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42-430: According to its foreword, the publication was designed to be "a new statement of the fundamentals of Christianity". However, its contents reflect a concern with certain theological innovations related to liberal Christianity , especially biblical higher criticism . It is widely considered to be the foundation of modern Christian fundamentalism . The project was conceived in 1909 by California businessman Lyman Stewart ,

84-543: A postmodern theological approach, which developed out of the liberal Christianity of the modern era , itself rooted in the Enlightenment 's thinking. Progressive Christianity is a postliberal theological movement within Christianity that, in the words of Reverend Roger Wolsey, "seeks to reform the faith via the insights of post-modernism and a reclaiming of the truth beyond the verifiable historicity and factuality of

126-646: A deep belief in the centrality of the instruction to " love one another " (John 15:17) within the teachings of Jesus Christ . Progressive Christianity focuses on promoting values such as compassion, justice, mercy, and tolerance, often through political activism. Though prominent, the movement is by no means the only significant movement of progressive thought among Christians. It draws influence from multiple theological streams, including evangelicalism , liberal Christianity, neo-orthodoxy , pragmatism , postmodern theology, progressive Christian reconstructionism , and liberation theology . The concerns of feminism are also

168-690: A liberal sociologist, was commissioned in the early 1970s to study the problem, and he identified a potential reason for the decline of the liberal churches: what was seen by some as excessive politicization of the Gospel, and especially their apparent tying of the Gospel with Left-Democrat/progressive political causes. The 1990s and 2000s saw a resurgence of non-doctrinal, theological work on biblical exegesis and theology, exemplified by figures such as Marcus Borg , John Dominic Crossan , John Shelby Spong , Karen Armstrong and Scotty McLennan . Progressive Christianity Progressive Christianity represents

210-535: A major influence on the movement, as expressed in feminist and womanist theologies. Although progressive Christianity and liberal Christianity are often used synonymously, the two movements are distinct, despite much overlap. A priority of justice and care for the down-trodden are a recurrent theme in the Hebrew prophetic tradition inherited by Christianity . This has been reflected in many later Christian traditions of service and ministry , and more recently in

252-442: A result, liberal Christians placed less emphasis on miraculous events associated with the life of Jesus than on his teachings. The debate over whether a belief in miracles was mere superstition or essential to accepting the divinity of Christ constituted a crisis within the 19th-century church, for which theological compromises were sought. Some liberals prefer to read Jesus' miracles as metaphorical narratives for understanding

294-581: A resurgence. Liberal Catholic theologians include David Tracy and Francis Schussler Fiorenza . In the 1820s, Quakerism , also known as the Religious Society of Friends, experienced a major schism called the Hicksite–Orthodox split. The Hicksites were led by Quaker minister Elias Hicks , who put a strong focus on listening to one's inward light instead of a primary appeal to doctrine or creeds. Hicks went as far as to say that strictly holding to

336-536: Is a feeling of absolute dependence on God. Humanity is conscious of its own sin and its need of redemption, which can only be accomplished by Jesus Christ. For Schleiermacher, faith is experienced within a faith community, never in isolation. This meant that theology always reflects a particular religious context, which has opened Schleirmacher to charges of relativism . Albrecht Ritschl (1822–1889) disagreed with Schleiermacher's emphasis on feeling. He thought that religious belief should be based on history, specifically

378-486: Is a movement that interprets Christian teaching by taking into consideration modern knowledge, science and ethics. It emphasizes the importance of reason and experience over doctrinal authority. Liberal Christians view their theology as an alternative to both atheistic rationalism and theologies based on traditional interpretations of external authority, such as the Bible or sacred tradition . Liberal theology grew out of

420-546: Is not necessarily synonymous with progressive politics . According to Archbishop Wynn Wagner of the former North American Old Catholic Church , holding to the ideals of progressive Christianity sets the movement apart from traditional Christianity . Inclusiveness and acceptance is the basic posture of progressive Christianity. Within the Seventh-day Adventist Church , the liberal wing describe themselves as "progressive Adventists". They disagree with some of

