Texas Towers were a set of three radar facilities off the eastern seaboard of the United States which were used for surveillance by the United States Air Force during the Cold War . Modeled on the offshore oil drilling platforms first employed off the Texas coast, they were in operation from 1958 to 1963. After the collapse of one of the towers in 1961, the remaining towers were closed due to changes in threat perception and out of a concern for the safety of the crews.
148-532: Upon re-formation of the Air Defense Command in 1951 to oversee the nation's developing surveillance radar network, there was concern that shore-based radars along the east coast provided insufficient warning time. A 1952 report from MIT 's Lincoln Laboratory looked into the possibility of extending radar coverage by building platforms in the Atlantic using offshore oil drilling technology. They concluded that
296-460: A cold front moved eastward through the United States and weakened the ridge, causing the hurricane to turn more to the northwest. It re-intensified over warm sea surface temperatures , and the hurricane's minimum barometric pressure dropped to 930 mbar (27 inHg) on September 10. Between 02:00 and 03:00 UTC that day, the 21-mile-wide (34 km) eye of Donna crossed through
444-495: A 952 mbar (28.1 inHg) pressure reading in the main airport. Donna killed two people on Antigua. During the passing of Hurricane Donna, Anguilla recorded five deaths, including a woman who died when the roof of her house collapsed. Despite passing only 35 mi (56 km) north of the island, Donna caused only minor damage on St. Thomas in the United States Virgin Islands . A station there reported
592-543: A coordinated jamming attack to complicate the testing. When inside the range of the GCI radar, and in anticipation of interception, chaff was dispensed to confuse the defense force and electronic pulses to jam radar signals were turned on. It was up to the defending interceptors and GCI stations to sort out the correct interception. Units operating these specially equipped aircraft were designated Defense Systems Evaluation Squadrons (DSES). The 4713th Defense Systems Evaluation Squadron
740-684: A former hallway/latrine area. The headquarters was moved to Ent Air Force Base in Colorado Springs on 8 January 1951. It received 21 former ConAC active-duty fighter squadrons (37 additional Air National Guard fighter squadrons if called to active duty). ADC was also assigned the 25th, 26th 27th and 28th Air Divisions (Defense) ADC completed the Priority Permanent System network for Aircraft Warning and Control ( ground-controlled interception ) in 1952. Gaps were filled by additional Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) radar stations and
888-499: A gain of at least 30 extra minutes warning time of an oncoming bomber attack. ADC's Operation Tail Wind on 11–12 July tested its augmentation plan that required Air Training Command interceptors participate in an air defense emergency. A total of seven ATC bases actively participated in the exercise, deploying aircraft and aircrews and supporting the ADC radar net. As the USAF prepared to deploy
1036-679: A hurricane watch were issued northward to Eastport, Maine . Ships at dock in Newport, Rhode Island were towed out into the bay to weather the storm. On September 12 at 5 a.m., hurricane warnings were extended northward to Eastport, and dropped south of Cape Hatteras. At 7 a.m., hurricane warnings were lowered south of Cape Charles. At 2 p.m., hurricane warnings were dropped south of Cape May. At 5 p.m., hurricane warnings were discontinued south of Manasquan, New Jersey. At 8 p.m., hurricane warnings expired south of Block Island. By 11 p.m. on September 12, all hurricane warnings had been lowered. Hurricane Donna
1184-522: A longer time frame. Marine life was scarce for several months in areas of greatest oxygen depletion. Sports fishing in the area took a few months to recover. Juvenile pink shrimp moved from their estuarine nursery grounds into deeper water about 60 miles (97 km) offshore, where they were subsequently captured by fishermen. A Caspian tern was swept up the North American coast well to the north of its traditional breeding grounds, to Nova Scotia , which
1332-473: A man suffered a heart attack when his home was threatened by a fire. Additionally, weather-related traffic accidents in the province resulted in two injuries. Following the storm, President of the United States Dwight D. Eisenhower issued a disaster declaration for Florida and North Carolina, allowing residents of those states to be eligible for public assistance. The United States military sent
1480-526: A number of others. There were 10 injuries, some of which were caused by flying glass. Damage from this tornado was over $ 500,000. An F1 tornado also touched down in Garden City Beach , destroying or extensively damaging six buildings. In Beaufort County , many trees were uprooted, power lines were downed, homes were unroofed, piers were destroyed, and there was significant damage to corn and soybean crops. In North Carolina, Donna brought two tornadoes to
1628-581: A plane carrying doctors and food from Patrick Air Force Base to Mayaguana in the Bahamas. Crews of doctors and workers with food and supplies left from Key West and Miami to traverse the Florida Keys, bringing aid to affected residents. In Marathon, a large reconstruction program rehabilitated the key by Christmas . Coral reefs were damaged in the Key Largo National Marine Sanctuary by
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#17328518025101776-651: A quarter of the island's population homeless and killed seven people. An additional five deaths were reported in Anguilla , and there were seven other fatalities throughout the Virgin Islands . In Puerto Rico , severe flash flooding led to 107 fatalities, 85 of them in Humacao alone. Donna further intensified to a Category 4 hurricane early on September 6, and attained peak winds of 145 mph (233 km/h) twenty-four hours later. The storm then weakened over
1924-526: A reduction in operational capability, moved the final "reorganization" of ADCOM to center stage. Two years of planning followed, but by late 1979 the Air Force was ready to carry it through. It was conducted in two phases: Hurricane Donna Hurricane Donna , known in Puerto Rico as Hurricane San Lorenzo , was the strongest hurricane of the 1960 Atlantic hurricane season , and caused severe damage to
2072-656: A satellite in 1984. ADC's Consolidated Command. Control and Communications Program, FY 1965–1972 was an outgrowth of a 196x "ADC-NORAD PAGE Study" for replacing SAGE/BUIC with a Primary Automated Ground Environment (PAGE) . The program with a Joint DOD/FAA National Airspace System (NAS) resulted with DOD/FAA agreements for a common aircraft surveillance system, with the FAA "to automate its new National Airspace System (NAS) centers". ADC estimated its portion "would cost about $ 6 million, with annual operating, maintenance, and communication costs about $ 3.5 million" ("the first BUIC III
2220-760: A separate Air Defense Command [from CONAC ] with headquarters on Ent ." The new command's mission was to be to stop a handful of conventionally armed piston engine-powered bombers on a one-way mission. The command was formally reactivated on 1 January 1951. With advances in Soviet bombers, ADC completed improved radar networks and manned interceptors in the 1950s. At the end of the decade it computerized Air Defense Direction Centers to allow air defense controllers to more quickly review integrated military air defense warning (MADW) data and dispatch defenses (e.g., surface-to-air missiles in 1959). ADC began missile warning and space surveillance missions in 1960 and 1961, and established
2368-566: A separate multi-service CONAD headquarters staff (with an Air Force Element), separated command of ADC from CINCONAD, and in 1957 added Alaskan Air Command and Northeast Air Command components to ADC Former NEAC installations in the smaller "Canadian Northeast Area" were transferred to the Canadian Air Defence Command . (e.g., the Hall Beach DEW Line station constructed 1955–1957 -- cf. Canada's Hopedale stations of
2516-482: A set of such platforms, equipped with radars, could extend coverage several hundred miles offshore, giving half an hour additional warning of an attack. Funding for design and construction of the towers was approved in January 1954. Each tower consisted of a triangular platform, 200 feet (61 m) on each side, standing on three caisson legs. The structures were constructed on land, towed to site, and jacked up to clear
