70-443: The Wild Goose: A Collection of Ocean Waifs was a hand-written newspaper created in late 1867 by Fenian prisoners aboard Hougoumont , the last ship to transport convicts to Australia. Seven issues of the newspaper were produced, and each issue was carefully laid out and decorated by hand. Only one copy of each issue was made, which was then read to the convicts aloud. The aim was to provide entertainment and encouragement aboard
140-423: A landlord . Tenant farming is an agricultural production system in which landowners contribute their land and often a measure of operating capital and management, while tenant farmers contribute their labor along with at times varying amounts of capital and management. Depending on the contract, tenants can make payments to the owner either of a fixed portion of the product, in cash or in a combination. The rights
210-518: A 19th century increase of crofts but, particularly in Sweden, also to a shift from tenant farmers to farm laborers ( statare ) hired on yearlong contracts, paid in-kind. The lives of torpare and statare were described by prominent Swedish and Finnish novelists and writers such as Ivar Lo-Johansson , Jan Fridegård , Väinö Linna ( Under the North Star trilogy ) and Moa Martinson . The Statare system
280-467: A bomb on 26 April 1897 at Aldersgate Street station which fatally injured two people. In 1868, an Irishman, Henry James O'Farrell , attempted to assassinate the Duke of Edinburgh , second son of Queen Victoria , who was visiting Sydney. O'Farrell claimed to be a Fenian but was probably a lone actor. He was hanged on 21 April 1868. The Duke recovered but the attack was used by politician Henry Parkes to wage
350-700: A breakaway IRB faction calling itself the Irish National Invincibles assassinated the British Chief Secretary for Ireland Lord Frederick Cavendish and his Permanent Under-secretary (chief civil servant), in an incident known as the Phoenix Park Murders . The Fenian Brotherhood , the Irish Republican Brotherhood's US branch, was founded by John O'Mahony and Michael Doheny , both of whom had been "out" (participating in
420-609: A perceived threat to turn what they saw as "decent civilised" society on its head by movements such as trade unionism seeking to change the existing social order in the United Kingdom . James Stephens , one of the "Men of 1848" (a participant in the 1848 revolt ), had established himself in Paris, and was in correspondence with John O'Mahony in the United States and other advanced nationalists at home and abroad. This would include
490-490: A result, though the husmenn were technically free to leave the land at any time, their poor economic state made them in essence "economic serfs". Failing to own their own land also made tenant farmers ineligible to vote according to the Norwegian Constitution at the time. The number of tenant farmers in the country grew during the 19th century, rising from 48,571 in 1825 to 65,060 in 1855, the latter figure representing
560-566: A sectarian campaign against Catholics and people of Irish origin. Later in 1868, the Hougoumont , the last convict ship to Australia, arrived in Western Australia carrying 62 Fenian prisoners convicted in England. Over the next decade, most were released and many chose to go to America. By 1876 only six remained in custody, and in that year they were freed in a daring rescue mission organised by
630-471: A son or a widow. Their situation was usually poor but, contrary to in Denmark, they were in theory always free to leave. The croft's lease was typically paid in the form of corvée . They would work their own land as well as that of a landowning farmer ( bonde ), noble or other. In some aspects their situation made them easy victims of impressment . Population growth and landreforms ( enskiftet ) contributed to
700-628: A substantial number of labourers and managed more than one farm. Tenancy could be either in perpetuity or rotated by the owners. Cottiers (cottagers) held much less land. The 17th century to the early 19th century witnessed the growth of large estates, and the opportunity for a farmer to hold land other than by tenancy was significantly reduced, with the result that by the 19th century, about 90% of agricultural land area and holdings were tenanted, although these figures declined markedly after World War II, to around 60% in 1950 and only 35% of agricultural land area in 1994. High rates of inheritance taxes in
770-541: A three-tier structure of landowners ( nobility , gentry , yeomanry ), tenant farmers, and farmworkers . Originally, tenant farmers were known as peasants . Under Anglo-Norman law , almost all tenants were bonded to the land, and were therefore also villeins , but after the labour shortage occasioned by the Black Death in the mid-14th century, the number of free tenants substantially increased. Many tenant farmers became affluent and socially well connected, and employed
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#1732855728376840-536: A traditional tenant. From the nineteenth century on, tenant farming immigrants came to Canada not just from the British Isles but also the United States of America. Until about 1900, the majority of Ireland was held by landlords, as much as 97% in 1870, and rented out to tenant farmers who had to pay rent to landlords and taxes to the Church of Ireland and State. The majority of the people had no access to land. 1.5% of
