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67-525: General Motors developed the Titan in response to the need for more efficient haul trucks by open pit mine operators. GM believed that a general decrease in mineral ore quality combined with a projected need to mine tar shale and tar sands would increase the quantity of ore hauled by surface mine operators' trucks, worldwide. The Titan was the largest in the Terex 33 series of off-road haul trucks, which also included

134-505: A rectifier to General Motors model D79CF traction motors at each of the four paired rear wheels. The Titan utilized a power, all-wheel steering system. The front wheels swept through a 71-degree arc. At a preset point as the front wheels moved off-center, the eight rear wheels would also begin to steer, moving up to a maximum of 10 degrees off center. The Titan required ten 40.00x57 tires . In Haim Saban's Power Rangers Megaforce , adapted from Saburo Hatte's Goseiger (©2012), Robo Knight,

201-447: A mine that contribute to this load: drilling , blasting, loading, and hauling . Waste rock is hauled to a waste dump. Waste dumps can be piled at the surface of the active pit, or in previously mined pits. Leftover waste from processing the ore is called tailings , and is generally in the form of a slurry . This is pumped to a tailings dam or settling pond, where the water is reused or evaporated. Tailings dams can be toxic due to

268-429: A number of worked-out mines. After mining ends at a location, the mine area may undergo land rehabilitation . Waste dumps are contoured to flatten them out, to further stabilize them. If the ore contains sulfides it is usually covered with a layer of clay to prevent ingress of rain and oxygen from the air, which can oxidize the sulfides to produce sulfuric acid , a phenomenon known as acid mine drainage . This

335-399: A panorama of Nicklaus standing amidst several of Terex' then-current products. The Titan has a payload capacity of 350 short tons (320  t ), a net vehicle weight of 509,500 pounds (231,100 kg) and a gross vehicle weight of 1,209,500 pounds (548,600 kg). Fully loaded, the Titan had a top speed of 29.8 mph (48.0 km/h). At the time of its construction in 1973, the Titan

402-477: A result of room and pillar mining . Untopping removes the overburden from above this, opens up the mine from above, and then allows the previously 'trapped' minerals to be won. Untopping was a feature of Welsh slate workings in the 1930s and 2000s, where Martyn Williams-Ellis, manager at Llechwedd found that earlier Victorian workings could be kept profitable with the newly mechanised techniques for bulk excavation to extract their pillars, and more recently across

469-415: A rotating magnet, called the rotor , turns within a stationary set of conductors, called the stator , wound in coils on an iron core. The field cuts across the conductors, generating an induced EMF (electromotive force), as the mechanical input causes the rotor to turn. The rotating magnetic field induces an AC voltage in the stator windings. Since the currents in the stator windings vary in step with

536-416: A small amount of electricity, just enough to excite the field coils of the connected alternator to generate electricity. A variation of this system is a type of alternator that uses direct current from a battery for initial excitation upon start-up, after which the alternator becomes self-excited. This method of excitation consists of a smaller alternating-current (AC) generator fixed on the same shaft as

603-498: A stationary magnetic field is used. In principle, any AC electrical generator can be called an alternator, but usually, the term refers to small rotating machines driven by automotive and other internal combustion engines. An alternator that uses a permanent magnet for its magnetic field is called a magneto . Alternators in power stations driven by steam turbines are called turbo-alternators. Large 50 or 60 Hz three-phase alternators in power plants generate most of

670-486: A tourist attraction. The Titan is on static display off Highway 3 in Titan Park, 126B Aspen Drive, Sparwood, British Columbia, Canada. Although the 33-19 "Titan" was restored, the engine has been removed. The Titan played a starring role in a 1977 Terex television commercial alongside golfing great Jack Nicklaus . The commercial opens with Nicklaus standing in the loaded bed of the Titan, hitting golf balls, and ends with

737-487: Is N = 120 f / P {\displaystyle N=120f/P} , where f {\displaystyle f} is the frequency in Hz (cycles per second). P {\displaystyle P} is the number of poles (2, 4, 6, …), and N {\displaystyle N} is the rotational speed in revolutions per minute (r/min). Old descriptions of alternating current systems sometimes give

