of Eastern Rumelia was also created south of the Stara Planina range, whereas Macedonia reverted to the sovereignty of the Sultan. The Bulgarians adopted an advanced democratic constitution , and power soon passed to the Liberal Party led by Stefan Stambolov . Prince Alexander had conservative leanings, and at first opposed Stambolov's policies, but by 1885 he had become sufficiently sympathetic to his new country to change his mind, and supported
8775-470: The nation, although people of other religions were considered equal to those who followed the official faith. With amendments in 1893 and 1911 that strengthened royal power, the Tarnovo Constitution remained in use until 4 December 1947, when it was replaced by the Dimitrov Constitution . According to the constitution of 1879, Bulgaria was declared to be a constitutional, hereditary monarchy with
8892-401: The next seven years, the monarch had unlimited power and issued a series of ordinances that were only technically approved by the ministers. This period, which Bulgarian historians refer to as a regime, ended in 1888 when the constitution was restored. The Tarnovo Constitution was temporarily suspended several times more, most notably during the Coup d'état of 1934 led by Kimon Georgiev and
9009-626: The ongoing process of mobilisation of the Redif units at this process the Regular Ottoman army amounted to 400,000 troops with an additional 90,000 irregular troops and Egyptian troops. (Paper Olender) 10 squadrons 15 batteries (40,130 men, 90 guns) Sistova 4 squadrons 5 batteries (12,182, 30 guns) 3 squadrons 3 batteries (9,717, 18 guns) 30 squadrons (mostly irregular) 15 batteries (54,600, 90 guns) 2 squadrons 2 batteries (9,288, 12 guns) Adrianople , Constantinople 12 squadrons 8 batteries Tarnovo Constitution It
9126-731: The peasantry organized a movement independent of any existing party. In 1899, the Bulgarian Agrarian Union was formed, bringing together rural intellectuals such as teachers with ambitious peasants. It promoted modern farming practices, as well as elementary education. The government promoted modernization, with special emphasis on building a network of elementary and secondary schools. By 1910, there were 4,800 elementary schools, 330 lyceums, 27 high schools, and 113 vocational schools. From 1878 to 1933 France funded numerous libraries, research institutes, and Catholic schools throughout Bulgaria. The main aims were to disseminate French culture and
9243-544: The pre-war agreements on the division of Macedonia had to be revised. Some circles in Bulgaria inclined toward going to war with Serbia and Greece on this issue. In June 1913 Serbia and Greece formed a new alliance, against Bulgaria. The Serbian Prime Minister, Nikola Pašić , told Greece it could have Thrace if Greece helped Serbia keep Bulgaria out of Serbian part of Macedonia, and the Greek Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos agreed. Seeing this as
9360-572: The religious restriction was made when electing the Lutheran Alexander of Battenberg as the first Prince. The Prince had the power to initiate a legislative campaign and to coordinate the activities of the prime minister and the cabinet. Although the ministers were entitled to act as if they were representing the Prince, by signing with their own signature they agreed to take responsibility for what resulted from their actions. The Prince's signature
9477-561: The same time, a severe drought in Anatolia in 1873 and flooding in 1874 caused famine and widespread discontent in the heart of the Empire. The agricultural shortages precluded the collection of necessary taxes, which forced the Ottoman government to declare bankruptcy in October 1875 and increase taxes on outlying provinces including the Balkans. István Deák states that the Albanian highlanders resented new taxes and conscription, and fought against
9594-553: The signing of the Balkan Pact of 1938 restored good relations with Yugoslavia and Greece, the territorial issue continued to simmer. Under Filov's government Bulgaria drifted into World War II , faced by an invasion and bribed by the return of southern Dobruja from Romania, on the orders of Hitler (see Second Vienna Award ), in September 1940. In March 1941 Bulgaria formally signed the Tripartite Pact and German troops entered
9711-415: The terms of the peace settlement, Bulgaria was allowed to keep Southern Dobruja , but formally renounced all claims to Greek and Yugoslav territory. To prevent further disputes 150,000 Bulgarians were expelled from Greek Thrace. The Communists deliberately took a minor role in the new government at first, but the Soviet representatives were the real power in the country. A Communist-controlled People's Militia
9828-556: The third subcategory of the Redif when Russian forces began gathering in Bessarabia. Olender gives the Ottoman battalion (tabor) of infantry at 774 men on paper and 650 in practice, the cavalry squadron containing 143 men on paper and 100 in practice, with the artillery being organised into six gun batteries. The Ottoman army was also well equipped; 75% of its troops were equipped with Peabody-Martini rifles (accurate to 1,800 yards), with 300,000 of these guns having been purchased prior to
