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55-477: - Discovery of a shrine with interior decoration. - 23 graves of adults and infants with local and imported goods. - Administrative artifacts such as tokens. - Residential dwellings. It is suggested that the Painted Building was a special place for women to give birth After the re-excavation of Zagheh in 2001, new radiocarbon dates were obtained. The radiocarbon estimations for the occupation of Zagheh between 5370 and 5070 BC and 4460–4240 BC. They indicate that

110-568: A transitional Copper Age and the Bronze Age proper . He did not include the transitional period in the Bronze Age, but described it separately from the customary stone / bronze / iron system, at the Bronze Age's beginning. He did not, however, present it as a fourth age but chose to retain the tripartite system . In 1884, Gaetano Chierici , perhaps following the lead of Evans, renamed it in Italian as

165-641: A coherent archaeological culture in its later phase. The origin of the "Bell Beaker" artefacts has been traced to the early 3rd millennium, with early examples of the "maritime" Bell Beaker design having been found at the Tagus estuary in Portugal, radiocarbon dated to c.  28th century BC. The inspiration for the Maritime Bell Beaker is argued to have been the small and earlier Copoz beakers that have impressed decoration and which are found widely around

220-486: A kind of Bell Beaker civilization of continental scale". The Bell Beaker artefacts (at least in their early phase) are not distributed across a contiguous area, as is usual for archaeological cultures, but are found in insular concentrations scattered across Europe. Their presence is not associated with a characteristic type of architecture or of burial customs. However, the Bell Beaker culture does appear to coalesce into

275-636: A period of cultural contact in Atlantic and Western Europe following a prolonged period of relative isolation during the Neolithic . In its mature phase, the Bell Beaker culture is understood as not only a collection of characteristic artefact types, but a complex cultural phenomenon involving metalwork in copper , arsenical bronze and gold , long-distance exchange networks, archery , specific types of ornamentation, and (presumably) shared ideological, cultural and religious ideas, as well as social stratification and

330-670: A prestige cult related to the production and consumption of beer, or trading links such as those demonstrated by finds made along the seaways of Atlantic Europe. Palynological studies including analysis of pollen, associated with the spread of beakers, certainly suggests increased growing of barley, which may be associated with beer brewing. Noting the distribution of Beakers was highest in areas of transport routes, including fording sites, river valleys and mountain passes, Beaker 'folk' were suggested to be originally bronze traders, who subsequently settled within local Neolithic or early Chalcolithic cultures, creating local styles. Close analysis of

385-569: A single source. Knowledge of the use of copper was far more widespread than the metal itself. The European Battle Axe culture used stone axes modeled on copper axes, even with moulding carved in the stone. Ötzi the Iceman , who was found in the Ötztal Alps in 1991 and whose remains have been dated to about 3300 BC, was found with a Mondsee copper axe. Examples of Chalcolithic cultures in Europe include Vila Nova de São Pedro and Los Millares on

440-509: A study from 2018 found that it was associated with genetically diverse populations. The Bell Beaker culture was partly preceded by and contemporaneous with the Corded Ware culture , and in north-central Europe preceded by the Funnelbeaker culture . The name Glockenbecher was coined for its distinctive style of beakers by Paul Reinecke in 1900. The term's English translation Bell Beaker

495-944: Is a Chalcolithic site in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent . It is located on the south bank of Ajay River in West Bengal . Blackware , painted Koshi ware, pottery, various ornaments made of pearl and copper, various types of tools, pieces of fabric woven from Shimul cotton thread, human and various animal skeletons, burnt clay fragments have been found at the site. In March 2018, archaeologists had discovered three carts and copper artifacts including weapons dating to 1800 BC in Sanauli village of Uttar Pradesh. The artifacts belongs to Ochre Coloured Pottery culture . Andean civilizations in South America appear to have independently invented copper smelting. The term "Chalcolithic"

550-605: Is also applied to American civilizations that already used copper and copper alloys thousands of years before Europeans immigrated. Besides cultures in the Andes and Mesoamerica, the Old Copper complex mined and fabricated copper as tools, weapons, and personal ornaments in an area centered in the upper Great Lakes region (present-day Michigan and Wisconsin ). The evidence of smelting or alloying that has been found in North America

605-479: Is also documented at the nearby site of Tell Maghzaliyah , which seems to be dated even earlier, and completely lacks pottery. The Timna Valley contains evidence of copper mining in 7000–5000 BC. The process of transition from Neolithic to Chalcolithic in the Middle East is characterized in archaeological stone tool assemblages by a decline in high quality raw material procurement and use. This dramatic shift