462-456: The Bible to be uniquely authoritative ( sola scriptura ); all doctrine, teaching and the church itself derive authority from it. A traditional Protestant could therefore affirm that "what Scripture says, God says." Liberal Christians rejected the doctrine of biblical inerrancy or infallibility , which they saw as the idolatry ( fetishism ) of the Bible. Instead, liberals sought to understand

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504-521: The National Council of Churches in the US and Australian Student Christian Movement . The ascendancy of evangelicalism in the US, particularly in its more socially conservative forms, challenged many people in mainline churches. This has enabled many Christians who are uncomfortable with conservative evangelicalism to identify themselves explicitly as "progressive Christians". Notable initiatives within

546-522: The historical Jesus as the "real canon of the Christian church". German theologian William Wrede wrote that "Like every other real science, New Testament Theology has its goal simply in itself, and is totally indifferent to all dogma and Systematic Theology". Theologian Hermann Gunkel affirmed that "the spirit of historical investigation has now taken the place of a traditional doctrine of inspiration". Episcopal bishop John Shelby Spong declared that

588-610: The 16th century when Christians such as Erasmus and the Deists attempted to remove what they believed were the superstitious elements from Christianity and "leave only its essential teachings (rational love of God and humanity)". Reformed theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768–1834) is often considered the father of liberal Protestantism. In response to Romanticism 's disillusionment with Enlightenment rationalism , Schleiermacher argued that God could only be experienced through feeling, not reason. In Schleiermacher's theology, religion

630-582: The 19th century in England, France and Italy. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a liberal theological movement developed within the Catholic Church known as Catholic modernism . Like liberal Protestantism, Catholic modernism was an attempt to bring Catholicism in line with the Enlightenment. Modernist theologians approved of radical biblical criticism and were willing to question traditional Christian doctrines, especially Christology. They also emphasized

672-614: The 19th century out of a perceived need to adapt Christianity to a modern intellectual context. With the acceptance of Charles Darwin 's theory of natural selection , some traditional Christian beliefs, such as parts of the Genesis creation narrative , became difficult to defend. Unable to ground faith exclusively in an appeal to scripture or the person of Jesus Christ , liberals, according to theologian and intellectual historian Alister McGrath , "sought to anchor that faith in common human experience, and interpret it in ways that made sense within

714-648: The Bible through modern biblical criticism , such as historical criticism , that began to be used in the late 1700s to ask if biblical accounts were based on older texts or whether the Gospels recorded the actual words of Jesus. The use of these methods of biblical interpretation led liberals to conclude that "none of the New Testament writings can be said to be apostolic in the sense in which it has been traditionally held to be so". This conclusion made sola scriptura an untenable position. In its place, liberals identified

756-570: The Bible was damaging to believers and to Christianity as a whole. In addition to other distinctives, Hicks denied Satan as an external being and did not talk about an eternal Hell . Hicksite-Quakerism, often called the Liberal branch, is today found most prominently in the Friends General Conference , but it also found in the centrist Friends United Meeting . Rather than holding to any firm statement of faith, Hicksite Quakers are led by

798-583: The Enlightenment 's rationalism and the Romanticism of the 18th and 19th centuries. By the late 19th and early 20th centuries, it was characterized by an acceptance of Darwinian evolution , use of modern biblical criticism , and participation in the Social Gospel movement. This was also the period when liberal theology was most dominant within the Protestant churches. Liberal theology's influence declined with

840-462: The Inward Light as they believe it leads them. While Evangelist Quakers (see Gurneyite–Conservative split ) were seen as holding to human reason, Liberal Quakers took a more spiritual and open approach. Liberal Quakers variably hold to Christian universalism , religious pluralism , progressive Christianity and other ideas not commonly held in conservative Christian circles. Liberal Christianity