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804-450: Is a crucial aspect of determining whether or not a geotechnical engineering design for open-pit slopes is attainable. Groundwater control systems, which include dewatering and depressurization wells, may also have a large impact on local groundwater. Because of this, an optimization-based version of the control system is required to ensure that local and regional hydro-geological impacts are within acceptable ranges. Open Pit depressurization

871-442: Is a type of alternator that uses direct current from a battery for initial excitation upon start-up, after which the alternator becomes self-excited. This method depends on residual magnetism retained in the iron core to generate a weak magnetic field, which would allow a weak voltage to be generated. This voltage is used to excite the field coils so the alternator can generate stronger voltage as part of its build up process. After

938-509: Is determined by the size of the equipment being used, generally 20–40 metres wide. Downward ramps are created to allow mining on a new level to begin. This new level will become progressively wider to form the new pit bottom. Most walls of the pit are generally mined on an angle less than vertical. Waste rock is stripped when the pit becomes deeper, therefore this angle is a safety precaution to prevent and minimize damage and danger from rock falls. However, this depends on how weathered and eroded

1005-409: Is fed into the rotating field coils through the voltage regulator (VR). This increases the magnetic field around the field coils, which induces a greater voltage in the armature coils. Thus, the output voltage is brought back up to its original value. Alternators used in central power stations also control the field current to regulate reactive power and to help stabilize the power system against

1072-448: Is that a small DC exciter current indirectly controls the output of the main alternator. Another way to classify alternators is by the number of phases of their output voltage. The output can be single phase or polyphase. Three-phase alternators are the most common, but polyphase alternators can be two-phase, six-phase, or more. The revolving part of alternators can be the armature or the magnetic field. The revolving armature type has

1139-401: Is the process of removing tensions or pressure from different areas of a mine. Depressurization helps to make open-pit mines more stable and secure. By using an integrated mine slope depressurization program the likelihood that mine plans can be achieved, and at an acceptable level of risk increase drastically. Depressurization allows considerable expansions of a mine, and can extend the life of

1206-559: Is then generally covered with soil , and vegetation is planted to help consolidate the material. Eventually this layer will erode, but it is generally hoped that the rate of leaching or acid will be slowed by the cover such that the environment can handle the load of acid and associated heavy metals. There are no long term studies on the success of these covers due to the relatively short time in which large-scale open-pit mining has existed. It may take hundreds to thousands of years for some waste dumps to become "acid neutral" and stop leaching to

1273-474: The Alexanderson alternator were developed as longwave radio transmitters around World War 1 and used in a few high power wireless telegraphy stations before vacuum tube transmitters replaced them. A conductor moving relative to a magnetic field develops an electromotive force (EMF) in it ( Faraday's Law ). This EMF reverses its polarity when it moves under magnetic poles of opposite polarity. Typically,

1340-634: The Lusatian Lake District , the Central German Lake District or the Upper Palatinate Lake District. A particular concern in the formation of these lakes is acid mine drainage . Open-pit mines create a significant amount of waste. Almost one million tons of ore and waste rock can move from the largest mines per day, and a couple thousand tons moved from small mines per day. There are generally four main operations in

1407-574: The Philippines and Indonesia . In 2024, nickel mining and processing was one of the main causes of deforestation in Indonesia . Open-pit cobalt mining has led to deforestation and habitat destruction in the Democratic Republic of Congo . Open-pit mines operating in an area with heavy groundwater features may eventually face hydrology-related problems. This includes heaving and bursting of

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1474-418: The mineral resource is exhausted, or an increasing ratio of overburden to ore makes further mining uneconomic. After open-pit mines are closed, they are sometimes converted to landfills for disposal of solid waste. Some form of water control is usually required to keep the mine pit from becoming a lake. Several former open-pit mines have been deliberately converted into artificial lakes, forming areas such as

1541-401: The prime mover turns an alternator which provides electricity for the traction motors (AC or DC). The traction alternator usually incorporates integral silicon diode rectifiers to provide the traction motors with up to 1,200 volts DC. The first diesel electric locomotives, and many of those still in service, use DC generators as, before silicon power electronics, it was easier to control