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660-605: Is doubtful; a lead bracelet, found in level XII of Yarim Tepe I, dated to the 6th millennium BC; a small cone-shaped piece of lead, found in the "Burnt House" in TT6 at Arpachiyah , dated to the Halaf period or slightly later than the Yarim Tepe bracelet; and more. Copper smelting is also documented at this site at about the same time period (soon after 6000 BC). However, the use of lead seems to precede copper smelting. Early metallurgy

715-455: Is not another -lithic age. Subsequently, British scholars used either Evans's "Copper Age" or the term "Eneolithic" (or Æneolithic), a translation of Chierici's eneo-litica . After several years, a number of complaints appeared in the literature that "Eneolithic" seemed to the untrained eye to be produced from e-neolithic , "outside the Neolithic", clearly not a definitive characterization of

770-499: Is rather derivative of Corded Ware traditions. British and American archaeology since the 1960s have been sceptical about prehistoric migration in general, so the idea of "Bell Beaker Folk" lost ground. A theory of cultural contact de-emphasizing population movement was presented by Colin Burgess and Stephen Shennan in the mid-1970s. Under the "pots, not people" theory, the Beaker culture

825-456: Is seen throughout the region, including the Tehran Plain , Iran. Here, analysis of six archaeological sites determined a marked downward trend in not only material quality, but also in aesthetic variation in the lithic artefacts. Fazeli & Coningham use these results as evidence of the loss of craft specialisation caused by increased use of copper tools. The Tehran Plain findings illustrate

880-427: Is subject to some dispute and a common assumption by archaeologists is that objects were cold-worked into shape. Artifacts from some of these sites have been dated to 6500–1000 BC, making them some of the oldest Chalcolithic sites in the world. Some archaeologists find artifactual and structural evidence of casting by Hopewellian and Mississippian peoples to be demonstrated in the archaeological record. In

935-588: The Bell Beaker complex or Bell Beaker phenomenon , is an archaeological culture named after the inverted-bell beaker drinking vessel used at the very beginning of the European Bronze Age , arising from around 2800 BC. Bell Beaker culture lasted in Britain from c.  2450 BC, with the appearance of single burial graves, until as late as 1800 BC, but in continental Europe only until 2300 BC, when it

990-568: The Copper Age and Eneolithic ) was an archaeological period characterized by the increasing use of smelted copper . It followed the Neolithic and preceded the Bronze Age . It occurred at different periods in different areas, but was absent in some parts of the world, such as Russia, where there was no well-defined Copper Age between the Stone and Bronze Ages. Stone tools were still predominantly used during this period. The Chalcolithic covers both

1045-539: The Iberian Peninsula . Pottery of the Beaker people has been found at both sites, dating to several centuries after copper-working began there. The Beaker culture appears to have spread copper and bronze technologies in Europe, along with Indo-European languages. In Britain, copper was used between the 25th and 22nd centuries BC , but some archaeologists do not recognise a British Chalcolithic because production and use

1100-536: The Stone Age despite the use of copper. Today, Copper Age , Eneolithic , and Chalcolithic are used synonymously to mean Evans's original definition of Copper Age. The emergence of metallurgy may have occurred first in the Fertile Crescent . Lead may have been the first ore that humans smelted , since it can be easily obtained by heating galena . Possible early examples of lead smelting, supported by

1155-614: The Tagus estuary were maritime. A southern move led to the Mediterranean where 'enclaves' were established in south-western Spain and southern France around the Golfe du Lion and into the Po Valley in Italy , probably via ancient western Alpine trade routes used to distribute jadeite axes. A northern move incorporated the southern coast of Armorica . The enclave established in southern Brittany

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1210-507: The eneo-litica , or "bronze–stone" transition. The phrase was never intended to mean that the period was the only one in which both bronze and stone were used. The Copper Age features the use of copper, excluding bronze; moreover, stone continued to be used throughout both the Bronze Age and the Iron Age . The part -litica simply names the Stone Age as the point from which the transition began and

1265-405: The migrationism vs. diffusionism debate in 20th-century archaeology , variously described as due to migration, possibly of small groups of warriors, craftsmen or traders, or due to the diffusion of ideas and object exchange. Given the unusual form and fabric of Beaker pottery, and its abrupt appearance in the archaeological record , along with a characteristic group of other artefacts, known as

1320-631: The 1870s, when, on the basis of the significant number of large copper objects unearthed within the Carpathian Basin , he suggested that the previous threefold division of the Prehistoric Age – the Stone , Bronze and Iron Ages – should be further divided with the introduction of the Copper Age. In 1881, John Evans recognized that use of copper often preceded the use of bronze, and distinguished between