9945-741: The threat of assimilation into Bulgarian society. In 1888, a university was established. It was renamed the University of Sofia in 1904, where the three faculties of history and philology, physics and mathematics, and law produced civil servants for national and local government offices. It became the center of German and Russian intellectual, philosophical and theological influences. While most Turkish officials, landowners, businessmen and professionals left after 1878, some Turkish peasant villages persisted, comprising perhaps as much as 10% of Bulgaria's population. They were largely self-governing, continued their traditional religion and language, and were tolerated by
10062-504: The three emperors and the Sultan. Thus revolts in Poland against Russia and national aspirations in the Balkans were encouraged by France. Russia worked to regain its right to maintain a fleet on the Black Sea and vied with the French in gaining influence in the Balkans by using the new Pan-Slavic idea that all Slavs should be united under Russian leadership. This could be done only by destroying
10179-415: The turmoil of the first half of the century and sought to reinvigorate its centuries long policy of expansion at the expense of the Ottoman Empire. Meanwhile, the nominally autonomous, de facto independent principalities of Serbia and Montenegro also sought to expand into regions inhabited by their compatriots. Nationalist and irredentist sentiments were strong and were encouraged by Russia and her agents. At
10296-640: The two empires where most non-Russian Slavs lived, the Habsburg and the Ottoman Empires. The ambitions and the rivalries of the Russians and French in the Balkans surfaced in Serbia , which was experiencing its own national revival and had ambitions that partly conflicted with those of the great powers. Russia ended the Crimean War with minimal territorial losses, but was forced to destroy its Black Sea Fleet and Sevastopol fortifications. Russian international prestige
10413-402: The uprising was also known as "Nevesinjska puška" - the rifle of Nevesinje. The revolt of Bosnia and Herzegovina spurred Bucharest -based Bulgarian revolutionaries into action. In 1875, a Bulgarian uprising was hastily prepared to take advantage of Ottoman preoccupation, but it fizzled before it started. In the spring of 1876, another uprising erupted in the south-central Bulgarian lands despite
10530-588: The voice of BANU. In 1906 Stamboliyski became the Editor of Zemedelsko Zname The poor harvest and hard times of 1907 brought BANU to the fore again. In the 1908 elections BANU received 11.2% of the vote and obtained 23 seats in Bulgaria's unicameral parliament. In the August 1919 elections, BANU received 31.02% of the vote. In order to head off the revolutionaries, Stamboliyski persuaded Ferdinand to abdicate in favour of his son Boris III . The revolutionaries were suppressed and
10647-575: The war as the Soviet Union advanced towards its territory (1944), the Red Army invaded (September 1944), and a communist government came to power (1944–1946) and established the People's Republic of Bulgaria (1946–1990). The proposed Treaty of San Stefano of March 3, 1878 provided for a self-governing Bulgarian state, which comprised the geographical regions of Moesia , Thrace and Macedonia . Fearing
10764-549: The war. The remainder of the regular troops used Snider rifles ; the irregulars used Winchester repeating rifles , and the Egyptians used Remington rifles. The Ottoman support services were, however, less impressive, with the army often forced to resort to foraging. On the other hand, Ottoman forces were equipped with entrenching tools (which they used extensively at Plevna ) and had sufficient ammunition for their repeating rifles. The Ottoman artillery were armed with Krupp guns of
10881-455: The western powers, whom the Bulgarians felt had done nothing to help them. The government of Vasil Radoslavov aligned Bulgaria with Germany and Austria-Hungary , even though this meant also becoming an ally of the Ottomans, Bulgaria's traditional enemy. But Bulgaria now had no claims against the Ottomans, whereas Serbia, Greece and Romania (allies of Britain and France) were all in possession of lands perceived in Bulgaria as Bulgarian. Bulgaria
10998-425: The word "Prince" with "tzar" wherever it occurred throughout the document. In accordance with its constitution, Bulgaria promulgated equality for all its citizens and, despite being a monarchy, prohibited the promotion of any kind of aristocratic titles . Censorship was prohibited, although the article which stated this was suspended several times. Article 61, which dealt with slavery and human trafficking ,
11115-605: The year 1293 in the Islamic calendar ; Russian : Русско-турецкая война , romanized : Russko-turetskaya voyna , "Russian–Turkish war") was a conflict between the Ottoman Empire and a coalition led by the Russian Empire which included Romania , Serbia , and Montenegro . Additional factors included the Russian goals of recovering territorial losses endured during the Crimean War of 1853–1856, re-establishing itself in