910-535: A wealthy New York City dry-goods merchant, more closely allied with the Democratic-Party machine. It was Roberts' faction that sponsored the plan to invade Canada and hold it hostage for the liberation of Ireland. In 1867 there was a further challenge to O'Mahony from the new IRB exile David Bell , and his weekly the Irish Republic . In contrast to Roberts, Bell, committed to black suffrage and to Reconstruction,
980-420: Is a tenant farmer who usually provides no capital and pays fees with crops. A hired hand is an agricultural employee even though he or she may live on the premises and exercise a considerable amount of control over the agricultural work, such as a foreman. A sharecropper is a farm tenant who pays rent with a portion (often half) of the crop he raises and who brings little to the operation besides his family labor;
1050-673: The Catalpa rescue . The memorial is a large statue of six wild geese. Fenian The word Fenian ( / ˈ f iː n i ə n / ) served as an umbrella term for the Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB) and their affiliate in the United States, the Fenian Brotherhood . They were secret political organisations in the late 19th and early 20th centuries dedicated to the establishment of an independent Irish Republic . In 1867, they sought to coordinate raids into Canada from
1120-678: The Fianna of Irish mythology —groups of legendary warrior-bands associated with Fionn mac Cumhail . Mythological tales of the Fianna became known as the Fenian Cycle . In the 1860s, opponents of Irish nationalism within the British political establishment sometimes used the term "Fenianism" to refer to any form of mobilisation among the Irish or to those who expressed any Irish nationalist sentiments, or questioned
1190-603: The Land Law (Ireland) Act 1881 went even further to inspire campaigners even in Wales. The Purchase of Land (Ireland) Act 1885 followed, finally the great breakthrough after the successful 1902 Land Conference , the enactment of the Land Purchase (Ireland) Act 1903 whereby the state financed tenants to completely buy out their landlords. Under the Act of 1903 and the consequential Act of 1909,
1260-614: The Manchester Martyrs , were executed in Salford for their attack on a police van to release Fenians held captive earlier that year. On 13 December 1867, the Fenians exploded a bomb in attempt to free one of their members being held on remand at Clerkenwell Prison in London . The explosion damaged nearby houses, killed 12 people and caused 120 injuries. None of the prisoners escaped. The bombing
1330-595: The Offensive Behaviour at Football and Threatening Communications (Scotland) Act 2012 , before its repeal in January 2018. The use of Fenian as a term of abuse has also been documented when Celtic play outside Scotland. In 2013, AFC Ajax was fined €25,000 by UEFA when its supporters displayed a banner reading "Fenian Bastards" at a match between the sides at the Amsterdam Arena on 6 November that year. The term
1400-590: The Phoenix National and Literary Society , with Jeremiah O'Donovan (afterwards known as O'Donovan Rossa ) among its more prominent members, which had been formed recently at Skibbereen . Along with Thomas Clarke Luby , John O'Leary and Charles Kickham he founded the Irish Republican Brotherhood on 17 March 1858 in Lombard Street, Dublin . The Fenian Rising in 1867 proved to be a "doomed rebellion", poorly organised and with minimal public support. Most of
1470-602: The Protestant Ascendancy (such as by advocating for the rights of tenant farmers ). The political establishment often applied the term in this sense—inaccurately—to the unrelated Tenant Right League , the Irish National Land League and the Irish Parliamentary Party , who did not advocate explicitly for an independent Irish Republic or for the use of force. The establishment warned people about
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#17328557283761540-678: The Young Ireland rebellion ) in 1848. In the face of nativist suspicion, it quickly established an independent existence, although it still worked to gain Irish American support for armed rebellion in Ireland. Initially, O'Mahony ran operations in the US, sending funds to Stephens and the IRB in Ireland. In 1865, O'Mahony's leadership was challenged and the movement was split by a faction led by William B. Roberts,
1610-471: The freehold was assigned under mortgage to tenant farmers and farm workers. The focus had been on the compulsory purchase of untenanted estates so that they could be divided into smaller units for local families. In 1983, the Commission ceased acquiring land; this signified the start of the end of the commission's reform of Irish land ownership, though freehold transfers of farmland still had to be signed off by
1680-536: The 1870s onwards, the Landlord and Tenant (Ireland) Act 1870 , the founding of the Land League 1879 to establish fair rents and the fixity of tenures. The movement played a key element in the unification of country and urban classes and the creation of a national identity not existing before. The Landlord and Tenant (Ireland) Act 1870 stands out as the first attempt to resolve problems of tenants rights in Ireland and
