106-428: Book by Niccolò Machiavelli The Description Author Niccolò Machiavelli Original title Descrizione del modo tenuto dal Duca Valentino nello ammazzare Vitellozzo Vitelli, Oliverotto da Fermo, il Signor Pagolo e il duca di Gravina Orsini Language Italian Publication date 1503 Publication place Florence A Description of
212-411: A compulsory comprehensive savings and pension plan , as well as universal healthcare , in addition to a civic nationalist stance. In 1975, Chan Heng Chee described Singapore as a depoliticised "administrative state", where ideology and politics had triumphantly been replaced by "rational and scientific modes of public administration". It is suggested that by doggedly describing itself as pragmatic,
318-443: A "civil way of life". Commentators disagree about how much the two works agree with each other, as Machiavelli frequently refers to leaders of republics as "princes". Machiavelli even sometimes acts as an advisor to tyrants . Other scholars have pointed out the aggrandizing and imperialistic features of Machiavelli's republic. Nevertheless, it became one of the central texts of modern republicanism , and has often been argued to be
424-589: A character to rule, who will inevitably attempt to replace the ruler. Machiavelli has become infamous for such political advice, ensuring that he would be remembered in history through the adjective "Machiavellian". Due to the treatise's controversial analysis on politics, the Catholic Church banned The Prince , putting it on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum . Humanists , including Erasmus ( c. 1466 – 1536), also viewed
530-470: A city, which he felt was a key to understanding its later development. Moreover, he studied the way people lived and aimed to inform leaders how they should rule and even how they themselves should live. Machiavelli denies the classical opinion that living virtuously always leads to happiness. For example, Machiavelli viewed misery as "one of the vices that enables a prince to rule." Machiavelli stated that "it would be best to be both loved and feared. But since
636-1512: A dramatist Timeline Historical and political works Discourse on Pisa On the Method of Dealing with the Rebellious Peoples of Valdichiana The Description Discourse about the Provision of Money Report on the state of Germany Discourse on Reforming the Government of Florence Life of Castruccio Castracani Florentine Histories The Art of War The Prince Discourses on Livy Imaginative works The Second Decade Andria The Mandrake Clizia Belfagor arcidiavolo The Golden Ass Concepts Realpolitik Virtù Political realism Republicanism [REDACTED] Category:Works by Niccolò Machiavelli Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Description&oldid=1256007453 " Categories : Works by Niccolò Machiavelli 1503 books Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Books with missing cover Articles containing German-language text Articles containing Italian-language text Niccol%C3%B2 Machiavelli Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli (3 May 1469 – 21 June 1527)
742-498: A few consistently made proposals concerning what was most new in Machiavelli's work. Machiavelli is sometimes seen as the prototype of a modern empirical scientist, building generalizations from experience and historical facts, and emphasizing the uselessness of theorizing with the imagination. He emancipated politics from theology and moral philosophy. He undertook to describe simply what rulers actually did and thus anticipated what
848-561: A high priority on consistency. Others such as Hans Baron have argued that his ideas must have changed dramatically over time. Some have argued that his conclusions are best understood as a product of his times, experiences and education. Others, such as Leo Strauss and Harvey Mansfield , have argued strongly that there is a strong and deliberate consistency and distinctness, even arguing that this extends to all of Machiavelli's works including his comedies and letters. Commentators such as Leo Strauss have gone so far as to name Machiavelli as
954-492: A man control more of his future, in the place of allowing fortune to do so. Najemy (1993) has argued that this same approach can be found in Machiavelli's approach to love and desire, as seen in his comedies and correspondence. Najemy shows how Machiavelli's friend Vettori argued against Machiavelli and cited a more traditional understanding of fortune. On the other hand, humanism in Machiavelli's time meant that classical pre-Christian ideas about virtue and prudence, including
1060-501: A more comprehensive work than The Prince . Major commentary on Machiavelli's work has focused on two issues: how unified and philosophical his work is and how innovative or traditional it is. There is some disagreement concerning how best to describe the unifying themes, if there are any, that can be found in Machiavelli's works, especially in the two major political works, The Prince and Discourses . Some commentators have described him as inconsistent, and perhaps as not even putting
1166-412: A pragmatist for his erudite policies in his governance of Singapore . He believed that the only way Singapore could survive as a relatively small nation as compared to its neighbours was to contrast itself from them, by building up a highly effective and non-corrupt government, in addition to a civil service, under a meritocratic system. He also believed that Singapore was to stay neutral but also possess
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#17328449219741272-840: A princely family of Renaissance Rome . Both Vitellozzo Vitelli and Oliverotto da Fermo were strangled on the night of their capture on 31 December 1502. References [ edit ] ^ "A description of the methods adopted by the Duke Valentino when murdering Vitellozzo Vitelli, Oliverotto da Fermo, the Signor Pagolo, and the Duke di Gravina Orsini / Nicolo Machiavelli; translated by W. K. Marriott" . Retrieved 5 January 2020 . ^ Peter E. Bondanella , Maurizio Viroli, The Prince , p. 100 External links [ edit ] E-book text v t e Niccolò Machiavelli As