11232-585: Was adopted on 16 April 1879 ( O.S. ) by the Constituent National Assembly held in Veliko Tarnovo as part of the establishment of the Principality of Bulgaria . It remained the fundamental law of Bulgaria after the country was elevated to a kingdom in 1908. Based on the Belgian charter of 1831 , The Constitution was liberal in character and was considered advanced for its time. It defined
11349-413: Was also required for a bill to become law after it had passed through parliament. In 1908, when Prince Ferdinand Saxe-Coburg-Gotha proclaimed the independence of Bulgaria , he raised the country to a kingdom and assumed the title " tzar " (translated as king outside of Bulgaria). The Tarnovo Constitution was amended to change the official name of the country to the "Kingdom of Bulgaria" and substitute
11466-573: Was committed to supporting the Ottomans in the ongoing Balkan crisis, the Liberal opposition newspaper The Daily News hired American journalist Januarius A. MacGahan to report on the massacre stories first-hand. MacGahan toured the stricken regions of the Bulgarian uprising, and his report, splashed across The Daily News ' s front pages, galvanized British public opinion against Disraeli's pro-Ottoman policy. In September, opposition leader William Ewart Gladstone published his Bulgarian Horrors and
11583-559: Was content to sit on the fence and observe the fortunes of war before deciding whether to declare their sympathies. Bulgaria, recuperating from the Balkan Wars, sat out the first year of World War I , but when Germany promised to restore the boundaries of the Treaty of San Stefano, Bulgaria, which had the largest army in the Balkans, declared war on Serbia in October 1915. Britain, France and Italy then declared war on Bulgaria. Although Bulgaria, in alliance with Germany , Austria-Hungary and
11700-603: Was damaged, and for many years revenge for the Crimean War became the main goal of Russian foreign policy. This was not easy though: the Paris peace treaty included guarantees of Ottoman territorial integrity by Great Britain, France and Austria, and only Prussia remained friendly to Russia. The newly appointed Russian chancellor, Alexander Gorchakov , depended upon alliance with Prussia and its chancellor Bismarck. Russia consistently supported Prussia in her wars with Denmark (1864) , Austria (1866) and France (1870) . In March 1871, using
11817-571: Was executed in September. This marked the final establishment of a Communist regime in Bulgaria. After a series of anti-Jewish legislation starting in 1940 (e.g. Jews were excluded from public service, banned from certain areas, restricted economically, and not allowed to intermarry; see The Law for Protection of the Nation ), Bulgaria ultimately deported some portions of the Jewish population under its control. Bulgaria deported over 7000 Jews from Macedonia which
11934-434: Was extremely cautious in its relations with the Ottoman Empire, coordinating all its actions with other European powers. A Russian war with Turkey would require at least the tacit support of all other Great Powers, and Russian diplomacy was waiting for a convenient moment. In 1875, a series of Balkan events brought Europe to the brink of war. The state of Ottoman administration in the Balkans continued to deteriorate throughout
12051-519: Was imprisoned for his opposition to the war. The Russian Revolution of February 1917 had a great effect in Bulgaria, spreading antiwar and anti-monarchist sentiment among the troops and in the cities. Membership in socialist parties in Bulgaria boomed. However, the socialists in Bulgaria were badly split ideologically. One group sought to work with other political parties representing other classes in order to be effective in bringing change to Bulgaria. Because of their "broad outlook" this group of socialists
12168-547: Was known as the "broads." The second group of socialists in Bulgaria were purists and refused to work with parties of different classes. They were called the "narrows." Eventually, the broads formed themselves into the Bulgarian Social Democratic Party and the narrows became the Bulgarian Communist Party. In June, 1919, Radoslavov's government resigned. Mutinies broke out in the army, Stamboliyski
12285-436: Was one of the reasons why the Tarnovo Constitution was considered liberal and advanced for its time: Nobody in the Principality of Bulgaria is permitted to buy or sell human beings. Each and every enslaved human being, regardless of his/her gender, faith or ethnicity is declared free at the moment he/she sets foot in our land. The Constitution declared property rights to be sacrosanct and implied that all citizens, except for
12402-525: Was powerful. Another bitter enemy was the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (VMRO), which favoured a war to regain Macedonia for Bulgaria. Faced with this array of enemies, Stamboliyski allied himself with the Bulgarian Communist Party and opened relations with the Soviet Union . In March 1923 Stamboliyski signed an agreement with Yugoslavia recognising the new border and agreeing to suppress VMRO. This triggered