1750-511: The 1986 Act remains in respect of tenancies created prior to the existence of the 1995 Act and for those tenancies falling within section 4 of the 1995 Act. For all other tenancies granted on or after 1 September 1995, their regulation is within the 1995 Act framework. That Act was altered with effect from 18 October 2006 by the Regulatory Reform (Agricultural Tenancies)(England and Wales) Order 2006 SI 2006/2805, which also contains changes to
1820-400: The 1986 Act. Tenancies granted after 18 October 2006 over agricultural land used for a trade or business will fall within the limited protection of the 1995 Act so as to enjoy (provided the term is more than two years in length or there is a yearly tenancy) a mandatory minimum twelve months written notice to quit, including in respect of fixed terms. There is for all tenancies within the scope of
1890-483: The 1995 Act for regulating tenancies, commonly known as Farm Business Tenancies, permits the creation of a clearly and easily terminable interest, whether by a periodic tenancy or a fixed term. In the cycle of animal husbandry and land use and improvement, the long-term effect of the Farm Business Tenancy on the landscape of Britain is not yet proven. It was predicted by landowners and other industry spokesmen that
1960-417: The 1995 Act would create opportunities for new tenants by allowing large areas of new lettings but this has not happened in practice as most landowners have continued to favour share farming or management agreements over formal tenancies and the majority of new lettings under the Act have been to existing farmers, often owner-occupiers taking on extra land at significantly higher rents than could be afforded by
2030-521: The ALP who wished to remove the title Queen's Counsel and other references to the crown as "Fenians and Bolsheviks ". Atkinson made a further mention of Fenianism when the title of Queen's Counsel was abolished. The title of Queen's Counsel was re-instated by the South Australian government in 2019. Tenant farmer A tenant farmer is a person ( farmer or farmworker ) who resides on land owned by
2100-535: The Act a mandatory tenants' right to remove fixtures and buildings (section 8) together with compensation for improvements (Part III). The rent review provisions in Part II may be the subject of choice to a much greater extent than previously. Disputes under the Act are usually, by the terms of Part IV, the subject of statutory arbitration controlled by the framework of the Arbitration Act 1996 . The current regime under
2170-789: The British North America colonies to consider a more centralised defence for mutual protection, ultimately realised through Canadian Confederation . The Fenians in England and the British Empire were a major threat to political stability. In the late 1860s, the IRB control centre was in Lancashire. In 1868, the Supreme Council of the IRB, the provisional government of the Irish Republic, was restructured. The four Irish provinces (Connacht, Leinster, Ulster and Munster), along with Scotland,
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2240-542: The Commission into the 1990s. The commission was dissolved in March 1999. In Japan, landowners turned over their land to families of tenant farmers to manage. During the Meiji period , Japanese tenant farmers were traditionally cultivators rather than capitalistic or entrepreneurial venture by nature, paid in kind for their labors. Approximately 30% of land was held by tenants. Many aspects of Tokugawa feudalism continued. After WWII,
2310-529: The Farm Land Reform Law of 1946 banned absentee landlordism, re-distributing land and permitted tenants to buy. By the 1950s, it virtually eliminated the landlord-tenant relationship. Historically, despite Norway being practically a Danish province for almost 300 years before 1814, the countries of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden (with Finland) had differing approaches to land tenure. A tenant farmer in Norway
2380-529: The Fenian movement in Montreal (and who was later suspected of being a government spy), was a case in point. In public, he proclaimed his loyalty to the queen and called for an Irish militia company to defend Canada against the Fenians. In private, he wrote that the real purpose of an Irish militia company would be to assist the Fenian invasion, adding for good measure that if the government denied his request he would raise
2450-421: The IRB in the United States. The ship Catalpa was sailed from New Bedford, Massachusetts, to Fremantle, Western Australia, a distance of some 12,000 miles, and took the men back to the United States. The rescue caused a worldwide sensation and sparked several ballads. In Northern Ireland, Fenian is used by some as a derogatory word for Irish Catholics; in 2012, British National Party leader Nick Griffin
2520-706: The Irish-American officers who landed at Cork , in the expectation of commanding an army against the British, were imprisoned; sporadic disturbances around the country were easily suppressed by the police, army and local militias. In the aftermath, Fenian assassination circles were active in Cork and in Dublin and were responsible for shooting two officers of the Dublin Metropolitan Police on duty in October 1867. In 1882,