1378-458: A realistic, evolutionary alternative to empty political rhetoric." Henry Kissinger has been credited with formally introducing the policy of Realpolitik to the White House as Secretary of State to Richard Nixon . In that context, the policy meant dealing with other powerful nations in a practical manner, rather than on the basis of political doctrine or ethics such as Nixon's diplomacy with
1484-587: A river. In the United States, the term is often analogous to power politics while in Germany Realpolitik has a somewhat less negative connotation, referring to realistic politics in opposition to idealistic (or unrealistic) politics. It is particularly associated with the era of 19th century nationalism . Realpolitik policies were employed in response to the failed Revolutions of 1848 as means to strengthen states and tighten social order. "Politics
1590-401: A sect was that it makes men weak and inactive, delivering politics into the hands of cruel and wicked men without a fight. Realpolitik Realpolitik ( / r eɪ ˈ ɑː l p ɒ l ɪ ˌ t iː k / ray-AHL-po-lih-teek German: [ʁeˈaːlpoliˌtiːk] ; from German real 'realistic, practical, actual' and Politik 'politics') is
1696-519: A series of lessons on how a republic should be started and structured. It is a larger work than The Prince , and while it more openly explains the advantages of republics, it also contains many similar themes from his other works. For example, Machiavelli has noted that to save a republic from corruption, it is necessary to return it to a "kingly state" using violent means. He excuses Romulus for murdering his brother Remus and co-ruler Titus Tatius to gain absolute power for himself in that he established
1802-520: A sign of major innovation in Machiavelli, because classical materialists did not share the Socratic regard for political life, while Machiavelli clearly did. Thucydides Some scholars note the similarity between Machiavelli and the Greek historian Thucydides , since both emphasized power politics . Strauss argued that Machiavelli may indeed have been influenced by pre-Socratic philosophers , but he felt it
1908-569: A stomach ailment at the age of 58 after receiving his last rites . He was buried at the Church of Santa Croce in Florence. In 1789 George Nassau Clavering , and Pietro Leopoldo, Grand Duke of Tuscany , initiated the construction of a monument on Machiavelli's tomb. It was sculpted by Innocenzo Spinazzi , with an epitaph by Doctor Ferroni inscribed on it. Machiavelli's best-known book Il Principe contains several maxims concerning politics. Instead of
2014-458: A strong military capability, believing that it serves as a guarantor of the country's independence due to its strategic position. A strong advocate for Asian values , he argued that Asian societies had different values from Western societies and that practicing such values was vital to succeed as a nation, especially as an Asian country, which includes collectivism and communitarianism . Lee described Singapore's only natural resources as being
2120-499: A student of Socrates more known as a historian, rhetorician and soldier, was a major source of Socratic ideas for Machiavelli, sometimes not in line with Aristotle. While interest in Plato was increasing in Florence during Machiavelli's lifetime, Machiavelli does not show particular interest in him, but was indirectly influenced by his readings of authors such as Polybius , Plutarch and Cicero . The major difference between Machiavelli and
2226-401: A well-known correspondence with more politically connected friends, attempting to become involved once again in political life. In a letter to Francesco Vettori , he described his experience: When evening comes, I go back home, and go to my study. On the threshold, I take off my work clothes, covered in mud and filth, and I put on the clothes an ambassador would wear. Decently dressed, I enter
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#17328449219742332-407: A wide range of influences is in itself not controversial. Their relative importance is however a subject of ongoing discussion. It is possible to summarize some of the main influences emphasized by different commentators. The Mirror of Princes genre Gilbert (1938) summarized the similarities between The Prince and the genre it obviously imitates, the so-called " Mirror of Princes " style. This
2438-408: Is Idealpolitik . The term Realpolitik was coined by Ludwig von Rochau , a German writer and politician in the 19th century. His 1853 book Grundsätze der Realpolitik angewendet auf die staatlichen Zustände Deutschlands ("Principles of Realpolitik applied to the national state of affairs of Germany") describes the meaning of the term: The study of the forces that shape, maintain and alter
2544-425: Is simply a "realist" or "pragmatist" who accurately states that moral values, in reality, do not greatly affect the decisions that political leaders make. German philosopher Ernst Cassirer (1946) held that Machiavelli simply adopts the stance of a political scientist – a Galileo of politics – in distinguishing between the "facts" of political life and the "values" of moral judgment. On
2650-506: Is the art of the possible." – Bismarck, 1867 interview The most famous German advocate of Realpolitik , what was uniquely possible and the applied means to achieve it, was Otto von Bismarck , the first Chancellor (1862–1890) to Wilhelm I of the Kingdom of Prussia . Bismarck used Realpolitik in his quest to achieve Prussian dominance in Germany. He manipulated political issues such as
2756-467: Is used by both liberal and realist foreign policy thinkers to label, criticise, and facilitate a choosing of sides. Kissinger had looked at what he implemented while he served as Secretary of State and National Security Advisor not in the confines of making Realpolitik a standard policy, but within the terms of being a statesman. That political mindset can be seen in Kissinger's book A World Restored and
2862-508: The Realpolitik of figures such as Otto von Bismarck . Machiavelli was born in Florence , Italy, the third child and first son of attorney Bernardo di Niccolò Machiavelli and his wife, Bartolomea di Stefano Nelli, on 3 May 1469. The Machiavelli family is believed to be descended from the old marquesses of Tuscany and to have produced thirteen Florentine Gonfalonieres of Justice , one of