12519-638: Was released from prison and a republic was proclaimed. In September 1918 the Serbs, British, French and Greeks broke through on the Macedonian front and Tsar Ferdinand was forced to sue for peace. Stamboliyski favoured democratic reforms, not a revolution. Alexander Stamboliyski made his first appearance on the Bulgarian political scene in 1903 as member of the Bulgarian Agrarian National Union (BANU). In 1902 two agrarian newspapers were merged to form Zemedelsko Zname (Agrarian Banner) which became
12636-534: Was sent into exile. The Communists now openly took power, with Vasil Kolarov becoming president and Dimitrov becoming prime minister. Free elections promised for 1946 were boycotted by the opposition, and in November 1945, the Fatherland Front won in a single-party election. The Agrarians refused to co-operate with the new regime, and in June 1947 their leader Nikola Petkov was arrested. Despite strong international protests he
12753-418: Was set up, which harassed and intimidated non-Communist parties. In February 1945 the new realities of power in Bulgaria were shown when Prince Kirill and hundreds of other officials of the old regime were arrested on charges of war crimes. By June Kirill and the other regents, 22 former ministers and many others had been executed. In September 1946 the monarchy was abolished by plebiscite, and young Tsar Simeon
12870-573: Was shaken in 1859 when France and Austria fought over Italy . It came apart completely as a result of the wars of German Unification , when the Kingdom of Prussia , led by Chancellor Otto von Bismarck , defeated Austria in 1866 and France in 1870, replacing Austria as the dominant power in Central Europe. Britain, diverted by the Irish question and averse to warfare, chose not to intervene again to restore
12987-501: Was still a poor country inhabited mostly by peasant smallholders. Bulgaria was saddled with huge war reparations to Yugoslavia and Romania, and had to deal with the problem of refugees as pro-Bulgarian Macedonians had to leave the Yugoslav Macedonia. Nevertheless, Stamboliyski was able to carry through many social reforms, although opposition from the Tsar, the landlords and the officers of the much-reduced but still influential army
13104-508: Was succeeded by his six-year-old son Simeon II . Power was held by a council of regents headed by the young Tsar's uncle, Prince Kirill. The new prime minister, Dobri Bozhilov , was in most respects a German puppet. Resistance to the Germans and the Bulgarian regime was widespread by 1943, co-ordinated mainly by the Communists. Together with the Agrarians, now led by Nikola Petkov , the Social Democrats and even with many army officers they founded
13221-568: Was supported by the partial mobilization of the Imperial Russian Army (up to 20 divisions). Sultan Abdul Hamid II accepted the conditions of the ultimatum. To resolve the crisis, on 11 December 1876, the Constantinople Conference of the Great Powers was opened in Constantinople (to which Ottoman representatives were not invited). A compromise solution was negotiated, granting autonomy to Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina under
13338-451: Was the Soviet army which was rapidly advancing towards Bulgaria. In August 1944, Bulgaria unilaterally announced its withdrawal from the war and asked the German troops to leave: Bulgarian troops were hastily withdrawn from Greece and Yugoslavia. In September the Soviets crossed the northern border. The government, in a desperate attempt at avoiding a Soviet occupation, declared war on Germany, but
13455-486: Was the historic mission of Russia, while their opponents, westernizers , inspired by Ivan Turgenev , denied the importance of religion and believed that Russian goals should not be defense of Orthodoxy but liberation of Bulgaria. On 30 June 1876, Serbia, followed by Montenegro, declared war on the Ottoman Empire. In July and August, the ill-prepared and poorly equipped Serbian army helped by Russian volunteers failed to achieve offensive objectives but did manage to repulse
13572-547: Was to be under nominal Ottoman sovereignty but was to be ruled by a prince elected by a congress of Bulgarian notables meeting in Turnovo as the Bulgarian Principality's Constituent Assembly, on February 10, 1879 and approved by the Powers. They insisted that the Prince could not be a Russian, but in a compromise Prince Alexander of Battenberg , a nephew of Tsar Alexander II , was chosen. An autonomous Ottoman province under
13689-538: Was under their occupation. Plans were made to deport Jews in 1943, and 20,000 were expelled from Sofia, but protests (initiated by Dimitar Peshev ) from political and clerical leaders stopped further cooperation, saving all of the 50,000 Jews in the country. However, in March 1943 almost 12,000 Jews in Thrace and Macedonia, were deported to Auschwitz and Treblinka , where they were murdered. See also: Bulgarian Jews During World War II . Bulgaria emerged from Turkish rule as
#631368