1608-510: The 33-19 "Titan" never materialized and the prototype was the only unit ever assembled. Terex put the Titan into service with Kaiser Steel at its iron mine at Eagle Mountain, California , in January 1975. The Titan experienced frequent downtime , but hauled approximately 3.5 million tons of earth over the course of its four years of service at the Eagle Mountain mine. In late 1978, the Titan

1675-757: The 33–03, 33–05, 33–07, 33–09, 33-11 and the 33–15. The 33-19 and the 33-15 both used diesel/AC electric powertrains, while the other, smaller members of the 33 series of haul trucks used mechanical powertrains. The Titan was assembled at the General Motors Diesel Division's assembly plant in London, Ontario , Canada , in 1973. The Titan was first shown to the public in October 1974 at the American Mining Congress in Las Vegas, NV . GM predicted that when

1742-610: The Megaforce Rangers' Silver robotic ally, utilizes the Titan. After converting to his Lion Zord mode in his giant form, Robo Knight merges with the Titan to become the Lion Mechazord. Open-pit mining Open-pit mining , also known as open-cast or open-cut mining and in larger contexts mega-mining , is a surface mining technique that extracts rock or minerals from the earth. Open-pit mines are used when deposits of commercially useful ore or rocks are found near

1809-399: The Titan entered regular production, it would cost approximately US$ 1.5 million in 1976 (or $ 8 million today). However, the Titan never entered regular production. The worldwide coal market softened in the late 1970s, causing coal mines to decrease production and economize by rebuilding existing equipment or purchasing smaller haul trucks with proven operational records. The projected market for

1876-480: The Titan had an uptime rate of more than 70% and regularly hauled loads exceeding 350 short tons (320  t ). Westar Mining retired the Titan from service in 1991. After acquiring the Sparwood Mine in late 1992, Teck Corporation offered the Titan for preservation as a public monument in 1993. The Sparwood, British Columbia Chamber of Commerce completed a fund raising effort, restored the Titan, and promotes it as

1943-442: The alternator. The AC stator generates a small amount of field coil excitation current, which is induced in the rotor and rectified to DC by a bridge rectifier built in to the windings where it excites the field coils of the larger connected alternator to generate electricity. This system has the advantage of not requiring brushes, which increases service life, although with a slightly lower overall efficiency. A variation of this system

2010-402: The areas surrounding open-pit mines. Open-pit gold mining is one of the highest potential mining threats on the environment as it affects the air and water chemistry. The exposed dust may be toxic or radioactive, making it a health concern for the workers and the surrounding communities. Open-pit nickel mining has led to environmental degradation and pollution in developing countries such as

2077-438: The armature wound on the rotor, where the winding moves through a stationary magnetic field. The revolving armature type is not often used. The revolving field type has a magnetic field on the rotor to rotate through a stationary armature winding. The advantage is that then the rotor circuit carries much less power than the armature circuit, making the slip ring connections smaller and less costly; only two contacts are needed for

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2144-410: The battery to adjust the charging voltage and an over-temperature sensor on the actual alternator to protect it from overheating. High-frequency alternators of the variable-reluctance type were applied commercially to radio transmission in low-frequency radio bands. These were used for transmitting Morse code and, experimentally, for transmitting voice and music. In the Alexanderson alternator , both

2211-446: The cost of the magnet material. Since the permanent magnet field is constant, the terminal voltage varies directly with the speed of the generator. Brushless AC generators are usually larger than those used in automotive applications. An automatic voltage control device controls the field current to keep the output voltage constant. If the output voltage from the stationary armature coils drops due to an increase in demand, more current

2278-418: The direct-current rotor, whereas often a rotor winding has three phases, and multiple sections which would each require a slip-ring connection. The stationary armature can be wound for any convenient medium voltage level, up to tens of thousands of volts; manufacture of slip ring connections for more than a few thousand volts is costly and inconvenient. Many alternators are cooled by ambient air, forced through