2590-687: The United States and the colonies and was a key factor within the Home Rule Movement . They also underlined a deterioration in Protestant-Catholic relationships, although there were notable elements of cooperation in reform attempts such as the Tenant Right League of the 1850s. Following the Great Famine tenant farmers were the largest class of people. Discontent led to the Land War of
2660-406: The United States with a rising in Ireland . In the 1916 Easter Rising and the 1919–1921 Irish War of Independence , the IRB led the republican struggle. Fenianism ( Irish : Fíníneachas ), according to O'Mahony, embodied two principles: firstly, that Ireland had a natural right to independence, and secondly, that this right could be won only by an armed revolution. The name originated with
2730-567: The cashless system. Economic historians Lee Alston and Joseph Ferrie (1999) describe the system as essentially an informal contract that: Tenant farmers often had agricultural managers who supervised their activities. In 1907, for instance, J. H. Netterville began employment for the Panola Company, an agricultural business founded by William Mackenzie Davidson in the rich farming area of St. Joseph in Tensas Parish in northeastern Louisiana in
2800-564: The club has thus been associated with Irish nationalism, symbolised by the almost universal flying of the Irish Tricolour during matches. Other Scottish clubs that have Irish roots, such as Hibernian and Dundee United , do not tend to have the term applied to them, however. The term is now firmly rooted within the Old Firm rivalry between Celtic and Rangers . Use of the term as a religious slur carried criminal penalties in some contexts under
2870-502: The conclusion of the fixed term. In addition, there was a uniform rent ascertainment scheme contained in section 12. It became difficult to obtain new tenancies as a result of landlords' reluctance to have a tenant protected by the 1986 Act and in 1995, the government of the day, with the support of industry organizations, enacted a new market-oriented code in the form of the Agricultural Tenancies Act 1995 . The protection of
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2940-582: The cry of anti-Irish Catholic discrimination and bring more of his aggrieved countrymen into the Fenian Brotherhood. A suspected Fenian, Patrick J. Whelan , was hanged in Ottawa for the assassination of Irish Canadian politician, Thomas D'Arcy McGee in 1868, who had been a member of the Irish Confederation in the 1840s. The danger posed by the Fenian raids was an important element in motivating
3010-474: The diaries of Denis Cashman and the journals of Casey and Thomas McCarthy Fennell , the journey of Hougoumont was well recorded. One passage describes Australia and its history with more than a little sarcasm: This great continent of the south, having been discovered by some Dutch skipper and his crew, somewhere between the 1st and 9th centuries of the Christian era, was, in consequence taken possession of by
3080-584: The fight should be made early in 1867. Some thousands of rifles were afterwards sent to Ireland, but arrived too late to be of any use in the Rising. In Canada, Fenian is used to designate a group of Irish radicals, a.k.a. the American branch of the Fenian Brotherhood in the 1860s. They made several attempts to invade some parts of the British colonies of New Brunswick (i.e., Campobello Island ) and Canada (present-day Southern Ontario and Missisquoi County ), with
3150-413: The government of Great Britain , in accordance with that just and equitable maxim, "What's yours is mine; what's mine is my own." That magnanimous government in the kindly exuberance of their feelings, have placed a large portion of that immense tract of country called Australia at our disposal. Generously defraying all expenses incurred on our way to it, and providing retreats for us there to secure us from
3220-507: The height of the husmann population in Norway, most of whom lived in the eastern part of the country. Given their difficult economic and social position in Norway, many Norwegian husmenn immigrated to Canada and the United States throughout the 19th century. Following the revolutions of 1848 the husmenn's cause was taken up by Marcus Thrane . Thrane fought for the husmenn's rights at home and also encouraged them to emigrate and seek better fortunes abroad. The number of husmenn began to decline in
3290-545: The inclemency of the seasons… O'Reilly penned several poems for the paper, including The Flying Dutchman and The Old School Clock . All seven issues survive, and were passed by Flood's granddaughter to the Mitchell Library in 1967. The papers are bound into one book and are now part of the State Library of New South Wales collection. On 9 September 2005, a memorial was unveiled at Rockingham beach to commemorate