2664-918: A temporary missile warning network for the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis . In 1968 it was redesignated Aerospace Defense Command (ADCOM). In 1975, ADCOM became a specified command and the United States' executive agent in the North American Air Defense Command —the single CINCNORAD/CINCAD commanded both. ADCOM's last surface-to-air missiles were taken off alert in 1972, and the Federal Aviation Administration took over many of ADCOM's SAGE radar stations . On 1 October 1979 ADCOM interceptors/bases and remaining air warning radar stations transferred to Tactical Air Command (TAC), with these "atmospheric" units assigned to Air Defense, Tactical Air Command (ADTAC). ADCOM's missile warning and space surveillance installations transferred in 1979 to
2812-469: A truck fitted with a custom camper-shell for a journey he intended to take across the United States, accompanied by his poodle Charley. He planned on leaving after Labor Day from his home in Sag Harbor , Long Island, New York. Steinbeck delayed his trip slightly due to Donna, which made a direct hit on Long Island. Steinbeck wrote of saving his boat during the middle of the hurricane, during which he jumped into
2960-508: A wind gust of 145 mph (233 km/h) at the Blue Hill Observatory . Extensive losses to apple orchards occurred, as the fruit was blown out of trees. Widespread telephone and power outages were reported. The strong southwest winds associated with Donna, in combination with very little rainfall, led to a significant deposit of salt spray, which whitewashed southwest-facing windows. Many trees and shrubs saw their leaves brown due to
3108-515: A wind gust of 60 mph (97 km/h). Some fences were toppled, while several houses were reported to have been damaged or destroyed. Electrical and telephone services were also disrupted. The highest daily rainfall total on the island was 8.78 inches (223 mm), causing minor local flooding. On Saint John , several small boats capsized. While passing to the north of Puerto Rico, Donna produced winds of 38 mph (61 km/h) in San Juan. Along
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#17328518025103256-418: The 551st Airborne Early Warning and Control Wing , based at Otis Air Force Base , Massachusetts , and the 552nd AEWCW , based at McClellan Air Force Base , California , one wing stationed on each coast. The RC-121s, EC-121s and Texas Towers, it was believed, would contribute to extending contiguous east-coast radar coverage some 300 to 500 miles seaward. In terms of the air threat of the 1950s, this meant
3404-866: The 556th Reconnaissance Squadron and moved to Kadena AB , Okinawa. EB-57s were also deployed to Alaskan Air Command , Elmendorf AFB , Alaska, frequently. The 134th Defense Systems Evaluation Squadron , Vermont Air National Guard, retired its last EB-57 in 1983, and the operational use of the B-57 Canberra ended. ADC supported 4-story SAGE blockhouses were hardened for overpressures of 5 psi (34 kPa). NORAD sector direction center (NSDCs) also had air defense artillery director (ADAD) consoles [and an Army] ADA battle staff officer." The sector direction centers automatically communicated crosstelling of "SAGE reference track data" to/from adjacent sectors' DCs and to 10 Project Nike Missile Master Army Air Defense Command Posts . From 1 September 1954 until 1975, ADC
3552-962: The Army Ground Forces and "organization and training of bomber, fighter and other units and crews for assignments overseas". The air districts were redesignated on 26 March 1941 as the First Air Force , Second Air Force , Third Air Force , and Fourth Air Force . The First and Fourth Air Forces, through their interceptor commands, managed the civilian Aircraft Warning Service on the East and West Coasts , respectively. The USAAF's Aircraft Warning Corps provided air defense warning with information centers that networked an area's " Army Radar Stations " which communicated radar tracks by telephone. The AWC information centers also integrated visual reports processed by Ground Observer Corps filter centers. AWC information centers notified air defense command posts of
3700-547: The Auburn - Lewiston area due to falling trees or tree branches. Television antennas were damaged, as were several signs, including a Sears sign. In addition, 25% to 40% of the apple crop was destroyed. After becoming extratropical, the remnants of Donna continued northeastward into New Brunswick , Quebec , and then Labrador . Wind gusts of 53 mph (85 km/h) in Quebec snapped electrical poles and trees. One death occurred when
3848-540: The Connecticut and Rhode Island state line, thus much of the damage in Connecticut was in far eastern sections. Strong winds left 15,000 people without telephone service, while 88,000 homes lost electricity. Along the coast, tides caused beach erosion, inundated streets, and weakened foundations. Four seaside cottages were destroyed. Crop damage was isolated and mainly limited to apples and corn. In Rhode Island ,
3996-795: The Eglin AFB Site C-6 Project Space Track radar (the Eglin phased array's IOC was in 1969, and the North Dakota CMEWS "began passing" PARCS phased array data to NORAD in 1977 after being "modified for the ADCOM mission". After claiming in March 1958 that "the Army's ZEUS did not have the growth potential to handle possible enemy evasion decoy and countermeasure tactics", the USAF similarly identified by early 1959 that its planned Wizard missile
4144-539: The Florida Keys at Conch Key , just northeast of Marathon , with sustained winds of 145 mph (233 km/h) and gusts to 178 mph (286 km/h). The hurricane continued to the northwest along the southwest coast of Florida, weakening due to interaction with the peninsula, before making landfall on Goodland , a short distance east of Marco Island , with winds of 120 mph (190 km/h). Donna then traversed Naples and Fort Myers before turning inland to
4292-633: The Florida Keys but extended northward from Daytona Beach to Savannah, Georgia . At 11 a.m. on September 11, all warnings were lowered south of Vero Beach and along the Florida west coast, while hurricane warnings were extended northward from Savannah to Myrtle Beach. At 5 p.m., hurricane warnings were lowered south of Fernandina Beach, while they were extended northward to include the entire North Carolina coast. Gale warnings were issued northward to Cape May. At 9 p.m., hurricane warnings were extended northward to Portsmouth, New Hampshire , while gale warnings and
4440-478: The Florida Keys , coastal flooding severely damaged 75% of buildings, destroyed several subdivisions in Marathon. On the mainland, 5,200 houses were damaged, which does not include the 75% of homes damaged at Fort Myers Beach ; 50% of buildings were also destroyed in the city of Everglades . Crop losses were also extensive. A total of 50% of the grapefruit crop was lost, 10% of the orange and tangerine crop
4588-523: The Ground Observation Corps (disbanded 1959). In May 1954, ADC moved their initial, rudimentary command center into a "much improved 15,000-square-foot concrete block" building with "main battle control center". During the mid-1950s, planners devised the idea of extending the wall of powerful land-based radar seaward with Airborne early warning and control units. This was done by equipping two wings of Lockheed RC-121 Warning Star aircraft,
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4736-948: The Homestead area were flooded. The storm also overturned 25 mobile homes and caused one death in the city. While telephone service remained mostly uninterrupted, approximately 152,000 people lost electricity. Donna was the first hurricane to affect Miami, Florida, since Hurricane King in October 1950. Although structural damage in and around Miami was generally light, winds shattered windows and uprooted trees. Heavy precipitation inundated streets. Overall, 857 houses in Dade County were destroyed, while about 2,317 others suffered damage. Significant agricultural losses were also reported. About 100 homes in Broward County reported minor damage. In Boca Raton and Delray Beach , damage
4884-510: The Labrador Sea and dissipated early on September 14. At noon on September 3, a hurricane watch was issued for the Leeward Islands , which at 6 p.m. was upgraded to a warning. Also at 6 p.m., hurricane watches were raised for Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands , which at 6 a.m. on September 4, were upgraded to warnings. By 6 a.m. on September 5, hurricane warnings were dropped for
5032-709: The Lesser Antilles , the Greater Antilles , and the East Coast of the United States , especially Florida, in August–September. The fifth tropical cyclone , third hurricane, and first major hurricane of the season, Donna developed south of Cape Verde on August 29, spawned by a tropical wave to which 63 deaths from a plane crash in Senegal were attributed. The depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Donna by