2345-401: The effects of momentary faults . Often, there are three sets of stator windings, physically offset so that the rotating magnetic field produces a three phase current, displaced by one-third of a period with respect to each other. One cycle of alternating current is produced each time a pair of field poles passes over a point on the stationary winding. The relation between speed and frequency

2412-463: The enclosure by an attached fan on the shaft that drives the alternator. In vehicles such as transit buses, a heavy demand on the electrical system may require a large alternator to be oil-cooled. In marine applications water-cooling is also used. Expensive automobiles may use water-cooled alternators to meet high electrical system demands. Most power generation stations use synchronous machines as their generators. The connection of these generators to

2479-472: The environment. The dumps are usually fenced off to prevent livestock denuding them of vegetation. The open pit is then surrounded with a fence , to prevent access, and it generally eventually fills up with ground water . In arid areas it may not fill due to deep groundwater levels. In Germany, the world's largest producer of lignite (virtually all of which these days is mined open-pit), the former mines are usually converted to artificial lakes . To mitigate

2546-407: The frequency in terms of alternations per minute, counting each half-cycle as one alternation ; so 12,000 alternations per minute corresponds to 100 Hz. An alternator's output frequency depends on the number of poles and the rotational speed. The speed corresponding to a particular frequency is called the synchronous speed . This table gives some examples: Alternators may be classified by

2613-444: The generator. The early machines were developed by pioneers such as Michael Faraday and Hippolyte Pixii . Faraday developed the "rotating rectangle", whose operation was heteropolar – each active conductor passed successively through regions where the magnetic field was in opposite directions. Lord Kelvin and Sebastian Ferranti also developed early alternators, producing frequencies between 100 and 300 Hz . The late 1870s saw

2680-429: The hole. The interval of the benches depends on the deposit being mined, the mineral being mined, and the size of the machinery that is being used. Generally, large mine benches are 12 to 15 metres thick. In contrast, many quarries do not use benches, as they are usually shallow. Mining can be conducted on more than one bench at a time, and access to different benches is done with a system of ramps. The width of each bench

2747-432: The initial AC voltage buildup, the field is supplied with rectified voltage from the alternator. A brushless alternator is composed of two alternators built end-to-end on one shaft. Until 1966, alternators used brushes with rotating field. With the advancement in semiconductor technology, brushless alternators are possible. Smaller brushless alternators may look like one unit, but the two parts are readily identifiable in

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2814-416: The introduction of the first large-scale electrical systems with central generation stations to power Arc lamps , used to light whole streets, factory yards, or the interior of large warehouses. Some, such as Yablochkov arc lamps introduced in 1878, ran better on alternating current, and the development of these early AC generating systems was accompanied by the first use of the word "alternator". Supplying

2881-429: The large versions. The main alternator is the larger of the two sections, and the smaller one is the exciter. The exciter has stationary field coils and a rotating armature (power coils). The main alternator uses the opposite configuration with a rotating field and stationary armature. A bridge rectifier , called the rotating rectifier assembly, is mounted on the rotor. Neither brushes nor slip rings are used, which reduces

2948-446: The method of excitation, number of phases, the type of rotation, cooling method, and their application. There are two main ways to produce the magnetic field used in the alternators: by using permanent magnets , which create their persistent magnetic field, or by using field coils . The alternators that use permanent magnets are specifically called magnetos . In other alternators, wound field coils form an electromagnet to produce

3015-454: The mine by 10 to 15 years. One technique used in depressurization is annealing. Annealing is the slow heating and cooling of a metal, alloy or glass. This slow heating and cooling relieves the internal stress of surrounding areas. Annealing will increase a material's workability and durability, which overall increases open-pit mine safety. When groundwater pressures cause problems in open-pit mines, horizontal drains are used to aid in accelerating

3082-450: The mine floor due to excessive uplift pressure. A groundwater control system must be installed to fix problems caused by hydrology. The formation of an appropriate open-pit slope design, changes throughout the life of a mine. It is based mainly on an ever-increasing understanding of the rock mass conditions, including groundwater and associated pressures that may be acting within the slopes. The reduction of groundwater related to pore pressures