3360-422: The land was used for a trade or business and the definition of "agriculture" in section 96(1) was wide enough to include various uses that in themselves were not agricultural but were deemed so if ancillary to agriculture (e.g. woodlands). The essence of the code was to establish complex constraints on the landlord's ability to give the notice to quit while also converting fixed-term tenancies into yearly tenancies at
3430-492: The landlord usually furnishing working stock, tools, fertilizer, housing, fuel, and seed, and often providing regular advice and oversight. Tenant farming in the North was historically a step on the "agricultural ladder" from hired hand or sharecropper taken by young farmers as they accumulated enough experience and capital to buy land (or buy out their siblings when a farm was inherited). About two-thirds of sharecroppers were white,
3500-502: The national situation was completely transformed. When in March 1920, the Irish Estate Commission reviewed the development since 1903 under these Acts, they estimated that 83 million sterling had been advanced for 9 million acres (36,000 km ) transferred, whilst a further 2 million acres (8,100 km ) were pending costing 24 million sterling. By 1914, 75% of occupiers were buying out their landlords, mostly under
3570-562: The north and south of England and London, had representatives on the council. Later four honorary members were co-opted. The Council elected three members to the executive. The President was chairman, the Treasurer managed recruitment and finance, and the Secretary was director of operations. There were IRB Circles in every major city in England. On 23 November 1867, three Fenians, William Philip Allen, Michael O'Brian, and Michael Larkin, known as
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#17328557283763640-487: The population owned 33.7% of the island, and 50% of the country was in the hands of only 750 families. Absenteeism was common and detrimental to the country's progress. Tenants often sub-rented small plots on a yearly basis from local farmers paying for them by labour service by a system, known as conacre , most without any lease or land rights. Irish smallholders were indistinguishable from the cottiers of England. The abuse of tenant farmers led to widespread emigration to
3710-458: The postwar period led to the breakup or reduction of many large estates, allowing many tenants to buy their holdings at favourable prices. The landmark 1948 Act was enacted at a time when war-time food rationing was still in force and sought to encourage long-term investment by tenants by granting them lifetime security of tenure. Under the Agriculture (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1976, security
3780-486: The previous legislation in the Agricultural Holdings (Scotland) Act 1991 and the Agriculture (Scotland) Act 1948. For Scotland see Crofting , a traditional and long-established means of tenant and subsistence farming. Tenant farming has been important in the US from the 1870s to the present. Tenants typically bring their own tools and animals. To that extent it is distinguished from being a sharecropper , which
3850-554: The raids continuing after these colonies had been confederated . The ultimate goal of the Fenian raids was to hold Canada hostage and therefore be in a position to blackmail the United Kingdom to give Ireland its independence. Because of the invasion attempts, support or collaboration for the Fenians in Canada became very rare even among the Irish . Francis Bernard McNamee, the man who started
3920-544: The rest black. Sharecroppers, the poorest of the poor, organized for better conditions. The racially integrated Southern Tenant Farmers Union made gains for sharecroppers in the 1930s. Sharecropping had diminished in the 1940s due to the Great Depression, farm mechanization, and other factors. In the Black Belt in the American South until the mid 20th century, the predominant agricultural system involved white land owners and African-American tenant farmers. Very little cash changed hands. The few local banks were small and cash
3990-403: The round-up of the IRB leadership in Dublin the previous year, but still promised that "The Irish flag—the flag of the Irish Republic—will float in an Irish breeze before New Year's Day, 1867." At the close of 1866, a conference of the refugees of the IRB and many of the American officers who had been in Ireland was held in New York and presided over by Stephens, at which the decision was taken that
4060-411: The second half of the 19th century, and by 1910 they made up less than 5% of Norwegian society. The term torpare/torppari (Swedish/Finnish for crofter ) refers to a slightly different type of tenant farmers, less secure than the inheritable usufruct right as åbo but sometimes with contracts as long as 50 years. The lease was, depending on the landowner's good will, in practice often transferred to
4130-433: The ship during its long and arduous voyage to Fremantle . The title refers to the Wild Geese : the Irish soldiers who had left to serve in continental European armies since the 16th century. The major contributors were John Flood , John Boyle O'Reilly and John Sarsfield Casey. The documents provide insight into life aboard ship. The documents contain songs, stories, articles, advice, poems, and even comedy. In addition to