5180-512: The Lesser Antilles . It is estimated that the storm attained hurricane status a day prior. The Azores High to the north was unusually powerful, which caused Donna to move to the west-northwest. When advisories began, Donna was intensifying into a major hurricane, which is the equivalent of a Category 3 or higher on the Saffir-Simpson hurricane wind scale ; it would ultimately maintain this status for nearly eight days. Continuing to
5328-745: The Léopold Sédar Senghor International Airport as a layover . However, due to squally weather, the plane instead crashed into the Atlantic Ocean, killing all 63 people on board. Heavy rainfall was also reported in Cape Verde on August 30. Hurricane Donna caused very extensive damage on Saint-Martin , killed 7 and left at least a quarter of the island's population homeless. A weather station in Sint Maarten reported sustained wind gusts of 125 mph (201 km/h) and
5476-531: The Moorestown BMEWS station "to a Spacetrack Analysis Center at Colorado Springs." On 31 December 1965, Forward Scatter Over-the-Horizon network data from the 440L Data Reduction Center was being received by ADC for missile warning, and a NORAD plan for 1 April 1966 was for ADC to "reorganize its remaining 26th , 28th , 29th , and 73d Air Divisions into four air forces." The 1966 20th Surveillance Squadron began ADC's phased array operations with
5624-494: The New Bedford set out for the platform. As the storm built, USS Wasp , which was in the vicinity, was also dispatched with the intent of evacuating the station via helicopter, shore aircraft being unable to take off. Both ships reached the vicinity but could do no more than watch the station disappear from their radar. No survivors were recovered, though divers were sent down on the chance that some might have been trapped in
5772-653: The P-61 Black Widow , did not have the capabilities to engage the Soviet Tu-4 bomber. Its successor, the F-82 Twin Mustang , was even more disappointing. It took a long time to get into production and did not perform well in inclement weather. The early jet fighters, such as the F-80 Shooting Star and F-84 Thunderjet , lacked all-weather capability and were deemed useless for air defense purposes. Much hope
5920-449: The SAGE system had to be modified when the direct cable connection was eliminated; instead, they were used to provide manual inputs. All the towers were noisy and prone to vibration from the equipment. The relative flexibility of the supports also caused them to shake and sway in response to wind and waves. The frequent and sustained sounding of the platform's foghorns was also an annoyance to
6068-866: The Strategic Air Command 's Directorate of Space and Missile Warning Systems (SAC/SX), ) and the North American Aerospace Defense Command 's Air Force Element, NORAD/ADCOM (AFENA) , which was redesignated the Aerospace Defense Center . The command was inactivated on 31 March 1980. With the disestablishment of TAC and SAC in 1992, the Aerospace Defense Center, the ADCOM specified command organizations, along with SAC's missile warning and space surveillance installations. became part of Air Force Space Command (AFSPC). Air Force Space Command activated its headquarters in
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6216-664: The Tactical Air Command E-3 Sentry in the later 1970s, active-duty units were phased out EC-121 operations by the end of 1975. All remaining EC-121s were transferred to the Air Force Reserve , which formed the 79th AEWCS at Homestead Air Force Base , Florida in early 1976. The active duty force continued to provide personnel to operate the EC-121s on a 24-hour basis, assigning Detachment 1, 20th Air Defense Squadron to Homestead AFB as associate active duty crews to fly
6364-542: The Vietnam War caused by two major ground explosions, twelve B-57Es were reconfigured as combat-capable B-57Bs at the Martin factory in late 1965 and were deployed to Southeast Asia for combat bombardment operations. Six other B-57Es were converted to RB-57E "Patricia Lynn" tactical reconnaissance aircraft in 1966 during the Vietnam War , operating from Tan Son Nhut Air Base until 1971. The Bomarc Missile Program delivered
6512-469: The " 4 continental air forces " for deploying interceptor aircraft which used command guidance for ground-controlled interception . The USAAF inactivated the aircraft warning network in April 1944. Continental Air Forces (CAF) was activated on 12 December 1944, including the four Air Forces, to bring the continental air defense task under one command. AAF Regulation 20-1, dated 15 September 1945, specified
6660-559: The 1950s, went into decline. BOMARC, for example, was dropped from the weapons inventory, and the F-101 and F-102 passed from the regular Air Force inventory into the National Guard. To save funds and manpower, drastic reductions were made in the number of long range radar stations, the number of interceptor squadrons, and in the organizational structure. By 1968 the DOD was making plans to phase down
6808-518: The 1954 Pinetree Line and 1957 Mid-Canada Line .) 64th Air Division personnel were assigned to main stations of the 1957 DEW Line and annually inspected auxiliary/intermediate DEW stations maintained by the "DEW M&O Contractor ." On 1 March 1957 CONAD reduced the number of ADC interceptor squadrons on alert for the Air Defense Identification Zone . "At the end of 1957, ADC operated 182 radar stations…32 had been added during
6956-564: The 4677th DSES was redesignated as the 17th Defense Systems Evaluation Squadron . This unit was inactivated in July 1979 and was the last to fly B-57s in the active duty USAF. It shared the Defense Systems Evaluation mission with the Kansas and Vermont Air National Guard. Defense Systems Evaluation operations were also carried out by the 6091st Reconnaissance Squadron , Yokota AB, Japan; later
7104-812: The 900 ft (270 m) fishing pier was wrecked. A total of 19 cottages and 12 mobile homes at Gordon Pass were damaged beyond repairs. Throughout Naples, Donna demolished 87 homes and damaged 614 others in Everglades City. The Miami News described Vanderbilt Beach as being reduced to "another welter of splintered homes." Throughout Collier County , strong winds and coastal flooding combined destroyed 153 homes, severely damaged 409 others, and caused minor damage to 1,049 dwellings. Donna left about $ 3 million in property damage and two deaths in Fort Myers . A new church in Bradenton
7252-528: The ABM missile fire was considered "the heart of the entire [planned] ballistic missile defense system (conceived to have Nike Zeus and Wizard missiles .) On 19 October 1959, HQ USAF assigned ADC the "planning responsibility" for eventual operations of the Missile Defense Alarm System to detect ICBM launches with infrared sensors on space vehicles. ADC's BMEWS Central Computer and Display Facility
7400-599: The AN/FSQ-7 used the Automatic Target and Battery Evaluation (ATABE) to determine which bombers/formations to assign to which manned interceptor base (e.g., using nuclear air-to-air missiles), which to assign to Bomarcs (e.g., with W-40 nuclear warheads ) and if available, which to assign to the region's Nike Army Air Defense Command Post (that also had ATABE software for efficiently coordinating fire from multiple Hercules missile batteries.) Bomarc missiles bases were along
7548-596: The Air Force was increasingly of the opinion that unmanned intercontinental ballistic missiles could accomplish the mission of the B-70 Valkyrie/F-108 Rapier combination much more effectively and at far lower cost. Consequently, the F-108A project was cancelled in its entirety on 23 September 1959, before any prototypes could be built. In 1968, ADCOM began the phaseout of the F-101 and F-102 interceptors from active duty units, with both types mostly being transferred to
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#17328518025107696-600: The Air National Guard. The F-101 would remain in a limited role on active duty until 1982, serving in such roles as towed target carrier aircraft and simulated enemy radar contacts for Airborne Weapons Controller students training for duties aboard the E-3 Sentry AWACS. The F-102 would see service until the mid-1980s as the PQM-102 aerial target drone. The F-106 Delta Dart was the primary air defense interceptor aircraft for
7844-405: The Atlantic Ocean and continued to move northeastward. The storm struck Long Island , New York , late on September 12 and rapidly weakened inland. On the following day, Donna became extratropical over Maine . On August 29, a tropical wave exited the west coast of Africa near Dakar . That day, it is estimated a tropical depression developed along the wave southeast of Cape Verde . There