3149-435: The number of wearing parts. The main alternator has a rotating field and a stationary armature (power generation windings). Varying the amount of current through the stationary exciter field coils varies the 3-phase output from the exciter. This output is rectified by a rotating rectifier assembly mounted on the rotor, and the resultant DC supplies the rotating field of the main alternator and hence alternator output. The result

3216-440: The position of the rotor, an alternator is a synchronous generator. The rotor's magnetic field may be produced by permanent magnets or by a field coil electromagnet. Automotive alternators use a rotor winding, which allows control of the alternator's generated voltage by varying the current in the rotor field winding. Permanent magnet machines avoid the loss due to magnetizing current in the rotor, but are restricted in size due to

3283-531: The power may be split between the engine starting battery and the domestic or house battery (or batteries) by use of a split-charge diode ( battery isolator ) or a voltage-sensitive relay. Due to the high cost of large house battery banks, Marine alternators generally use external regulators. Multistep regulators control the field current to maximize the charging effectiveness (time to charge) and battery life. Multistep regulators can be programmed for different battery types. Two temperature sensors can be added: one for

3350-446: The presence of unextracted sulfide minerals , some forms of toxic minerals in the gangue , and often cyanide which is used to treat gold ore via the cyanide leach process . If proper environmental protections are not in place, this toxicity can harm the surrounding environment. Open-pit mining involves the process of disrupting the ground, which leads to the creation of air pollutants. The main source of air pollutants comes from

3417-407: The problem of acid mine drainage mentioned above, flooding is often done with the water of nearby rivers instead of using groundwater alone. In some cases, calcium oxide or other basic chemicals have to be added to the water to neutralize the pH -value. Gold is generally extracted in open-pit mines at 1 to 5 ppm (parts per million) but in certain cases, 0.75 ppm gold is economical. This

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3484-832: The proper amount of voltage from generating stations in these early systems was left up to the engineer's skill in "riding the load". In 1883 the Ganz Works invented the constant voltage generator that could produce a stated output voltage, regardless of the value of the actual load. The introduction of transformers in the mid-1880s led to the widespread use of alternating current and the use of alternators needed to produce it. After 1891, polyphase alternators were introduced to supply currents of multiple differing phases. Later alternators were designed for various alternating current frequencies between sixteen and about one hundred hertz for use with arc lighting, incandescent lighting, and electric motors. Specialized radio frequency alternators like

3551-404: The rocks are, and the type of rocks involved. It also depends on the amount of structural weaknesses occur within the rocks, such as a faults , shears , joints or foliations . The walls are stepped. The inclined section of the wall is known as the batter, and the flat part of the step is known as the bench or berm. The steps in the walls help prevent rock falls continuing down the entire face of

3618-417: The rotating magnetic field. A device that uses permanent magnets to produce alternating current is called a permanent magnet alternator (PMA). A permanent magnet generator (PMG) may produce either alternating current or direct current if it has a commutator . This method of excitation consists of a smaller direct-current (DC) generator fixed on the same shaft as the alternator. The DC generator generates

3685-414: The salt-water environment. Marine alternators are designed to be explosion proof (ignition protected) so that brush sparking will not ignite explosive gas mixtures in an engine room environment. Depending on the type of system installed, they may be 12 or 24 volts. Larger marine diesels may have two or more alternators to cope with the heavy electrical demand of a modern yacht. On single alternator circuits,

3752-412: The slope depressurization process. Which helps to prevent large scale slope failure in the mine. Horizontal drains are used to lower pore pressure by reducing groundwater head, which enhances slope stability. A form of open-cast quarrying may be carried out as 'untopping'. This is done where a previous underground mine is becoming uneconomic or worked-out, but still leaves valuable rock in place, often as

3819-506: The speed of DC traction motors. Most of these had two generators: one to generate the excitation current for a larger main generator. Optionally, the generator also supplies head-end power (HEP) or power for electric train heating . The HEP option requires a constant engine speed, typically 900 r/min for a 480 V 60 Hz HEP application, even when the locomotive is not moving. Marine alternators used in yachts are similar to automotive alternators, with appropriate adaptations to