2968-599: The Florentine Republic with responsibilities in diplomatic and military affairs. He wrote comedies, carnival songs, and poetry. His personal correspondence is also important to historians and scholars of Italian correspondence. He worked as secretary to the second chancery of the Republic of Florence from 1498 to 1512, when the Medici were out of power. After his death Machiavelli's name came to evoke unscrupulous acts of
3074-638: The People's Republic of China despite U.S. opposition to communism and the previous doctrine of containment . Another example is Kissinger's use of shuttle diplomacy after the Yom Kippur War in 1973, when he persuaded the Israelis to withdraw partially from the Sinai in deference to the political realities created by the oil crisis. Kissinger himself said that he had never used the term Realpolitik and stated that it
3180-552: The Russian Civil War and, under the grounds of Realpolitik , approved of British Prime Minister David Lloyd George 's opposition to War Secretary Winston Churchill 's support for military aid to the anti-Bolshevik White movement . In Carr's opinion, Churchill's support of the anti-Bolsheviks was folly, as Russia was likely to be a great power once more under the leadership of the Bolsheviks. American Realpolitik began in
3286-536: The Schleswig-Holstein question and the Hohenzollern candidature to antagonise other countries and cause wars if necessary to attain his goals. Such policies were characteristic of Bismarck, demonstrating a pragmatic view of the "real" political world. Another example was his willingness to adopt some social policies of the socialists such as employee insurance and pensions; in doing so, he used small changes from
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3392-698: The civil service . Starting in the Spring and Autumn period (771–476/403 BC), a trend of "realistic" reformers were taken on to advance the material interest of their respective states , with the Qin state founding the first Chinese Empire, Qin dynasty in 221 BCE, ending China's Warring States period . The political theory developed during the era, including that of Confucianism would influence every dynasty thereafter. Those termed Legalist are more purely "Realpolitikal" in contrast to Confucianism and include non-legal Shen Pu-hai derived political technique, which charges
3498-454: The "deliberate purpose of dealing with a new ruler who will need to establish himself in defiance of custom". Normally, these types of works were addressed only to hereditary princes. (Xenophon is also an exception in this regard.) Classical republicanism Commentators such as Quentin Skinner and J.G.A. Pocock , in the so-called "Cambridge School" of interpretation, have asserted that some of
3604-554: The 1960s with the influence of Polish-American Zbigniew Brzezinski , later National Security Advisor to Jimmy Carter . Contrary to McCarthy -era hostility and John Foster Dulles 's talk of the military "liberation" of the Eastern Bloc , Brzezinski proposed "peaceful engagement" with the Soviet Union while he advised Presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson . Brzezinski, uninterested in promoting anti-Soviet propaganda for
3710-510: The 1970s due to Pakistan's nuclear program and the controversial execution of President Zulfikar Ali Bhutto . In the context of the Iranian Revolution , President Jimmy Carter desired to improve relations with Pakistan. General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq came into power in 1977 after martial law was imposed in the country due to political turmoil. Zia recognised the immediate strategic interests that Pakistan may obtain by aligning with
3816-469: The Church had come to accept, allowed practical decisions to be guided too much by imaginary ideals and encouraged people to lazily leave events up to providence or, as he would put it, chance, luck or fortune. While Christianity sees modesty as a virtue and pride as sinful, Machiavelli took a more classical position, seeing ambition, spiritedness, and the pursuit of glory as good and natural things, and part of
3922-551: The Florentine Republic on diplomatic visits to France, Germany, and elsewhere in Italy. Despairing of the opportunity to remain directly involved in political matters, after a time he began to participate in intellectual groups in Florence and wrote several plays that (unlike his works on political theory) were both popular and widely known in his lifetime. Politics remained his main passion, and to satisfy this interest, he maintained
4028-609: The Great and Theseus (he treated pagan and Christian patriarchs in the same way) as the greatest of new princes, the glorious and brutal founders of the most novel innovations in politics, and men whom Machiavelli assures us have always used a large amount of armed force and murder against their own people. He estimated that these sects last from 1,666 to 3,000 years each time, which, as pointed out by Leo Strauss, would mean that Christianity became due to start finishing about 150 years after Machiavelli. Machiavelli's concern with Christianity as
4134-687: The Singaporean state is actually disguising its ideological work and political nature through an assertion of the absence of ideology and politics. Chua Beng Huat argued in 1995 that the rhetoric of pragmatism in Singapore is ideological and hegemonic in nature, adopted and disseminated in the public sphere by the People's Action Party government and institutionalised throughout the state in all its administrative, planning, and policy-making functions. Many world leaders affirmed Lee's political knowledge as being pragmatist and "insightful". Former President of
4240-701: The Socratics, according to Strauss, is Machiavelli's materialism, and therefore his rejection of both a teleological view of nature and of the view that philosophy is higher than politics. With their teleological understanding of things, Socratics argued that by nature, everything that acts, acts towards some end, as if nature desired them, but Machiavelli claimed that such things happen by blind chance or human action. Classical materialism Strauss argued that Machiavelli may have seen himself as influenced by some ideas from classical materialists such as Democritus , Epicurus and Lucretius . Strauss however sees this also as