7992-419: The Florida Keys disrupted traffic along the Overseas Highway . The Air Force evacuated 90 Boeing B-47 Stratojets from Homestead Air Reserve Base (At that time Homestead AFB). At Cape Canaveral , the threat of the storm caused the launching of two missiles to be postponed. Most flights out of Miami International Airport were canceled during the storm's approach. Officials closed schools in Miami and
8140-480: The Florida Keys, and recommended residents in low-lying areas of the Florida Keys and southwestern Florida to evacuate. Ultimately, about 12,000 people in southern Florida sought refuge in storm shelters, two of which were damaged during the storm. In Miami-Dade County alone, there were 77 storm shelters housing 10,000 people. At 5 p.m. on September 10, gale warnings were extended northward to Myrtle Beach. At 11 p.m., hurricane warnings were lowered in
8288-581: The Florida coast from Key West to Melbourne. The next day, the watches were upgraded to hurricane warnings from Key West to Key Largo, with hurricane watches raised on the west coast northward to Fort Myers, and gale warnings issued from Key Largo to Vero Beach. By September 11, hurricane warnings were in effect for southern Florida from Daytona Beach on the east coast to Cedar Key on the west coast, including Lake Okeechobee. Gale warnings were in place northward from Cedar Key to St. Marks, as well as from Daytona Beach northward to Savannah, Georgia. Evacuations in
8436-412: The Leeward Islands, and at 9 a.m., southwest Puerto Rico and the Virgin Island's hurricane warnings were downgraded to gale warnings . By noon, all remaining hurricane warnings for Puerto Rico were changed to gale warnings. In Puerto Rico, flood warnings were issued on September 5, although some residents in the region did not heed the notice; many returned to their homes after the hurricane passed to
8584-430: The Reserve-owned aircraft. Besides monitoring Cuban waters, these last Warning Stars also operated from NAS Keflavik , Iceland. Final EC-121 operations ended in September 1978. The United States Army Air Forces activated Air Defense Command (ADC) in 1946, with a Numbered Air Force of the former Continental Air Forces , from which it took its mission of air warning and air defense. In September 1947, it became part of
8732-415: The Sabre, the F-86D . Despite the demands its complexity made upon a single pilot, the F-86D was backed by senior Air Force officials. Some 2,504 would be built and it would in time be the most numerous interceptor in the Air Defense Command fleet, with more than 1,000 in service by the end of 1955 The F-86D was not ideal, however; its afterburner consumed a great deal of fuel in getting it to altitude, and
8880-518: The US Air Force during the 1970s and early 1980s. It was also the last dedicated interceptor in U.S. Air Force service to date. It was gradually retired during the 1980s, though the QF-106 drone conversions of the aircraft were used until 1998 as aerial targets under the FSAT program. B-57E Canberra dedicated Air Defense Command target towing aircraft were used for training of F-86D Sabre , F-94C Starfire , and F-89D Scorpion interceptors firing 2.75-inch Mk 4/Mk 40 Folding-Fin Aerial Rockets . Due to
9028-417: The United States, Donna encountered weaker steering currents, turned northwestward, and re-intensified. Early on September 10, Donna made landfall on the Florida Keys with winds of 145 mph (233 km/h), the most severe observed there since 1935 . Donna then weakened as it paralleled the southwestern Florida peninsula, making landfall south of Naples with winds of 120 mph (190 km/h). In
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#17328518025109176-512: The United States, with damages totaling to $ 3.35 billion. Donna crossed directly over United States Air Force radar station Texas Tower 4 , causing severe damage to the structure and leading to its eventual loss in January 1961. Donna was the only hurricane to affect every state along the East Coast with hurricane-force winds. The U.S. state of Florida received the most damage from Hurricane Donna. Portions of southern and western Florida received over 10 in (250 mm) of rainfall from
9324-577: The aircraft would fly attack profile missions at unexpected, random times and attempt to evade coverage by flying at low altitudes and randomly flying in different directions to confuse interceptors. The aircraft were modified to carry electronic countermeasures (ECM) gear to attempt to confuse radar operators. In 1957, the propeller-driven aircraft were phased out and replaced by Martin B-57 medium bombers which were being phased out of Tactical Air Command. Initially RB-57As from reconnaissance units were modified to have their former camera bays refitted to carry out
9472-416: The annex of building P4. Operational BMEWS control of the Thule Site J RCA AN/FPS-50 Radar Sets transferred from RCA to ADC on 5 January 1962 ( the 12MWS activated in 1967.) By 30 June 1962, integration of ADC's BMEWS CC&DF and the SPADATS Center was completed at Ent AFB, and the Air Forces Iceland transferred from Military Air Transport Service to ADC on 1 July 1962. The 9th ADD established
9620-632: The blaze due to high winds. Large tracts of mangrove forest were lost in the western portion of Everglades National Park , while at least 35% of the white heron population in the park were killed. The lodge and marina at Flamingo , as well as a ranger's way station near Cape Sable , were virtually destroyed. Tides from Fort Myers Beach southward ranged between 4 and 7 ft (1.2 and 2.1 m) above normal. In Everglades City , about 50% of buildings were destroyed due to strong winds and coastal flooding, and roofs were blown off or damaged. Floodwaters reached about 7 ft (2.1 m) in height inside
9768-455: The coast felled trees and tree limbs, resulting in electrical and telephone-service outages. In Brunswick, GA , a power outage at the power plant caused a minor explosion. Heavy rainfall temporarily flooded some streets in the city. Further north in South Carolina , gale-force winds were reported along the coast, but caused little damage. An F3 tornado struck areas just north of Downtown Charleston , destroying several houses and severely damaging
9916-407: The coast of New Hampshire , many boats were smashed or damaged in some way. Strong winds felled trees and power lines, causing residents in the southern portions of the state to lose telephone service and electricity. Additionally, apple orchards suffered $ 200,000 in damage. Rainfall in the state peaked at 7.25 inches (184 mm) near Peterborough , resulting in local flooding and washouts. Along
10064-445: The coast, large waves damaged 15 to 20 boats in Falmouth, Maine harbor. Total boat damage was estimated at $ 250,000. Coastal residents in low-lying beach areas of Cumberland and York counties were evacuated in Maine. Several counties lost power during the storm. In Southwest Harbor , lightning struck the Dirigo Hotel, causing a fire that resulted in $ 100,000 in damages. Winds caused a loss of telephone and electrical services in
10212-517: The county. Throughout the state of Florida, the storm destroyed 2,156 homes and trailers, severely damaged 3,903, and inflicted minor impact on 30,524 others. Approximately 391 farm buildings were destroyed, an additional 989 suffered extensive impact, and 2,499 others received minor damage. Roughly 174 buildings were demolished, 1,029 received major impact, and 4,254 suffered minor damage. Additionally, 281 boats were destroyed or severely damaged. A total of 50% of grapefruit crop
10360-428: The crew. Tower 4 was plagued with structural problems from the start. It stood in much deeper water than the other two - 185 feet (56 m), compared to 80 feet (24 m) for Tower 2 - and it was held that the simple cylindrical leg design would not be sturdy enough given the length of the legs. Therefore, three sets of cross braces were added between the legs, attached with pin joints. These made it impossible to tow
10508-423: The current air defense system and transition to a new system which included an Airborne Warning and Control System (AWACS), Over-the-Horizon Backscatter (OTH-B) radar, and an improved F-106 interceptor aircraft. The changing emphasis in the threat away from the manned bomber and to the ballistic missile brought reorganization and reduction in aerospace defense resources and personnel and almost continuous turmoil in
10656-599: The east and west coasts of North America and the central areas of the continent (e.g., Suffolk County Missile Annex was on Long Island, New York .) The supersonic Bomarc missiles were the first long-range anti-aircraft missiles in the world, and the longer range BOMARC B models required less time after erected until they could be launched. "Faker", or simulated target aircraft flew mock penetrations into air defense sectors to exercise GDI stations, Air Defense Direction Centers , and interceptor squadrons. Initially using modified B-25 Mitchell and B-29 Superfortress bombers,