4200-501: The tenant has over the land, the form, and measures of payment vary across systems (geographically and chronologically). In some systems, the tenant could be evicted at whim ( tenancy at will ); in others, the landowner and tenant sign a contract for a fixed number of years ( tenancy for years or indenture ). In most developed countries today, at least some restrictions are placed on the rights of landlords to evict tenants under normal circumstances. Historically, rural society utilised
4270-456: The tenants picked the cotton, and turned it all over to the landowners. They sold the cotton on the national market and used part of the funds to pay the debts owed to the country store. The cycle then started all over again. Landowners also worked some of the land directly, using black labor paid in cash. The landowners held all the political power, and fought vigorously against government welfare programs that would provide cash that would undermine
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#17328557283764340-474: The two Acts. In all, under the pre-UK Land Acts over 316,000 tenants purchased their holdings amounting to 11,500,000 acres (47,000 km ) out of a total of 20 million in the country. On the formation of the Irish Free State in 1922, the Irish Land Commission was reconstituted by the Land Law (Commission) Act, 1923. The commission had acquired and supervised the transfer of up to 13 million acres (53,000 km ) of farmland between 1885 and 1920 where
4410-610: Was abolished in 1918 (Finland) and 1945 (Sweden), the Torpare system more gradually. Scotland has its own independent legal system and the legislation there differs from that of England and Wales. Neither the AHA 1986 nor the ATA 1995 applies in Scotland. The relevant legislation for Scotland is rather the Agricultural Holdings (Scotland) Act 2003 with the following amendments in The Public Services Reform (Agricultural Holdings) (Scotland) Order 2011, The Agricultural Holdings (Amendment) (Scotland) Act 2012 and The Agricultural Holdings (Scotland) 2003 Remedial Order 2014. These supersede
4480-442: Was allied to the Republicans and was calling a "cleansing" of the spirits of the Irish in America: "Let our people fling off the scales of bigotry and declare that all men are entitled to 'life, liberty, and happiness.'" John Devoy records that, in the course of 1866, various conferences to reunite the various factions were held. Their efforts were to elect James Stephens as president of a united organisation. Stephens had escaped
4550-493: Was also used in an anti-Irish banner unfurled by Lazio supporters at a Champions League match against Celtic on 28 November 2023. In Australia, Fenian is used as a pejorative term for those members of the Australian Labor Party (ALP) who have Australian Republican views similar to those who support Irish unification . In a speech given at the ALP Convention in Adelaide on 15 October 2006, Michael Atkinson , Attorney-General of South Australia, spoke of those members of
4620-500: Was criticised by Unionists and Republicans for tweeting the term while attending an Ulster Covenant event at Stormont , Belfast ; Griffin referred to Lambeg drums , saying "the bodran [ sic ] can't match the lambeg, you Fenian bastards". The term Fenian is used similarly in Scotland. During Scottish football matches, it is often aimed in a sectarian manner at supporters of Celtic F.C. Celtic has its roots in Glasgow 's immigrant Catholic Irish population and
4690-466: Was extended to spouses and relatives of tenants for two successions, providing that they had been earning the majority of their income from the holding for five years. Succession rights were however withdrawn for new tenancies in 1984 and this was consolidated in the Agricultural Holdings Act 1986. These two statutes also laid down rules for the determination of rents by the arbitration process. The 1986 statute covered tenancies over agricultural land where
4760-431: Was known as a husmann (plural: husmenn ) and were most common in the mid-19th century when they constituted around one-quarter of the country's population. Heavy demands were placed on these tenants by their landlords, the bønder or land-owning farmers. The majority of the husmann's working hours were usually taken up by work for the landlord, leaving him little time to work on his own land or better his own situation. As
4830-431: Was later described as the most infamous action carried out by the Fenians in Great Britain in the 19th century. It enraged the public, causing a backlash of hostility in Britain which undermined efforts to establish home rule or independence for Ireland. The IRB Supreme Council condemned the bombing. The Fenians also exploded three bombs on the London Underground in 1883–1885 and were also believed to be responsible for
4900-412: Was scarce and had to be hoarded for taxes. Landowners needed a great deal of labor at harvest time to pick the cash crop, cotton. The typical plan was to divide old plantations into small farms that were assigned to the tenants. Throughout the year the tenants lived rent-free. They tended their own gardens. Every week, they bought food and supplies on credit through the local country store. At harvest time,
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