4346-518: The Soviet Union during the Afghan war which was primarily based upon pragmatic diplomacy rather than genuine partnership. One of the major Realpolitik decision of Zia's presidency was his role in the nuclear program of Pakistan. Amidst international pressure, he ignored threats of sanctions and prioritised the national interest over non-proliferation international norms. The development of nuclear weapons
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4452-508: The Spring and Autumn period, the prevalent philosophy had dictated war as a gentleman's activity; military commanders were instructed to respect what they perceived to be Heaven's laws in battle. For example, when Duke Xiang of Song was at war with the state of Chu during the Warring States period, he declined an opportunity to attack the enemy force (commanded by Zhu) while they were crossing
4558-677: The U.S. amidst the Soviet–Afghan War . Pakistan due to its strategic geopolitical location made it a subject of grave interest to the U.S., which supported Pakistan with financial and military assistance including General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon and financial aid during the Soviet–Afghan War. Zia initially declined the 400 million USD aid offered by the U.S. (under the Carter administration) dismissing it as "peanuts". However, when Ronald Reagan resumed office and sought to increment
4664-438: The United States , Barack Obama , stated that he "personally appreciated [Lee's] wisdom." Former Prime Minister of Japan , Shinzo Abe , who had also championed for Asian values, stated that Lee was "one of the greatest leaders of modern times that Asia has ever produced" and a "great Asian leader who laid the foundation for the prosperity of Singapore today." Former Prime Minister of Australia , Tony Abbott , mentioned that Lee
4770-506: The United States often supported authoritarian regimes that were human rights violators to secure theoretically the greater national interest of regional stability. After the end of the Cold War, this practice continued. Most recently, former Ambassador Dennis Ross advocated that approach to foreign policy in his 2007 book Statecraft: And How to Restore America's Standing in the World . For
4876-421: The advent of new technologies being invented in both good and bad governments. Strauss argued that the unavoidable nature of such arms races, which existed before modern times and led to the collapse of peaceful civilizations, show that classical-minded men "had to admit in other words that in an important respect the good city has to take its bearings by the practice of bad cities or that the bad impose their law on
4982-432: The advice – tyrants or good rulers. That Machiavelli strove for realism is not doubted, but for four centuries scholars have debated how best to describe his morality. The Prince made the word Machiavellian a byword for deceit, despotism, and political manipulation. Leo Strauss declared himself inclined toward the traditional view that Machiavelli was self-consciously a "teacher of evil", since he counsels
5088-460: The ancient courts of rulers who have long since died. There, I am warmly welcomed, and I feed on the only food I find nourishing and was born to savour. I am not ashamed to talk to them and ask them to explain their actions and they, out of kindness, answer me. Four hours go by without my feeling any anxiety. I forget every worry. I am no longer afraid of poverty or frightened of death. I live entirely through them. Machiavelli died on 21 June 1527 from
5194-758: The approach of conducting diplomatic or political policies based primarily on considerations of given circumstances and factors, rather than strictly following ideological, moral, or ethical premises. In this respect, it shares aspects of its philosophical approach with those of realism and pragmatism . While generally used as a positive or neutral term, Realpolitik has been also used pejoratively to imply political policies that are perceived as being coercive , amoral , or Machiavellian . Prominent proponents of Realpolitik include Otto von Bismarck , Henry Kissinger , George F. Kennan , Zbigniew Brzezinski , Hans-Dietrich Genscher , Deng Xiaoping , Charles de Gaulle , and Lee Kuan Yew . The opposite of Realpolitik
5300-521: The assumption that states—as actors in the international arena—pursue their interests by practicing Realpolitik . Conversely, Realpolitik can be described as the exercise of policies that are in line with accepted theories of political realism. In either case, the working hypothesis is generally that policy is chiefly based on the pursuit, possession, and application of power (see also power politics ). However, some international relations realists, such as Kenneth Waltz , have viewed state policy in terms of
5406-724: The benefit of the United States, felt the country would be more successful through frequent interactions with regimes and people under communist rule. Brzezinski knew the tough economic realities of those living in the Eastern Bloc, particularly the permanent shortage of goods, and that their attachment to the Soviet Union was born of historic necessity, rather than common ideology. Brzezinski suggested enticing these countries economically and through educational and cultural exchanges, which would appeal to intellectuals, followed by favouritism for regimes showing signs of liberalisation or less reliance on Moscow. Through that approach, Brzezinski "offered
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#17328449219745512-419: The book negatively. As a treatise, its primary intellectual contribution to the history of political thought is the fundamental break between political realism and political idealism , due to it being a manual on acquiring and keeping political power. In contrast with Plato and Aristotle , Machiavelli insisted that an imaginary ideal society is not a model by which a prince should orient himself. Concerning