10804-483: The east coast of the state reported hurricane-force winds, while gusts reached up to 89 mph (143 km/h) in Virginia Beach . Strong winds toppled trees and electrical wires, which blocked streets. Additionally, buildings suffered roof damage and broken windows; some structures were completely destroyed. Offshore, rough seas sank or destroyed numerous small crafts, while a 12,000 tonnes (26,000,000 lb) vessel
10952-486: The eastern tip of Long Island. Heavy rains, hurricane-force winds, and "unprecedented" high tides were observed. Severe small stream flooding caused significant damage, especially on Long Island, the waterfront of New York City , and further north in Greene County . The storm caused three fatalities in the state, two from drowning and another from a person crushed by a falling tree. The eye of Hurricane Donna crossed near
11100-459: The eye expanded to over 50 miles (80 km) in diameter. Late on September 12, the hurricane made landfall near Brookhaven, New York , as a low-end Category 2 hurricane with sustained winds of 100 mph (160 km/h). On September 13, Donna became extratropical over northern Maine before entering eastern Canada, having become associated with the approaching cold front. After moving across Quebec and Labrador , Donna reached
11248-511: The first CIM-10 Bomarc supersonic surface-to-air missile to ADC during September 1959 at Fort Dix 's BOMARC Base No. 1 near the missile launch control center on McGuire AFB (groundbreaking for McGuire's Air Defense Direction Center to house the IBM AN/FSQ-7 Combat Direction Central for Bomarc ground-controlled interception had been in 1957.) To ensure probability of kill before bombers could drop their weapons,
11396-555: The floods, the hurricane killed 107 people on the island, of which 84 were in Humacao . In Haiti, the southern periphery of the hurricane killed three people in Port au Prince . Later, Donna brushed the north coast of Cuba with strong winds and heavy rainfall, causing damage along much of the coast. In Gibara , the storm wrecked 80 houses. On Grand Turk in the Turks and Caicos , Donna produced winds of 58 mph (93 km/h), as
11544-462: The following day. Donna moved west-northwestward at roughly 20 mph (32 km/h) and by September 1, it reached hurricane status. Over the next three days, Donna deepened significantly and reached maximum sustained winds of 130 mph (210 km/h) on September 4. Thereafter, it maintained intensity as it struck the Lesser Antilles later that day. On Sint Maarten , the storm left
11692-499: The former, tides inundated the city and destroyed several subdivisions. Storm surge inundated parts of the Overseas Highway . Six bridges between Marathon and Craig Key had been nearly or entirely swept away. Many boats and docks were severely damaged or destroyed. Additionally, the pipeline supplying water to the Florida Keys was wrecked in three places. In Miami-Dade County (then Dade County), thousands of low-lying homes in
11840-516: The high-drag 45' banners but hits could still be scored on them. By 1960, the rocket firing interceptors were giving way to F-102 Delta Dagger interceptors firing heat-seeking AIM-4 Falcon air-to-air missiles. This made the target towing mission of the B-57E obsolete, and the B-57Es were adapted to electronic countermeasures and faker target aircraft (EB-57E) (see below). In order to cover combat losses in
11988-675: The historic Collier County Courthouse , forcing refugees taking shelter in the building to evacuate to the second floor. The city briefly became inaccessible due to inundated roads. Thousands of trees were toppled, blocking portions of the Tamiami Trail . Approximately half of the homes in Chokoloskee were destroyed, while floodwaters entered a number of homes in Ochopee . The community of Immokalee reported about $ 3 million in damage. In Naples , storm surge entered many high-priced homes, while
12136-399: The hurricane, and the area has never recovered. Losses to agriculture were significant, with damage to apple and peach trees "considerable", the former of which lost about one-third of its crops. Wind damage to corn, Sudan grass, and sorghum resulted in a delay in their harvest. Nine deaths were reported in the state of New Jersey. In southeastern New York , the eye of Donna crossed 10 miles to
12284-504: The hurricane, peaking at 13.24 in (336 mm). Strong winds were observed in the state, with a sustained wind speed of 120 mph (190 km/h) in Tavernier and a gusts up to 150 mph (240 km/h) at Sombrero Key Light . In Miami, winds reached 97 mph (156 km/h). Southeast of the city, high waves washed a 104-foot (32 m) freighter onshore an island. The highest observed storm surge of 13 ft (4.0 m)
12432-430: The hurricane. Donna caused a significant negative impact on aquatic life in north Florida Bay . Marine life was either stranded by retreating salt water which had been driven inland or killed by muddied waters in its wake. Oxygen depletion due to animals perishing in the hurricane caused additional mortality. Although salinity levels returned to normal within six weeks, dissolved oxygen concentrations remained quite low for
12580-580: The interceptor squadrons assigned to those bases. The 6th TTS was inactivated by late 1957 and the Canberra trainers were designated a flight of the 8th Bombardment Squadron at Johnson AB. In Europe, USAFE supported a squadron of B-57E gunnery trainers at Wheelus AB , Libya where European-based interceptors deployed for "live firing" over the vast desert range there. To provide challenges for interceptors, The B-57Es towed styrofoam, bomb-shaped radar reflectant targets. These could be towed at higher altitudes than
12728-514: The last half of the 1970s, but while some consideration was given to closing down the major command headquarters altogether and redistributing field resources to other commands, such a move lacked support in the Air Staff. In early 1977 strong Congressional pressure to reduce management "overhead", and the personal conviction of the USAF Chief of Staff that substantial savings could be realized without
12876-458: The last half of the year as low-altitude, unmanned gap-filler radars. The total consisted of 47 gap-filler stations, 75 Permanent System radars, 39 semimobile radars, 19 Pinetree stations ,…1 Lashup[-era] radar and a single Texas Tower ". After the NORAD agreement was signed on 12 May 1958, ADC became a NORAD component. By 30 June 1958, the planned ADC anti-ICBM processing facility to coordinate
13024-522: The latest ECM systems to confuse the defenders. Wing racks, originally designed for bombs, now carried chaff dispensers and the navigator position was replaced with an Electronic Warfare Officer (EWO). The modified B-57s were designated as EB-57 (E for special electronic installation). Considerable realism would be generated into these simulated aggressor attack missions being flown by the B-57 crews. Often several EB-57s were used to form separate tracks and provide
13172-620: The management structure. The headquarters of the Continental Air Defense Command (CONAD) and ADC were combined on 1 July 1973. Six months later in February 1973, ADC was reduced to 20 fighter squadrons and a complete phaseout of air defense missile batteries. Continental Air Command was disestablished on 1 July 1975 and Aerospace Defense Command became a specified command by direction of the JCS. Reductions and reorganizations continued into
13320-484: The nature of air-to-air weapon training requiring a large amount of air space, only a few locations were available for practice ranges. ADC assigned these aircraft to bases close to these large, restricted areas, and fighter-interceptor squadrons deployed to these bases for this type of "hot fire" training which took place in these ranges. The gunnery schools were located at Yuma AFB , Arizona ( 17th Tow Target Squadron (TTS)), and later moved to MacDill AFB , Florida where
13468-424: The newly established United States Air Force . The command become a subordinate organization of Continental Air Command (ConAC) on 1 December 1948. ConAC gradually assumed direct charge of ADC air defense components, and ADC inactivated on 1 July 1950. But five months later, on 10 November 1950, Generals Vandenberg and Twining notified General Ennis C. Whitehead that "the Air Force had approved activation of
13616-503: The next few days, making multiple landfalls in The Bahamas as a Category 3 hurricane. Donna generated severe wind gusts of up to 173 mph (278 km/h) over southern portions of the archipelago nation, and prolific rains affected the country and the nearby Turks and Caicos Islands . Several small island communities in the southern regions of The Bahamas were leveled, but no damage total or fatalities were reported. As it neared