3886-558: The surface where the overburden is relatively thin. In contrast, deeper mineral deposits can be reached using underground mining. Open-pit mining is considered one of the most dangerous sectors in the industrial world . It causes significant effects to miners' health, as well as damage to the ecological land and water. Open-pit mining causes changes to vegetation, soil, and bedrock, which ultimately contributes to changes in surface hydrology, groundwater levels, and flow paths. Additionally, open-pit produces harmful pollutants depending on

3953-416: The transportation of minerals, but there are various other factors including drilling, blasting and the loading and unloading of overburden. These type of pollutants cause significant damage to public health and safety in addition to damaging the air quality. The inhalation of these pollutants can cause issues to the lungs and ultimately increase mortality. Furthermore, the pollutants affect flora and fauna in

4020-517: The type of mineral being mined, and the type of mining process being used. Miners typically drill a series of test holes to locate an underground ore body. From the extracted samples, they can determine the extent of the ore. This helps them determine the likely location of the veins or benches of ore and its commercial value. Open-pit mines that produce building materials and dimension stone are commonly referred to as quarries . Open-cast mines are dug on benches , which describe vertical levels of

4087-482: The utility grid requires synchronization conditions to be met. Alternators are used in modern internal combustion engine automobiles to charge the battery and to power the electrical system when its engine is running. Until the 1960s, automobiles used DC dynamo generators with commutators . With the availability of affordable silicon-diode rectifiers, alternators were used instead. In later diesel-electric locomotives and diesel electric multiple units ,

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4154-466: The wall. In some instances additional ground support is required and rock bolts , cable bolts and shotcrete are used. De-watering bores may be used to relieve water pressure by drilling horizontally into the wall, which is often enough to cause failures in the wall by itself. A haul road is usually situated at the side of the pit, forming a ramp up which trucks can drive, carrying ore and waste rock. Open-pit mines are typically worked until either

4221-410: The world's electric power, which is distributed by electric power grids . Alternating current generating systems were known in simple forms from the discovery of the magnetic induction of electric current in the 1830s. Rotating generators naturally produced alternating current, but since there was little use for it, it was normally converted into direct current via the addition of a commutator in

4288-416: The world. Listed are the world's ten largest open-pit mines in 2015. Alternator An alternator is an electrical generator that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy in the form of alternating current . For reasons of cost and simplicity, most alternators use a rotating magnetic field with a stationary armature . Occasionally, a linear alternator or a rotating armature with

4355-515: Was achieved by bulk heap leaching at the Peak Hill mine in western New South Wales , near Dubbo , Australia . Nickel , generally as laterite, is extracted via open-pit down to 0.2%. Copper can be extracted at grades as low as 0.11% to 0.2%. Open-pit mining is a common method to extract minerals and samples from the Earth. Due to being cost-effective, this method is very popular and is used all over

4422-505: Was sent to Kaiser Steel's mine at Sparwood , British Columbia , Canada . The mine was acquired from Kaiser Steel by B.C. Resources in 1980. When the mine was subsequently acquired by Westar Mining in 1983, the Titan was repainted from its original Terex lime green livery to Westar Mining's blue and yellow livery. Shortly after, Westar Mining purchased the Titan from General Motors for US$ 200,000 ($ 610,000 today) and $ 1 million of spare parts ($ 3 million today). During Westar Mining's ownership,

4489-681: Was the largest, highest payload capacity truck ever built. The Titan remained the highest capacity haul truck in existence for 25 years until the début of the 360-short-ton (330 t) payload capacity Caterpillar 797 in September 1998. The Titan used a diesel/AC electric powertrain that consisted of an Electro-Motive Division model 16-645E4 , 16- cylinder , gross 3,300 hp (2,461 kW), 10,320-cubic-inch (169.1 L), turbocharged , intercooled , unit injection , locomotive engine directly coupled to an Electro-Motive Division model AR10-D14, 10-pole, AC electric alternator sending DC power via

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