882-442: The U.S. Protestant mainline included political liberation theology , philosophical forms of postmodern Christianity , and such diverse theological influences as Christian existentialism (originating with Søren Kierkegaard and including other theologians and scholars such as Rudolf Bultmann and Paul Tillich ) and even conservative movements such as neo-evangelicalism , neo-orthodoxy , and paleo-orthodoxy . Dean M. Kelley ,

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924-556: The United States of America through Christian involvement in political trends such as the Progressive Movement and the Social Gospel . Throughout the 20th century, a strand of progressive or liberal Christian thought outlined the values of a 'good society '. It stresses fairness, justice, responsibility, and compassion, and condemns the forms of governance that wage unjust war , rely on corruption for continued power, deprive

966-540: The ethical aspects of Christianity over its theological ones. Important modernist writers include Alfred Loisy and George Tyrrell . Modernism was condemned as heretical by the leadership of the Catholic Church. Sean O'Riordan refers to a liberal attitude as one of four schools of thought adopted among the bishops and other theologians at the Second Vatican Council : the liberal attitude, reflective of

1008-551: The fight against poverty , the defense of peace , building strong families, respecting human rights and welcoming foreigners. In the UK, the Progressive Christianity Britain network has adopted eight non-credal points which reflect the nature of a Christian life explored from a progressive standpoint. The network holds group meetings in many locations around the country. Wolsey notes that progressive Christianity

1050-416: The founder of Union Oil and a devout Presbyterian and dispensationalist . He and his brother Milton anonymously provided funds for composing, printing, and distributing the publication. The project had three successive editors: A. C. Dixon , Louis Meyer, and Reuben Archer Torrey . The essays were written by sixty-four different authors, representing most of the major Protestant Christian denominations. It

1092-532: The historical events of the New Testament. When studied as history without regard to miraculous events, Ritschl believed the New Testament affirmed Jesus' divine mission. He rejected doctrines such as the virgin birth of Jesus and the Trinity . The Christian life for Ritschl was devoted to ethical activity and development, so he understood doctrines to be value judgments rather than assertions of facts. Influenced by

1134-557: The literal interpretation of the Bible is heresy . The two groups also disagreed on the role of experience in confirming truth claims. Traditional Protestants believed scripture and revelation always confirmed human experience and reason. For liberal Protestants, there were two ultimate sources of religious authority: the Christian experience of God as revealed in Jesus Christ and universal human experience. In other words, only an appeal to common human reason and experience could confirm

1176-534: The mid-century Nouvelle théologie movement, was "modern-minded, enterprising, [and] ready for new ventures of faith", opting for "newness" in many aspects of the pastoral life of the Church "from top to bottom". Papal condemnation of modernism and Americanism slowed the development of a liberal Catholic tradition in the United States. Since the Second Vatican Council, however, liberal theology has experienced

1218-506: The modern worldview." Beginning in Germany, liberal theology was influenced by several strands of thought, including the Enlightenment 's high view of human reason and Pietism 's emphasis on religious experience and interdenominational tolerance. The sources of religious authority recognized by liberal Protestants differed from conservative Protestants. Traditional Protestants understood

1260-526: The movement for progressive Christianity include Progressive Christianity (Organization) and Faithful America. The Sojourners magazine was founded in 1971 by the Sojourners Community and was the first progressive magazine. In 2007, the Red-Letter Christians movement was founded by Tony Campolo and Shane Claiborne to insist to Jesus' words by promoting biblical values such as peace,

1302-409: The name Jehovah's Witnesses ), spiritualism , and what it called evolutionism . Arrangement of the original 12-volume set: [REDACTED] The Fundamentals public domain audiobook at LibriVox Liberal Christianity Liberal Christianity , also known as liberal theology and historically as Christian Modernism (see Catholic modernism and Fundamentalist–Modernist controversy ),

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1344-405: The passages in the Bible by affirming the truths within the stories that may not have actually happened." Progressive Christianity, as described by its adherents, is characterized by a willingness to question tradition, acceptance of human diversity, a strong emphasis on social justice and care for the poor and the oppressed, and environmental stewardship of the earth. Progressive Christians have