13764-439: The north coast of the island, high tides of around 6 ft (1.8 m) and strong waves caused coastal flooding. The hurricane dropped torrential rainfall, peaking at 16.23 in (412 mm) at Naguabo in the central portion of the island. Large areas of eastern Puerto Rico received over 10 in (250 mm) of precipitation. The hurricane left about 2,500 people homeless on the island. Despite advanced warning of
13912-509: The north. On Vieques Island , about 1,700 United States Marines evacuated to naval ships. Officials advised small boats to remain at port, and thousands of residents evacuated to schools set up as Red Cross shelters. Along the Cuban coast, about 3,000 people evacuated inland or to churches and schools; while in the Bahamas, stores closed and boats were sent to port. Beginning on September 7, hurricane watches were put in place for
14060-530: The northeast. At 0800 UTC on September 11, Donna exited Daytona Beach into the western Atlantic with winds of about 75 mph (121 km/h), still as an organized hurricane. Accelerating to the northeast due to an approaching trough, the hurricane re-intensified slightly before making landfall near Wilmington, North Carolina , early on September 12 with winds of 105 mph (169 km/h). At 0900 UTC that day, Donna again emerged over open waters near Virginia, although it had weakened, and
14208-519: The pilot was overburdened by cockpit tasks. The F-89D was modified to accept AIM-4 Falcon guided missiles (F-89H) and AIR-2 Genie atomic warhead rockets (F-89J) as armament. The F-86D was modified (F-86L) to include an FDDL SAGE data link that permitted automatic ground control. The F-86L and F-89H became available in 1956, and the F-89J in 1957. The first of the Century Series supersonic interceptors
14356-420: The platform on the level; instead, the structure was laid on its side for transport and then tipped upright at the site. These braces proved to be frail and the joints prone to loosening: two braces broke loose during transport, and a third was lost when the tower was being placed on the bottom. Divers were brought in several times to inspect the structure and to perform repairs, and an additional set of crossbraces
14504-689: The platform. UHF and VHF equipment allowed communication with ships and aircraft as well as providing a backup to the microwave link. Five towers were planned, in an array off the New England/mid-Atlantic coast. The most northerly two proposed were dropped from plans due to budgetary constraints. Logistical support for all three towers was provided by the 4604th Support Squadron , based out of Otis AFB and specifically constituted for this mission. They were originally equipped with H-21B helicopters, which were replaced with three Sikorsky SH-3 helicopters acquired in 1962. The USNS New Bedford
14652-480: The post-war CAF mission. For aircraft warning, in 1945 CAF had recommended "research and development be undertaken on radar and allied equipment for an air defense system [for] the future threat", e.g., a "radar [with] range of 1,000 miles, [to detect] at an altitude of 200 miles, and at a speed of 1,000 miles per hour". HQ AAF responded that "until the kind of defense needed to counter future attacks could be determined, AC&W planning would have to be restricted to
14800-675: The proposed system". (In the spring and summer of 1947, 3 ADC AC&W plans had gone unfunded. ) By 1948 there were only 5 AC&W stations, including the Twin Lights station in NJ that opened in June and Montauk NY "Air Warning Station #3 (5 July) -- cf. SAC radar stations , e.g., at Dallas & Denver Bomb Plots . ADC became a subordinate operational command of Continental Air Command on 1 December 1948 and on 27 June 1950, United States air defense systems began 24-hour operations two days after
14948-550: The salt. However, in other areas, 4 to 6 inches (100 to 150 mm) of precipitation fell, causing some washouts and local flooding. Waves along the coast ripped small boats and pleasure craft from their moorings and subsequently smashed them against rocks or seawalls. In Vermont , winds damaged trees, tree branches, and power lines, causing telephone and electrical service outages in a few communities. Rainfall totals ranged 2–5 inches (51–127 mm), resulting in washouts in some areas. Damage to apple orchards totaled $ 50,000. Along
15096-533: The same Chidlaw Building where ADCOM had been inactivated. ADC had four day-type fighter squadrons (FDS) in 1946. The ADC interceptor force grew to ninety-three (93) active Air Force fighter interceptor squadrons, seventy-six (76) Air National Guard fighter interceptor squadrons, several U.S. Navy fighter squadrons, USAF and USN airborne early warning squadrons, radar squadrons, training squadrons, and numerous support units that have played important roles in our nation's defense. The first ADC interceptor,
15244-435: The sea surface by 67 feet (20 m). Radar and other equipment were then installed on location. The platform itself contained two floors housing the living areas; two of the legs held fuel oil for diesel generators, while the third held the intake for the desalination unit. The platform roof served as a helicopter landing area. A rotary gantry was suspended from the platform to allow servicing of its underside. Each platform
15392-525: The start of the Korean War . By the time ADC was inactivated on 1 July 1950, ADC had deployed the Lashup Radar Network with existing radars at 43 sites. In addition, 36 Air National Guard fighter units were called to active duty for the mission. ADC was reinstated as a major command on 1 January 1951 at Mitchel Air Force Base , New York. A rudimentary command centre was established that year from
15540-781: The state was reported after a boy was swept into a swollen creek behind his home in Sharon Hill . Winds as strong as 100 mph (160 km/h) were observed along the coast of New Jersey. Rainfall in the state was generally between 5 and 6 inches (130 and 150 mm), with a peak of 8.99 inches (228 mm) near Hammonton . Damage from the storm was most severe in Atlantic , Cape May , Monmouth , and Ocean counties, where numerous boats, docks, boardwalks, and cottages were damaged or destroyed. A resort area in Cliffwood Beach, New Jersey saw its boardwalk and tourist attractions destroyed by
15688-664: The state. An F1 tornado damaged several small buildings in Bladen County . An F2 tornado in Sampson County destroyed a dwelling with eight occupants, all of whom were hospitalized. Along the coast, wind gusts as high as 100 mph (160 km/h) damaged or destroyed several buildings. Additionally crops were damaged as far as 50 miles (80 km) inland. Storm tides ranging from 4 to 8 feet (1.2 to 2.4 m) above normal caused significant beach erosion and structural damage at Wilmington and Nags Head . Additionally, Topsail Beach
15836-580: The storm brought a wind gust as strong as 130 mph (210 km/h) to Block Island . Telephone and electrical services were severely disrupted. Along the coast, high tides significantly damaged or destroyed about 200 homes at Narragansett Bay and Warwick cove. Damage to these vessels collectively totaled to over $ 2 million. Agriculture also suffered impact, particularly to fruit, timber, and poultry, especially in Newport and Portsmouth . Strong winds were also observed in Massachusetts , with
15984-600: The storm in Delaware were similar, with property damage and considerable losses to corn and apple crops. In Pennsylvania , wind gusts up to 59 mph (95 km/h) in the southeastern portions of the state toppled many trees and utility wires. Heavy rains and poor drainage in some areas flooded basements, lawns, and streets. Low-lying areas in Bucks and Montgomery counties were inundated with up to 3 feet (0.91 m) of water after many streams and creeks nearby overflowed. One death in
16132-476: The strongest winds remained north of the island. However, the storm dropped heavy rainfall of over 20 in (510 mm), much of which fell in a 12‑hour period. Despite the rains, damage there was minor. In the Bahamas, the anemometer at Ragged Island blew away after registering a 150 mph (240 km/h) wind gust. At Mayaguana, where residents evacuated to a missile tracking base, hurricane-force winds raged for 13 hours. The winds largely destroyed
16280-460: The temporary 1962 " Cuban Missile Early Warning System " for the missile crisis . Responsibility for a USAFSS squadron's AN/FPS-17 radar station in Turkey for missile test monitoring transferred to ADC on 1 July 1963 , the same date the site's AN/FPS-79 achieved IOC. By January 1963, ADC's Detachment 3 of the 9th Aerospace Defense Division (9th ADD) was providing space surveillance data from