5618-730: The city for a year. In 1513, the Medici accused him of conspiracy against them and had him imprisoned. Despite being subjected to torture (" with the rope ", in which the prisoner is hanged from his bound wrists from the back, forcing the arms to bear the body's weight and dislocating the shoulders), he denied involvement and was released after three weeks. Machiavelli then retired to his farm estate at Sant'Andrea in Percussina , near San Casciano in Val di Pesa , where he devoted himself to studying and writing political treatises. During this period, he represented
5724-454: The deliberate originator of modernity itself. Others have argued that Machiavelli is only a particularly interesting example of trends which were happening around him. In any case, Machiavelli presented himself at various times as someone reminding Italians of the old virtues of the Romans and Greeks, and other times as someone promoting a completely new approach to politics. That Machiavelli had
5830-507: The differences and similarities in Machiavelli's advice to ruthless and tyrannical princes in The Prince and his more republican exhortations in Discourses on Livy , a few commentators assert that The Prince , although written as advice for a monarchical prince, contains arguments for the superiority of republican regimes, similar to those found in the Discourses . In the 18th century, the work
5936-609: The exhortations in his other works of political philosophy. While less well known than The Prince , the Discourses on Livy (composed c. 1517 ) has been said to have paved the way for modern republicanism . His works were a major influence on Enlightenment authors who revived interest in classical republicanism , such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau and James Harrington . Machiavelli's political realism has continued to influence generations of academics and politicians, including Hannah Arendt , and his approach has been compared to
6042-1054: The founding of new modes and orders. His advice to princes was therefore certainly not limited to discussing how to maintain a state. It has been argued that Machiavelli's promotion of innovation led directly to the argument for progress as an aim of politics and civilization . But while a belief that humanity can control its own future, control nature, and "progress" has been long-lasting, Machiavelli's followers, starting with his own friend Guicciardini , have tended to prefer peaceful progress through economic development, and not warlike progress. As Harvey Mansfield (1995 , p. 74) wrote: "In attempting other, more regular and scientific modes of overcoming fortune, Machiavelli's successors formalized and emasculated his notion of virtue." Machiavelli however, along with some of his classical predecessors, saw ambition and spiritedness, and therefore war, as inevitable and part of human nature . Strauss concludes his 1958 book Thoughts on Machiavelli by proposing that this promotion of progress leads directly to
6148-585: The funding for Operation Cyclone and aid for Pakistan, the U.S. and Pakistan agreed on a 3.2 billion USD military and economic aid package. Under Zia's leadership, Pakistan played a pivotal role in training the Afghan mujahidin , in conjunction with Operation Cyclone to oppose the Soviet-backed government in Afghanistan. While Pakistan was aligned with the United States, it did maintain diplomatic relations with
6254-456: The good". Strauss (1958 , pp. 298–299) Machiavelli shows repeatedly that he saw religion as man-made, and that the value of religion lies in its contribution to social order and the rules of morality must be dispensed with if security requires it. In The Prince , the Discourses and in the Life of Castruccio Castracani he describes "prophets", as he calls them, like Moses , Romulus , Cyrus
6360-481: The grit of its people as well as their strong work ethic, propelling this mindset to all ethnic groups of the country. Although Lee supported left-wing ideas in his young adulthood, he was largely conservative as a leader, concluding that extensive state welfare and subsidies blunted the individual's drive to succeed. Nevertheless, his government still enacted social policies , which included free public education up until at least secondary school , state housing,
6466-480: The late Middle Ages . It existed both in the Catholicised form presented by Thomas Aquinas , and in the more controversial " Averroist " form of authors like Marsilius of Padua . Machiavelli was critical of Catholic political thinking and may have been influenced by Averroism. But he rarely cites Plato and Aristotle, and most likely did not approve of them. Leo Strauss argued that the strong influence of Xenophon ,
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#17328449219746572-402: The leaders were banished from the city, a strategy which Machiavelli had favoured from the outset. From 1502 to 1503, he witnessed the brutal reality of the state-building methods of Cesare Borgia (1475–1507) and his father, Pope Alexander VI , who were then engaged in the process of trying to bring a large part of central Italy under their possession. The pretext of defending Church interests
6678-496: The liberal gains of the 1848 revolutions fell victim to coercive governments or were swallowed by powerful social forces such as class, religion and nationalism, Rochau—according to Bew—began to think hard about how the work that had begun with such enthusiasm had failed to yield any lasting results. He said that the great achievement of the Enlightenment had been to show that might is not necessarily right. The mistake liberals made
6784-459: The methods adopted by the Duke Valentino when murdering Vitellozzo Vitelli, Oliverotto da Fermo, the Signor Pagolo, and the Duke di Gravina Orsini often abbreviated as The Description for reasons of brevity, is a work by Italian Renaissance political scientist and historian Niccolò Machiavelli . The work describes the methods used by Cesare Borgia to capture and murder members of the Orsini family ,