1386-537: The philosophy of Immanuel Kant , Ritschl viewed "religion as the triumph of the spirit (or moral agent) over humanity's natural origins and environment." Ritschl's ideas would be taken up by others, and Ritschlianism would remain an important theological school within German Protestantism until World War I. Prominent followers of Ritschl include Wilhelm Herrmann , Julius Kaftan and Adolf von Harnack . Catholic forms of theological liberalism have existed since

1428-570: The poor of facilities, or exclude particular racial or sexual groups from fair participation in national liberties. It was influential in the US mainline churches, and reflected global trends in student activism . It contributed to the ecumenical movement , as represented internationally by the World Student Christian Federation and the World Council of Churches internationally, and at the national level through groups such as

1470-452: The power of God. Not all theologians with liberal inclinations reject the possibility of miracles, but many reject the polemicism that denial or affirmation entails. Nineteenth-century liberalism had an optimism about the future in which humanity would continue to achieve greater progress. This optimistic view of history was sometimes interpreted as building the kingdom of God in the world. The roots of liberal Christianity go back to

1512-471: The rise of neo-orthodoxy in the 1930s and with liberation theology in the 1960s. Catholic forms of liberal theology emerged in the late 19th century. By the 21st century, liberal Christianity had become an ecumenical tradition, including both Protestants and Catholics. In the context of theology, liberal does not refer to political liberalism , and it should also be distinguished from progressive Christianity . Liberal Protestantism developed in

1554-419: The term Epic of Evolution or Great Story to help construct his viewpoint of evolution theology. His position is that science and religious faith are not mutually exclusive (a form of religious naturalism ). He preaches that the epic of cosmic, biological, and human evolution, revealed by science, is a basis for an inspiring and meaningful view of our place in the universe and a new approach to religion. Evolution

1596-581: The traditional teachings of the church. While most are still of evangelical persuasion, a minority are liberal Christians. Central to this recovery of awe in the cosmos is the epic of evolution , the 14-billion-year history of the universe. Scientists ( Edward O. Wilson , Brian Swimme , Eric Chaisson , Ursula Goodenough and others) initiated this story which has been perpetuated with a religion component by some liberal theologians ( Gordon D. Kaufman , Jerome A. Stone , Michael Dowd , etc.). Evolutionary evangelist and progressive minister Michael Dowd uses

1638-467: The truth claims of Christianity. In general, liberal Christians are not concerned with the presence of biblical errors or contradictions. Liberals abandoned or reinterpreted traditional doctrines in light of recent knowledge. For example, the traditional doctrine of original sin was rejected for being derived from Augustine of Hippo , whose views on the New Testament were believed to have been distorted by his involvement with Manichaeism . Christology

1680-399: Was also reinterpreted. Liberals stressed Christ's humanity , and his divinity became "an affirmation of Jesus exemplifying qualities which humanity as a whole could hope to emulate". Liberal Christians sought to elevate Jesus' humane teachings as a standard for a world civilization freed from cultic traditions and traces of traditionally pagan types of belief in the supernatural . As

1722-702: Was mailed free of charge to ministers, missionaries, professors of theology, YMCA and YWCA secretaries, Sunday school superintendents, and other Protestant religious workers in the United States and other English-speaking countries. Over three million volumes (250,000 sets) were sent out. The volumes defended classical Protestant doctrines and attacked the Roman Catholic Church ("Romanism"), higher criticism , liberal theology , socialism , modernism , atheism , Christian Science , Mormonism , Millennial Dawn (whose members were sometimes known as Russellites , but which later split into another group, adopting

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1764-857: Was most influential with Mainline Protestant churches in the early 20th century, when proponents believed the changes it would bring would be the future of the Christian church. Its greatest and most influential manifestation was the Christian Social Gospel , whose most influential spokesman was the American Baptist Walter Rauschenbusch . Rauschenbusch identified four institutionalized spiritual evils in American culture (which he identified as traits of "supra-personal entities", organizations capable of having moral agency): these were individualism , capitalism , nationalism and militarism . Other subsequent theological movements within

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