1375-648: The 5th millennium BC copper artifacts start to appear in East Asia, such as in the Jiangzhai and Hongshan cultures , but those metal artifacts were not widely used during this early stage. Copper manufacturing gradually appeared in the Yangshao period (5000–3000 BC). Jiangzhai is the only site where copper artifacts were found in the Banpo culture. Archaeologists have found remains of copper metallurgy in various cultures from

1430-412: The Bell Beaker "package", the explanation for the Beaker culture until the last decades of the 20th century was to interpret it as the migration of one group of people across Europe. Gordon Childe interpreted the presence of its characteristic artefact as the intrusion of "missionaries" expanding from Iberia along the Atlantic coast, spreading knowledge of copper metallurgy. Stephen Shennan interpreted

1485-524: The Bell Beaker culture was intrusive to southern Germany, and existed contemporarily with the local Corded Ware culture . The burial ritual which typified Bell Beaker sites appears to be intrusive to Western Europe, from Central Europe. Individual inhumations, often under tumuli with the inclusion of weapons contrast markedly to the preceding Neolithic traditions of often collective, weaponless burials in Atlantic/Western Europe. Such an arrangement

1540-698: The Bell Beaker zone. This overturns a previous conviction that single burial was unknown in the early or southern Bell Beaker zone, and so must have been adopted from Corded Ware in the contact zone of the Lower Rhine, and transmitted westwards along the exchange networks from the Rhine to the Loire, and northwards across the English Channel to Britain. The earliest copper production in Ireland, identified at Ross Island in

1595-621: The Carpathian Basin, the Bell Beaker culture came in contact with communities such as the Vučedol culture ( c.  3000 –2200 BC), which had evolved partly from the Yamnaya culture (c. 3300–2600 BC). In contrast to the early Bell Beaker preference for the dagger and bow, the favourite weapon in the Carpathian Basin during the first half of the third millennium was the shaft-hole axe. Here, Bell Beaker people assimilated local pottery forms such as

1650-497: The Copper Age. Around 1900, many writers began to substitute Chalcolithic for Eneolithic, to avoid the false segmentation. The term chalcolithic is a combination of two words- Chalco+Lithic, derived from the Greek words "khalkos" meaning "copper", and "líthos" meaning "stone". But "chalcolithic" could also mislead: For readers unfamiliar with the Italian language, chalcolithic seemed to suggest another -lithic age, paradoxically part of

1705-410: The Mediterranean, using sea routes that had long been in operation, was directly associated with the quest for copper and other rare raw materials. While Bell Beaker ( Glockenbecher ) was introduced as a term for the artefact type at the beginning of the 20th century, recognition of an archaeological Bell Beaker culture has long been controversial. Its spread has been one of the central questions of

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1760-659: The Tagus estuary in Portugal. Turek sees late Neolithic precursors in northern Africa, arguing the Maritime style emerged as a result of seaborne contacts between Iberia and Morocco in the first half of the third millennium BC. More recent analyses of the "Beaker phenomenon", published since the 2000s, have persisted in describing the origin of the "Beaker phenomenon" as arising from a synthesis of elements, representing "an idea and style uniting different regions with different cultural traditions and background." The initial moves from

1815-424: The artefacts as belonging to a mobile cultural elite imposing itself over the indigenous substrate populations. Similarly, Sangmeister (1972) interpreted the "Beaker folk" ( Glockenbecherleute ) as small groups of highly mobile traders and artisans. Christian Strahm (1995) used the term "Bell Beaker phenomenon" ( Glockenbecher-Phänomen ) as a compromise in order to avoid the term "culture". Heyd (1998) concluded that

1870-525: The early cold working (hammering) of near pure copper ores, as exhibited by the likes of North American Great Lakes Old Copper complex , from around 6,500 BC, through the later copper smelting cultures. The archaeological site of Belovode, on Rudnik mountain in Serbia , has the world's oldest securely dated evidence of copper smelting at high temperature, from c.  5,000 BC . The transition from Copper Age to Bronze Age in Europe occurred between

1925-520: The effects of the introduction of copper working technologies on the in-place systems of lithic craft specialists and raw materials. Networks of exchange and specialized processing and production that had evolved during the Neolithic seem to have collapsed by the Middle Chalcolithic ( c.  4500–3500 BC ) and been replaced by the use of local materials by a primarily household-based production of stone tools. Arsenical copper or bronze

1980-409: The emergence of regional elites. A wide range of regional diversity persists within the widespread late Beaker culture, particularly in local burial styles (including incidences of cremation rather than burial), housing styles, economic profile, and local ceramic wares ( Begleitkeramik ). Nonetheless, according to Lemercier (2018) the mature phase of the Beaker culture represents "the appearance of