6890-409: The mid 19th century. By 1890, usage of the word Realpolitik was widespread, yet increasingly detached from its original meaning. Whereas Realpolitik refers to political practice, the concept of political realism in international relations refers to a theoretical framework aimed at offering explanations for events in the international relations domain. The theory of political realism proceeds from
6996-504: The more powerful one, the modern era was too much inclined to overlook the real might of the more powerful and the inevitability of its political influence. Historian John Bew suggests that much of what stands for modern Realpolitik today deviates from the original meaning of the term. Realpolitik emerged in mid-19th century Europe from the collision of the Enlightenment with state formation and power politics. The concept, Bew argues,
7102-441: The more traditional target audience of a hereditary prince, it concentrates on the possibility of a "new prince". To retain power, the hereditary prince must carefully balance the interests of a variety of institutions to which the people are accustomed. By contrast, a new prince has the more difficult task in ruling: He must first stabilise his newfound power in order to build an enduring political structure. Machiavelli suggests that
7208-593: The needs of the situation. That type of policymaking could be seen as recently as in the administration of Barack Obama. Bew made note of that direction in the Obama administration , when Obama's chief of staff, Rahm Emanuel , remarked in an article in The New York Times that everyone wanted to break it down into contrasts of idealist and realist, but "if you had to put him in a category, he's probably more realpolitik, like Bush 41 [...] You’ve got to be cold-blooded about
7314-445: The noble is destroyed by the base. Therefore Thucydides' History arouses in the reader a sadness which is never aroused by Machiavelli's books. In Machiavelli we find comedies, parodies, and satires but nothing reminding of tragedy. One half of humanity remains outside of his thought. There is no tragedy in Machiavelli because he has no sense of the sacredness of "the common". – Strauss (1958 , p. 292) Amongst commentators, there are
7420-477: The offices of a group of nine citizens selected by drawing lots every two months and who formed the government, or Signoria ; he was never, though, a full citizen of Florence because of the nature of Florentine citizenship in that time even under the republican regime. Machiavelli married Marietta Corsini in 1501. They had seven children, five sons and two daughters: Primerana, Bernardo, Lodovico, Guido, Piero [ it ] , Baccina and Totto. Machiavelli
7526-419: The other hand, Walter Russell Mead has argued that The Prince ' s advice presupposes the importance of ideas like legitimacy in making changes to the political system. Machiavelli is generally seen as being critical of Christianity as it existed in his time, specifically its effect upon politics, and also everyday life. In his opinion, Christianity, along with the teleological Aristotelianism that
7632-423: The possibility of trying to control one's future, were not unique to him. But humanists did not go so far as to promote the extra glory of deliberately aiming to establish a new state, in defiance of traditions and laws. While Machiavelli's approach had classical precedents, it has been argued that it did more than just bring back old ideas and that Machiavelli was not a typical humanist. Strauss (1958) argues that
7738-427: The princes to avoid the values of justice, mercy, temperance, wisdom, and love of their people in preference to the use of cruelty, violence, fear, and deception. Strauss takes up this opinion because he asserted that failure to accept the traditional opinion misses the "intrepidity of his thought" and "the graceful subtlety of his speech". Italian anti-fascist philosopher Benedetto Croce (1925) concludes Machiavelli
7844-426: The purposes of contrast and speaking in ideal types , political ideologues would tend to favor principle over other considerations. Such individuals or groups can reject compromises that they see as the abandonment of their ideals and so may sacrifice political gain, in favor of adhering to principles that they believe to be constitutive of long-term goals. Relations between Pakistan and the U.S. were strained during
7950-425: The pursuit of survival or security, rather than the pursuit of power for its own sake. See political realism for branches and antecedents more relevant to contemporary diplomacy and the particular modern, international relations paradigm. Even prior to the contemporary Realpolitik term, China has had a "realistic" tradition in its governance dating back thousands of years. Often referred to as Chinese Legalism ,
8056-415: The republican themes in Machiavelli's political works, particularly the Discourses on Livy , can be found in medieval Italian literature which was influenced by classical authors such as Sallust . Classical political philosophy: Xenophon, Plato and Aristotle The Socratic school of classical political philosophy, especially Aristotle , had become a major influence upon European political thinking in
8162-402: The ruler engage in passive observation to determine facts rather than take on too much himself. Sinologist Herrlee G. Creel writes: "If one wishes to exaggerate, it would no doubt be possible to translate (foundational Realist) Shen Buhai's term Shu, or technique , as ' science ', and argue that Pu-hai was the first political scientist," though Creel does "not care to go this far". During
8268-423: The saying, often attributed to interpretations of The Prince , " The ends justify the means ". Fraud and deceit are held by Machiavelli as necessary for a prince to use. Violence may be necessary for the successful stabilization of power and introduction of new political institutions. Force may be used to eliminate political rivals, destroy resistant populations, and purge the community of other men strong enough of