16428-523: The tower was never built because of improvements to radar over the area. The loss of Tower 4, together with the increasing emphasis on ICBMs as the predominant threat, led a reassessment of the remaining towers. Escape capsules were added to the two remaining towers, allowing rapid evacuation. Shortly thereafter it was decided to close the remaining towers, and the electronic equipment was removed. Both platforms were expected to be returned to shore for scrap, but Tower 2 sank and could not be recovered. Tower 3
16576-932: The training continued over the Gulf of Mexico . With the move to Florida, the 3d TTS was formed at George AFB , California which performed training over the Mojave Desert in Southern California. Additional units were located at Biggs AFB , near El Paso, Texas (1st TTS) and the 4756th TTS was located at Tyndall AFB , Florida to support the Fighter Weapons Center located there. ADC also supported overseas training at Johnson AB , Japan (the 6th Tow Target Squadron). From Johnson AB, B-57Es deployed to Clark AB , Philippines; Andersen AFB , Guam, Naha AB , Okinawa and Itazuke AB , Misawa AB and Yokota AB , all in Japan for training of
16724-469: The transfer at CAF HQ in the expectation that 'it would become Air Defense Command.' CAF installations that were transferred to ADC included Mitchel Field (21 March 1946), Hamilton Army Airfield (21 March 1946), Myrtle Beach Army Air Field (27 March 1946), Shaw Field (1 April 1946), McChord Field (1 August 1946), Grandview Army Air Field (1 January 1952), Seymour Johnson Field (1 April 1956), and Tyndall Field (1 July 1957). Air Defense Command
16872-507: The use of available radar sets ". CAF's January 1946 Radar Defense Report for Continental United States recommended military characteristics for a post-war Air Defense System "based upon such advanced equipment", and the HQ AAF Plans reminded "the command that radar defense planning had to be based on the available equipment." Reorganization of Continental Air Forces began in 1945, when ground radar and interceptor plans were prepared for
17020-543: The village of Abraham's Bay on the island. Andros experienced hurricane-force winds for a few hours, and winds on Fortune Island were estimated at 173 mph (278 km/h) before the anemometer blew away. The strongest winds remained south of the northwestern Bahamas, which limited damage there. Donna cut communications between several islands. Several small island communities in the southern Bahamas were leveled. North Caicos reported 20 inches (510 mm) of rainfall in 24 hours. There were 50 people reported dead in
17168-417: The water and was blown to shore clinging to a fallen branch driven by the high winds. It was an exploit which foreshadowed his fearless, or even reckless, state of mind to dive into the unknown. The winds of Donna can be seen in the feature film Blast of Silence (1961); the final scenes on Long Island had been previously scheduled, and the filmmakers decided to go ahead and shoot the exterior scene despite
17316-512: The west as a ridge built to its north, and it soon weakened back to Category 3 status. Over the next few days, the intense hurricane moved slowly through the southern Bahamas without defined steering currents, and the eye passed near or over Mayaguana , Acklins , Fortune Island , and Ragged Island . While passing through the Straits of Florida , Donna brushed the northern coast of Cuba on September 9 with gale-force winds. Subsequently,
17464-433: The west-northwest, Donna strengthened further, attaining maximum sustained winds of 125 mph (201 km/h) at 00:00 UTC on September 4—an intensity it maintained for two more days. Operationally, winds were estimated to be 145 mph (233 km/h). Late on September 4, the eye of Donna moved over Barbuda , Saint Barthélemy , Saint Martin , and Anguilla , and passed just south of Anegada . Donna
17612-450: The wreckage. Twenty-eight airmen and civilian contractors perished. Only two bodies were recovered. Texas Tower 5 was planned to be built on Brown's Bank, 35 nautical miles (65 km; 40 mi) south of the coast of Nova Scotia in 84 feet (26 m) of water. The 4604th Support Group was supposed to be located at Pease Air Force Base , New Hampshire . The USAF approved the construction of Tower #5 on January 11, 1954, but
17760-569: Was "first conceived—and rejected—in 1946". A 1947 proposal for 411 radar stations and 18 control centers costing $ 600 million was the Project Supremacy plan for a postwar Radar Fence that was rejected by Air Defense Command since "no provision was made in it for the Alaska to Greenland net with flanks guarded by aircraft and picket ships [required] for 3 to 6 hours of warning time", and "Congress failed to act on legislation required to support
17908-565: Was "not cost effective" against ICBM warheads. —the Army Zeus deployed successors against ICBMs (SAFEGUARD System, 1975–6) and space vehicles ( Johnston Atoll, 1962–75 ). After tests of the 1959 High Virgo (at Explorer 5 ), 1959 Bold Orion ( Explorer 6 ), and 1963 Project 505 ( Nike Zeus ) anti-satellite tests (the latter's nuclear burst destroyed a satellite), the Air Force Systems Command ASM-135 ASAT collided with
18056-524: Was a component of the unified Continental Air Defense Command (CONAD) along with the Army's ARAACOM (1957 ARADCOM) and until 1965, the Navy's NAVFORCONAD . The USAF as the executive CONAD agent initially used ADC's: ADC'a Permanent System radar stations were used for CONAD target data, along with Navy picket ships ( Atlantic and Pacific Barrier until 1965) and Army Project Nike "target acquisition radars". A CONAD reorganization that started in 1956 created
18204-766: Was a lack of data for several days, but it is estimated that the system gradually intensified. On September 2, ships in the region suggested there was a tropical storm after reporting winds of over 50 mph (80 km/h ). That day, the Hurricane Hunters flew into the system and observed a well-defined eye , along with winds of 140 mph (230 km/h). Based on the data, the United States Weather Bureau office in San Juan, Puerto Rico , initiated advisories on Hurricane Donna at 22:00 UTC on September 2, about 700 miles (1,100 km) east of
18352-606: Was a major command of the United States Air Force , responsible for air defense of the continental United States . It was activated in 1968 and disbanded in 1980. Its predecessor, Air Defense Command , was established in 1946, briefly inactivated in 1950, reactivated in 1951, and then redesignated Aerospace rather than Air in 1968. Its mission was to provide air defense of the Continental United States (CONUS). It directly controlled all active measures, and
18500-470: Was a very destructive hurricane that caused extensive damage from the Lesser Antilles to New England. At least 364 people were killed by the hurricane and property damage was estimated at $ 900 million (1960 USD). The precursor to Hurricane Donna brought severe weather to the Dakar area of Senegal . Air France Flight 343 , which was flying from Paris , France to Abidjan , Ivory Coast, attempted to land at
18648-514: Was activated on 21 March 1946 with the former CAF Fourth Air Force, the inactive Tenth Air Force , and the tbd's Fourteenth Air Force . Second Air Force was reactivated and added on 6 June 1946. In December 1946 the "Development of Radar Equipment for Detecting and Countering Missiles of the German A-4 type " was planned, part of the Signal Corps ' Project 414A . The Distant Early Warning Line
18796-529: Was anticipated. However, by mid-1959, the Air Force was already beginning to experience some doubts about the high cost of the Rapier program. The primary strategic threat from the Soviet Union was now perceived to be its battery of intercontinental ballistic missiles instead of its force of long-range bombers. Against intercontinental ballistic missiles, the F-108A interceptor would be completely useless. In addition,
18944-625: Was built as an austere network center (instead of for coordinating anti-ICBM fire) which "at midnight on 30 September I960…achieved initial operational capability " (IOC). On 1 July 1961 for space surveillance, ADC took over the Laredo Test Site and the Trinidad Air Station from Rome Air Development Center . The " 1st Aero" cadre at the Hanscom AFB NSSCC moved 496L System operations in July 1961 to Ent's " SPADATS Center" in
19092-513: Was decided to reduce staffing to a skeleton crew and prepare to dismantle the station. The site could not simply be abandoned for fear that the Soviets would board it and remove sensitive equipment and documentation. Dismantling of the tower was therefore protracted. At the approach of another storm in January 1961, evacuation of the station was impeded by the inability of the commander to make contact with any of his three immediate superiors; nonetheless