2035-801: The existence of a few exotic black-slipped pottery items from the Indus Valley . In India, Chalcolithic culture flourished in mainly four farming communities – Ahar or Banas , Kayatha , Malwa , and Jorwe . These communities had some common traits like painted pottery and use of copper, but they had a distinct ceramic design tradition. Banas culture (2000–1600 BC) had ceramics with red, white, and black design. Kayatha culture (2450–1700 BC) had ceramics painted with brown colored design. Malwa culture (1900–1400 BC) had profusely decorated pottery with red or black colored design. Jorwe culture (1500–900 BC) had ceramics with matte surface and black-on-red design. Pandu Rajar Dhibi (2000–1600 BC)

2090-417: The extreme rarity of native lead, include: lead beads , found on Level IX of Chatal/Çatal Hüyük in central Anatolia , though they might be made of galena, cerussite , or metallic lead, and accordingly might or might not be evidence of early smelting; a lead bead, found in a GK59 group test square in the 4th level of Jarmo , dated to the 7th millennium BCE, though it is small enough that its human usage

2145-697: The late 5th and the late 3rd millennium BC . In the Ancient Near East the Copper Age covered about the same period, beginning in the late 5th millennium BC and lasting for about a millennium before it gave rise to the Early Bronze Age . A study in the journal Antiquity from 2013 reporting the discovery of a tin bronze foil from the Pločnik archaeological site dated to c.  4,650 BC , as well as 14 other artefacts from Bulgaria and Serbia dated to before 4,000 BC, showed that early tin bronze

2200-674: The late fourth to the early third millennia BC. These include the copper-smelting remains and copper artifacts of the Hongshan culture (4700–2900) and copper slag at the Yuanwozhen site. This indicates that inhabitants of the Yellow River valley had already learned how to make copper artifacts by the later Yangshao period. In the region of the Aïr Mountains , Niger, independent copper smelting developed between 3000 and 2500 BC. The process

2255-455: The period 2400–2200 BC, was associated with early Beaker pottery. Here, the local sulpharsenide ores were smelted to produce the first copper axes used in Britain and Ireland. The same technologies were used in the Tagus region and in the west and south of France. The evidence is sufficient to support the suggestion that the initial spread of Maritime Bell Beakers along the Atlantic and into

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2310-430: The period. Originally, the term Bronze Age meant that either copper or bronze was being used as the chief hard substance for the manufacture of tools and weapons. Ancient writers, who provided the essential cultural references for educated people during the 19th century, used the same name for both copper- and bronze-using ages. The concept of the Copper Age was put forward by Hungarian scientist Ferenc Pulszky in

2365-643: The polypod cup. These "common ware" types of pottery then spread in association with the classic bell beaker. The Rhine was on the western edge of the vast Corded Ware zone ( c.  3100  – c.  2350 BC ), forming a contact zone with the Bell Beaker culture. From there, the Bell Beaker culture spread further into Eastern Europe, replacing the Corded Ware culture up to the Vistula (Poland). A review in 2014 revealed that single burial, communal burial, and reuse of Neolithic burial sites are found throughout

2420-466: The site was settled c. 5370–5070 BC and abandoned c. 4460–4240 BC. Thus, it may belong to Transitional Chalcolithic . There were also many small clay 'tokens', used as counting objects, that were found at Zagheh; these are variously shaped, and are similar to such tokens at other Neolithic sites. These Zagheh tokens are dated typologically to 6500–5500 BC. Thus, there were probably two periods of occupation. Zagheh archaic painted ware (ca. 6000-5500 BC)

2475-497: Was a pottery workshop in province of Balochistan , Pakistan, that dates to 4,500 years ago; 12 blades and blade fragments were excavated there. These blades are 12–18 cm (5–7 in) long, 1.2–2.0 cm (0.5–0.8 in) wide, and relatively thin. Archaeological experiments show that these blades were made with a copper indenter and functioned as a potter's tool to trim and shape unfired pottery. Petrographic analysis indicates local pottery manufacturing, but also reveals

2530-887: Was found in Tepe Sialk I, sub-levels 1–2. This is the early painted ware, that was first excavated at Teppe Zagheh. Clay figurines found in Mehrgarh (Pakistan), an important precursor to the Indus Valley civilization , resemble those discovered at Teppe Zagheh, and at Jeitun in Turkmenistan (6th millennium BCE). The faunal remains from the site were studied by Marjan Mashkour who identified Sheep, goats, wild goats, cattle, Gazelles, boars, dogs, and foxes. Chalcolithic West Asia (6000–3500 BC) Europe (5500–2200 BC) Central Asia (3700–1700 BC) South Asia (4300–1800 BC) China (5000–2900 BC) The Chalcolithic ( /ˈkælkoʊˌlɪθɪk/ cal-co- LI -thik ) (also called