8374-590: The second chancery, a medieval writing office that put Machiavelli in charge of the production of official Florentine government documents. Shortly thereafter, he was also made the secretary of the Dieci di Libertà e Pace . In the first decade of the sixteenth century, he carried out several diplomatic missions, most notably to the papacy in Rome. Florence sent him to Pistoia to pacify the leaders of two opposing factions which had broken into riots in 1501 and 1502; when this failed,
8480-459: The self-interests of your nation." Realpolitik is distinct from ideological politics in that it is not dictated by a fixed set of rules but instead tends to be goal-oriented, limited only by practical exigencies. Since Realpolitik is ordered toward the most practical means of securing national interests, it can often entail compromising on ideological principles. For example, during the Cold War ,
8586-403: The social benefits of stability and security can be achieved in the face of moral corruption. Machiavelli believed that public and private morality had to be understood as two different things in order to rule well. As a result, a ruler must be concerned not only with reputation, but also must be positively willing to act unscrupulously at the right times. Machiavelli believed that, for a ruler, it
8692-469: The sort he advised most famously in his work, The Prince . He claimed that his experience and reading of history showed him that politics has always involved deception, treachery, and crime. He advised rulers to engage in such when political necessity requires it, and argued specifically that successful reformers of states should not be blamed for killing other leaders who could block change. Machiavelli's Prince has been surrounded by controversy since it
8798-399: The spirit of its content may be most readily recognised by Western viewers through one of its kindred, The Art of War . Chinese administrative organisation significantly influenced other Asian nations as well as Western administrative practices not later than the 12th century, playing a significant role in the development of the modern state, including the usage of examinations for entry to
8904-415: The state is the basis of all political insight and leads to the understanding that the law of power governs the world of states just as the law of gravity governs the physical world. The older political science was fully aware of this truth but drew a wrong and detrimental conclusion—the right of the more powerful. The modern era has corrected this unethical fallacy, but while breaking with the alleged right of
9010-408: The top down to avoid the possibility of major change from the bottom up. Likewise, Prussia's seemingly illogical move of not demanding territory from a defeated Austria , a move that later led to the unification of Germany, is an oft-cited example of Realpolitik . Singaporean statesman Lee Kuan Yew , who served as the country's first prime minister, has been considered by many political analysts as
9116-416: The two rarely come together, anyone compelled to choose will find greater security in being feared than in being loved." In much of Machiavelli's work, he often states that the ruler must adopt unsavoury policies for the sake of the continuance of his regime. A related and more controversial proposal often made is that he described how to do things in politics in a way which seemed neutral concerning who used
9222-409: The virtue and prudence that good princes should have. Therefore, while it was traditional to say that leaders should have virtues, especially prudence, Machiavelli's use of the words virtù and prudenza was unusual for his time, implying a spirited and immodest ambition. Mansfield describes his usage of virtù as a "compromise with evil". Famously, Machiavelli argued that virtue and prudence can help
9328-429: The war that makes their allegiance fickle and often unreliable when most needed), and instead staffed his army with citizens, a policy that yielded some positive results. By February 1506 he was able to have four hundred farmers marching on parade, suited (including iron breastplates), and armed with lances and small firearms. Under his command, Florentine citizen-soldiers conquered Pisa in 1509. Machiavelli's success
9434-521: The way Machiavelli combines classical ideas is new. While Xenophon and Plato also described realistic politics and were closer to Machiavelli than Aristotle was, they, like Aristotle, also saw philosophy as something higher than politics. Machiavelli was apparently a materialist who objected to explanations involving formal and final causation , or teleology . Machiavelli's promotion of ambition among leaders while denying any higher standard meant that he encouraged risk-taking, and innovation, most famously
9540-474: Was a Florentine diplomat, author, philosopher, and historian who lived during the Italian Renaissance . He is best known for his political treatise The Prince ( Il Principe ), written around 1513 but not published until 1532, five years after his death. He has often been called the father of modern political philosophy and political science . For many years he served as a senior official in
9646-533: Was a "giant of our region" and that "thanks to his vision and determination, Singapore is one of the world's most successful countries." Henry Kissinger described Lee as one of the "world's most successful pragmatists". Today, his ideologies and views are now taught at the Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy , an autonomous postgraduate school of the National University of Singapore . E. H. Carr
9752-424: Was a classically influenced genre, with models at least as far back as Xenophon and Isocrates . While Gilbert emphasized the similarities, however, he agreed with all other commentators that Machiavelli was particularly novel in the way he used this genre, even when compared to his contemporaries such as Baldassare Castiglione and Erasmus . One of the major innovations Gilbert noted was that Machiavelli focused on
9858-486: Was a liberal realist and left-wing British historian and international relations theorist who argued for realistic international over utopian policies. Carr described realism as the acceptance that what exists is right; he thus argued that in politics, realism meant that there is no moral dimension and that what is successful is right and what is unsuccessful is wrong. Carr was convinced that the Bolsheviks were destined to win