19240-762: Was destroyed, while much of the city was left without power. In Winter Haven , 13 homes were destroyed, 100 others suffered major damage, and 2,400 dwellings experienced minor damage. One person was killed in the city. The turn into southern Florida lessened damage in the Tampa area. High winds deroofed in armory building in Dade City sheltering 150 people. In Volusia County , Donna destroyed 10 homes, severely damaged 112 homes, and caused minor damage to 1,100 others, while 25 buildings were demolished, 400 substantially damaged, and inflicted minor damage to 750 others. One fatality occurred in
19388-480: Was driven aground. The storm killed three people in Virginia; two of the deaths occurred when a barge collided with a freighter and later sank, and another after a man attempted to safeguard his boat. Strong winds and heavy rains were observed in eastern Maryland . Ocean City suffered the worst impact, with over $ 300,000 in property damage. The storm also damaged crops in the area, especially corn and apples. Effects from
19536-523: Was equipped with one AN/FPS-3 (later upgraded to AN/FPS-20 ) search radar and two AN/FPS-6 height finder radars, each housed in a separate spherical neoprene radome 55 feet (17 m) in diameter. Originally the towers were to be linked to shore by submarine cable, but this was eventually rejected as too costly; the AN/FRC-56 tropospheric scatter microwave link was installed instead, with an array of three parabolic antennas attached to one edge of
19684-424: Was installed immediately below the platform, above the waterline, in 1960. Crewmen were frequently seasick from the swaying, and Tower 4 was nicknamed "Old Shaky". On September 12, 1960, Hurricane Donna passed over Tower 4, causing severe structural damage, including the loss of the flying bridge hanging beneath the platform, and one of the communications dishes. After assessment of the damage and initial repairs it
19832-465: Was intended to serve as a long-range interceptor that could destroy attacking Soviet bombers over the poles before they could get near US territory. It was also to serve as the escort fighter for the XB-70 Valkyrie Mach-3 strategic bomber, also to be built by North American. The Air Force expected that the first F-108A would be ready for service by early 1963. An order for no less than 480 F-108s
19980-517: Was lost, 10% of the orange and tangerine crops were ruined, and the avocado crop was almost destroyed. With at least $ 350 million in damage in Florida alone, Donna was the costliest hurricane to impact the state, at the time. Additionally, there were 14 confirmed fatalities: six from drowning, four from heart attacks, two from automobile accidents, and two from electrocution. About 1,188 others were injured. The storm brought minor impact to Georgia . Wind gusts of 50 mph (80 km/h) along
20128-897: Was lost, and the avocado crop was almost destroyed. In the state of Florida alone, there were 13 deaths and $ 300 million in losses. Donna weakened over Florida and was a Category 1 hurricane when it re-emerged into the Atlantic from North Florida . By early on September 12, the storm made landfall near Topsail Beach, North Carolina , as a Category 2 hurricane. Donna brought tornadoes and wind gusts up to 100 mph (160 km/h), damaging or destroying several buildings in Eastern North Carolina , while crops were damaged as far as 50 miles (80 km) inland. Additionally, storm surge caused significant beach erosion and structural damage at Wilmington and Nags Head . Eight people were killed and there were over 100 injuries. Later on September 12, Donna reemerged into
20276-458: Was mostly limited to downed billboard signs and shattered windows. Boynton Beach observed wind gusts up to 70 mph (110 km/h) at the inlet . Storm surge covered State Road A1A with mud and sand. In North Palm Beach , winds shattered a few windows and destroyed a shopping center sign. A fire destroyed a cocktail lounge in Juno Beach after response teams were unable to extinguish
20424-678: Was placed on two jet-powered interceptors, the XP-87 Blackhawk and the XP-89 Scorpion . (Designations changed to XF-87 and XF-89.) They, in turn, also proved to be inadequate: the XF-87 was cancelled and the Scorpion underwent extensive redesign. The first-generation jets gave way to all-weather dedicated interceptor jets. The F-94 Starfire was pressed into service as an "interim" interceptor, and North American in 1949 pushed an interceptor version of
20572-491: Was reported at Marathon. The hurricane also lashed Southwest Florida , where tides were 4 to 7 feet (1.2 to 2.1 m) above normal. In the Florida Keys, some areas experienced "almost complete destruction". In Key West , one death was confirmed, and 71 people were injured. About 564 homes were demolished, and an additional 1,382 were damaged, 583 of them severely. Farther north, an estimated 75% of buildings were extensively damaged between Marathon and Tavernier. In
20720-574: Was reported to have been 50% destroyed. In Southport , the town docks were almost completely demolished. There were eight deaths, including three from drowning, two from falling trees, two from weather-related traffic accidents, and one from electrocution. At least 100 people were injured enough to require hospitalization. Damage in North Carolina exceeded $ 5 million, with the worst impact occurring in New Hanover County . In Virginia,
20868-424: Was set to begin in April 1967 at Z-50, Saratoga Springs".) As the space mission grew the command changed its name, effective 15 January 1968, to Aerospace Defense Command , or ADCOM. Under ADCOM, emphasis went to systems for ballistic missile detection and warning and space surveillance, and the atmospheric detection and warning system, which had been in an almost continuous state of expansion and improvement since
21016-579: Was stationed for training in the Northeast. The 4713th also deployed frequently to USAFE in West Germany for training of NATO forces. The other was the 4677th Defense Systems Evaluation Squadron , which concentrated on Fighter Interceptor Squadron training for units in the Western United States. In 1974, the 4713th DSES was inactivated and its EB-57s were divided between two Air National Guard units and
21164-506: Was tasked to coordinate all passive means of air defense. Continental United States air defense forces during World War II were initially under the command of the four air districts – Northeast Air District , Northwest Air District , Southeast Air District , and Southwest Air District . The air districts were established on 16 January 1941, before the Pearl Harbor attack . The four air districts also handled USAAF combat training with
21312-626: Was the F-102A Delta Dagger in 1956, followed by the F-104A Starfighter in 1958. The F-101B Voodoo and F-106 Delta Dart were first received by ADC during the first half of 1959. By 1960, the ADC interceptor force was composed of the F-101, F-104, F-106, and the F-102. The North American F-108 Rapier was the first proposed successor to the F-106. It was to be capable of Mach 3 performance and
21460-424: Was then filled with foam before being knocked off its support, and it was successfully returned to shore and dismantled. The wreckage of Towers 2 and 4 remains in place on the ocean floor. Radar coverage was taken over by alterations to EC-121 airborne early warning flights based out of Otis Air Force Base . Aerospace Defense Command 1951 January 8: Ent AFB , Colorado Aerospace Defense Command
21608-569: Was then well-organized, described in the Monthly Weather Review as akin to "an intense, idealized hurricane." A weakening trough to the north turned the hurricane more northwesterly, bringing it within 85 miles (137 km) of the north coast of Puerto Rico . The storm then underwent further intensification to Category 4 status on September 6, and reached its first peak of 145 mph (233 km/h) by 00:00 UTC on September 7. At that time, Donna began turning more to
21756-589: Was used to supply the stations, with transfer being effected with a platform called the "donut", consisting of an inflated rubber ring surmounted by a railing, which was lowered from the platform to the waiting ship's deck. These transfers could only take place at slack tide, when the ship could maintain position. Texas Tower 2 was the first to become operational, starting limited service in May 1956. It became fully operational in 1958, as did Tower 3; Tower 4 followed in April 1959. The original plan to integrate these radars into
21904-491: Was witnessed four hours after the storm went by Digby Neck. Because of storm's devastating impact, the name Donna was retired following the 1960 season, and will never again be used for another Atlantic hurricane. The name was replaced with Dora for the 1964 season , which was also retired after the said season. Nobel Prize -winner John Steinbeck wrote about Hurricane Donna in his 1962 non-fiction memoir Travels with Charley: In Search of America . Steinbeck had had
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