2585-606: Was indeed taking place by the 4th millennium BC. Since the slag identified at Norşuntepe contains no arsenic, this means that arsenic in some form was added separately. A copper axe found at Prokuplje , Serbia contains the oldest securely dated evidence of copper-making, c.  5500 BC (7,500 years ago). The find in June ;2010 extends the known record of copper smelting by about 800 years, and suggests that copper smelting may have been invented in separate parts of Asia and Europe at that time rather than spreading from

2640-405: Was introduced by John Abercromby in 1904. In its early phase, the Bell Beaker culture can be seen as the western contemporary of the Corded Ware culture of Central Europe. From about 2400 BC the Beaker folk culture expanded eastwards, into the Corded Ware horizon. In parts of Central and Eastern Europe, as far east as Poland , a sequence occurs from Corded Ware to Bell Beaker. This period marks

2695-703: Was linked closely to the riverine and landward route, via the Loire , and across the Gâtinais Valley to the Seine Valley, and thence to the lower Rhine . This was a long-established route reflected in early stone axe distributions, and via this network, Maritime Bell Beakers first reached the Lower Rhine in c.  2600  BC. Another expansion brought Bell Beaker to Csepel Island in Hungary by about 2500 BC. In

2750-578: Was more common than previously thought and developed independently in Europe 1,500 years before the first tin bronze alloys in the Near East . In Britain, the Chalcolithic is a short period between about 2,500 and 2,200 BC, characterized by the first appearance of objects of copper and gold, a new ceramic culture and the immigration of Beaker culture people, heralding the end of the local late Neolithic. The multiple names result from multiple definitions of

2805-1097: Was not in a developed state, indicating smelting was not foreign. It became mature about 1500 BC. Beaker culture Vučedol culture , Nagyrév culture , Ottomány culture , Wietenberg culture , Vatya culture Bell Beaker culture , Únětice culture , Nordic Bronze Age , Tumulus culture , Urnfield culture Bronze Age Britain , Bronze Age France , Armorican Tumulus culture , Bronze Age Iberia , Argaric culture , Hilversum culture , Atlantic Bronze Age Nuragic civilization , Polada culture , Terramare culture , Proto-Villanovan culture , Apennine culture , Canegrate culture , Golasecca culture Pontic Steppe Caucasus East Asia Eastern Europe Northern Europe Pontic Steppe Northern/Eastern Steppe Europe South Asia Steppe Europe Caucasus India Indo-Aryans Iranians East Asia Europe East Asia Europe Indo-Aryan Iranian Indo-Aryan Iranian Others European The Bell Beaker culture , also known as

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2860-630: Was on a small scale. Ceramic similarities between the Indus Valley civilisation , southern Turkmenistan , and northern Iran during 4300–3300 BC of the Chalcolithic period suggest considerable mobility and trade. The term "Chalcolithic" has also been used in the context of the South Asian Stone Age . In Bhirrana , the earliest Indus civilization site, copper bangles and arrowheads were found. The inhabitants of Mehrgarh in present-day Pakistan fashioned tools with local copper ore between 7000 and 3300 BC. The Nausharo site

2915-437: Was produced in eastern Turkey ( Malatya Province ) at two ancient sites, Norşuntepe and Değirmentepe , around 4200 BC. According to Boscher (2016), hearths or natural draft furnaces, slag , ore, and pigment had been recovered throughout these sites. This was in the context of Ubaid period architectural complexes typical of southern Mesopotamian architecture. Norşuntepe site demonstrates that some form of arsenic alloying

2970-430: Was seen as a 'package' of knowledge (including religious beliefs, as well as methods of copper , bronze , and gold working) and artefacts (including copper daggers, v-perforated buttons, and stone wrist-guards ) adopted and adapted by the indigenous peoples of Europe to varying degrees. This new knowledge may have come about by any combination of population movements and cultural contact. An example might be as part of

3025-486: Was succeeded by the Únětice culture . The culture was widely dispersed throughout Western Europe, being present in many regions of Iberia and stretching eastward to the Danubian plains , and northward to the islands of Great Britain and Ireland , and was also present in the islands of Sardinia and Sicily and some coastal areas in north-western Africa . The Bell Beaker phenomenon shows substantial regional variation, and

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