9964-413: Was a new combination: ...contemporary readers are reminded by Machiavelli's teaching of Thucydides; they find in both authors the same "realism", i.e., the same denial of the power of the gods or of justice and the same sensitivity to harsh necessity and elusive chance. Yet Thucydides never calls in question the intrinsic superiority of nobility to baseness, a superiority that shines forth particularly when
10070-524: Was an early attempt at answering the conundrum of how to achieve liberal enlightened goals in a world that does not follow liberal enlightened rules. Rochau coined the term in 1853 and added a second volume in 1869 that further refined his earlier arguments. Rochau, exiled in Paris until the 1848 uprising , returned during the revolution and became a well-known figure in the National Liberal Party . As
10176-497: Was better to be widely feared than to be greatly loved; a loved ruler retains authority by obligation, while a feared leader rules by fear of punishment. As a political theorist, Machiavelli emphasized the "necessity" for the methodical exercise of brute force or deceit, including extermination of entire noble families, to head off any chance of a challenge to the prince's authority. Scholars often note that Machiavelli glorifies instrumentality in state building, an approach embodied by
10282-519: Was born in a tumultuous era. The Italian city-states , and the families and individuals who ran them could rise and fall suddenly, as popes and the kings of France, Spain, and the Holy Roman Empire waged acquisitive wars for regional influence and control. Political-military alliances continually changed, featuring condottieri (mercenary leaders), who changed sides without warning, and the rise and fall of many short-lived governments. Machiavelli
10388-591: Was even called a satire , for example by Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778). Scholars such as Leo Strauss (1899–1973) and Harvey Mansfield ( b. 1932 ) have stated that sections of The Prince and his other works have deliberately esoteric statements throughout them. However, Mansfield states that this is the result of Machiavelli's seeing grave and serious things as humorous because they are "manipulable by men", and sees them as grave because they "answer human necessities". The Marxist theorist Antonio Gramsci (1891–1937) argued that Machiavelli's audience
10494-406: Was later called the scientific spirit in which questions of good and bad are ignored, and the observer attempts to discover only what really happens. Machiavelli felt that his early schooling along the lines of traditional classical education was essentially useless for the purpose of understanding politics. Nevertheless, he advocated intensive study of the past, particularly regarding the founding of
10600-450: Was pointed out by historian John Bew in his book Realpolitik . Kissinger went on to say that the role of the statesman is "the ability to recognize the real relationship of forces and to make this knowledge serve his ends." In that context, one can see how Realpolitik principles can influence U.S. policy but not as standard policy. The reach and influence of Realpolitik is found instead in pragmatic and flexible policy that changes to
10706-452: Was published. Some consider it to be a straightforward description of political reality. Others view The Prince as a manual, teaching would-be tyrants how they should seize and maintain power. Even into recent times, some scholars, such as Leo Strauss , have restated the traditional opinion that Machiavelli was a "teacher of evil". Even though Machiavelli has become most famous for his work on principalities, scholars also give attention to
10812-587: Was short-lived. In August 1512, the Medici, backed by Pope Julius II , used Spanish troops to defeat the Florentines at Prato . In the wake of the siege, Piero Soderini resigned as Florentine head of state and fled into exile. The experience would, like Machiavelli's time in foreign courts and with the Borgia, heavily influence his political writings. The Florentine city-state and the republic were dissolved, with Machiavelli then being removed from office and banished from
10918-455: Was taught grammar, rhetoric, and Latin by his teacher, Paolo da Ronciglione. It is unknown whether Machiavelli knew Greek; Florence was at the time one of the centres of Greek scholarship in Europe. In 1494 Florence restored the republic , expelling the Medici family that had ruled Florence for some sixty years. Shortly after the execution of Savonarola , Machiavelli was appointed to an office of
11024-580: Was the common people, as opposed to the ruling class, who were already made aware of the methods described through their education. The Discourses on the First Ten Books of Titus Livius , written around 1517, and published in 1531, often referred to simply as the Discourses or Discorsi , is nominally a discussion regarding the classical history of early Ancient Rome , although it strays far from this subject matter and also uses contemporary political examples to illustrate points. Machiavelli presents it as
11130-479: Was to assume that the law of the strong had suddenly evaporated simply because it had been shown to be unjust. Rochau wrote that "to bring down the walls of Jericho, the Realpolitiker knows the simple pickaxe is more useful than the mightiest trumpet". Rochau's concept was seized upon by German thinkers in the mid and late 19th century and became associated with Otto von Bismarck 's statecraft in unifying Germany in
11236-565: Was used as a partial justification by the Borgias. Other excursions to the court of Louis XII and the Spanish court influenced his writings such as The Prince . At the start of the 16th century, Machiavelli conceived of a militia for Florence, and he then began recruiting and creating it. He distrusted mercenaries (a distrust that he explained in his official reports and then later in his theoretical works for their unpatriotic and uninvested nature in
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