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99-589: Throughout the Pali canon , the word "fetter" is used to describe an intrapsychic phenomenon that ties one to suffering. For example, in the Itivuttaka, the Buddha says: "Monks, I don't envision even one other fetter — fettered by which beings conjoined go wandering and transmigrating on for a long, long time—like the fetter of craving . Fettered with the fetter of craving, beings conjoined go wandering & transmigrating on for

198-686: A non-returner ; and, the last five fetters are referred to as "higher fetters" ( uddhambhāgiyāni saṃyojanāni ), eradicated by an arahant . Both the Sa ṅ gīti Sutta ( DN 33) and the Dhammasa ṅgaṇ i (Dhs. 1002-1006) refer to the "three fetters" as the first three in the aforementioned Sutta Pitaka list of ten: According to the Canon, these three fetters are eradicated by stream-enterers and once-returners . The Abhidhamma Pitaka 's Dhamma Sangani (Dhs. 1113-34) provides an alternate list of ten fetters, also found in

297-690: A " Middle Way " between the extremes of hedonism and self-mortification. Devadatta , a cousin of Gautama, caused a split in the Buddhist sangha by demanding more rigorous practices. The Buddhist movement chose a moderate ascetic lifestyle. This was in contrast to Jains, who continued the tradition of stronger austerity, such as fasting and giving away all property including clothes and thus going naked, emphasizing that complete dedication to spirituality includes turning away from material possessions and any cause for evil karma . The moderate ascetic precepts, states Collins, likely appealed to more people and widened

396-454: A "Middle Way" between the extremes of hedonism and self-mortification. The Brahmajāla Sutta mentions many śramaṇas with whom Buddha disagreed. For example, in contrast to Sramanic Jains whose philosophical premise includes the existence of an Atman (self, soul) in every being, Buddhist philosophy denies that there is any self or soul. This concept called Anatta (or Anatman ) is a part of Three Marks of existence in Buddhist philosophy,

495-573: A class within the Vedic context. The earliest known explicit use of the term śramaṇa is found in section 2.7 of the Taittiriya Aranyaka , a layer within the Yajurveda (~1000 BCE, a scripture of Hinduism). It mentions śramaṇa Rishis and celibate Rishis . Buddhist commentaries associate the word's etymology with the quieting ( samita ) of evil ( pāpa ) as in the following phrase from

594-411: A long, long time. Elsewhere, the suffering caused by a fetter is implied as in this more technical discourse from Samyutta Nikaya 35.232, where Ven. Sariputta converses with Ven. Kotthita: Ven. Kotthita: "How is it, friend Sariputta, is ... the ear the fetter of sounds or are sounds the fetter of the ear?..." Ven. Sariputta: "Friend Kotthita, the ... ear is not the fetter of sounds nor are sounds

693-543: A much earlier period. Aspects of the Pali Canon, such as what it says about society and South Asian history, are in doubt because the Pali Canon was extensively redacted in the 5th- or 6th-century AD, nearly a thousand years after the death of the Buddha. Further, this redacted Pali Canon of Sri Lanka itself mentions that it was previously redacted towards the end of 1st-century BC. According to Early Buddhism scholar Lars Fogelin,

792-462: A rival movement from outside these classes. In early Buddhism, the largest number of monastics were originally brahmins, and virtually all were recruited from the two upper classes of society – brahmins and kshatriyas . Ājīvika was founded in the 5th century BCE by Makkhali Gosala , as a śramaṇa movement and a major rival of early Buddhism and Jainism . Ājīvikas were organised renunciates who formed discrete communities. The Ājīvikas reached

891-416: A synonym for Digambara (a Jainism sect). However, other scholars state that this could not be the correct interpretation because it is inconsistent with the words that immediately follow, "wearing soil-hued garments". The context likely means that the poet is describing the "munis" as moving like the wind, their garments pressed by the wind. According to Olivelle, it is unlikely that the vātaraśana implies

990-603: A true picture" of the Sramanic schools rivaling with Buddhism, These pre-Buddhist śrāmana movements were organized Sanghagani (orders of monks and ascetics), according to the Buddhist Samaññaphala Sutta . The six leaders above are described as a Sanghi (head of the order), Ganacariyo (teacher), Cirapabbajito (recluse), Yasassi and Neto (of repute and well known). Jain literature too mentions Pūraṇa Kassapa, Makkhali Gosāla and Sañjaya Belaṭṭhaputta. During

1089-453: A village or free town, take himself, or induce others to take, or allow others to take, what has not been given. The Ācāranga Sūtra gives three names of Mahavira, the twenty fourth Tirthankara , one of which was Śramaṇa : The Venerable ascetic Mahavira belonged to the Kasyapa gotra . His three names have thus been recorded by tradition: by his parents he was called Vardhamana , because he

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1188-399: Is a canonical indicator of one's being irreversibly established on the path to Enlightenment . Etymologically, kāya means "body," sakkāya means "existing body," and diṭṭhi means " view " (here implying a wrong view, as exemplified by the views in the table below). In general, "belief in an individual self" or, more simply, "self view" refers to a "belief that in one or other of

1287-517: Is an internally consistent Pali dialect. The reason for the changes is that some combinations of characters are difficult to write in those scripts. Masefield says records in Thailand state that upon the third re-introduction of Theravada Buddhism into Sri Lanka (The Siyamese Sect), large number of texts were also taken . When monastic ordination died out in Sri Lanka, many texts were lost also. Therefore

1386-521: Is believed by a majority of Jaina scholars to have been of independent origin and not a protest movement of any kind, were led by Jaina thinkers, and were pre-Buddhist and pre-Vedic. Some scholars posit that the Indus Valley civilisation symbols may be related to later Jain statues, and the bull icon may have a connection to Rishabhanatha . According to Dundas, outside of the Jain tradition, historians date

1485-501: Is controversial (see Shamanism § Etymology ). Several śramaṇa movements are known to have existed in India before the 6th century BCE (pre-Buddha, pre-Mahavira), and these influenced both the āstika and nāstika traditions of Indian philosophy. Martin Wiltshire states that the Śramaṇa tradition evolved in India over two phases, namely Paccekabuddha and Savaka phases, the former being

1584-405: Is devoid of love and hate; (he is called) Sramana (i.e. ascetic), because he sustains dreadful dangers and fears, the noble nakedness, and the miseries of the world; the name Venerable Ascetic Mahavira has been given to him by the gods. Another Jain canon, Sūtrakrtanga describes the śramaṇa as an ascetic who has taken Mahavrata , the five great vows: He is a Śramaṇa for this reason that he

1683-655: Is found in Vedic literature, with terms such as yatis , rishis , and śramaṇas. The Vedic literature from pre-1000 BCE era, mentions Muni (मुनि, monks, mendicants, holy man). Rig Veda , for example, in Book 10 Chapter 136, mentions mendicants as those with kēśin (केशिन्, long-haired) and mala clothes (मल, dirty, soil-colored, yellow, orange, saffron) engaged in the affairs of mananat (mind, meditation). केश्यग्निं केशी विषं केशी बिभर्ति रोदसी । केशी विश्वं स्वर्दृशे केशीदं ज्योतिरुच्यते ॥१॥ मुनयो वातरशनाः पिशङ्गा वसते मला । वातस्यानु ध्राजिं यन्ति यद्देवासो अविक्षत ॥२॥ He with

1782-469: Is likely that much of the Pali Canon dates back to the time period of the Buddha. They base this on many lines of evidence including the technology described in the canon (apart from the obviously later texts), which matches the technology of his day which was in rapid development; that it doesn't include back written prophecies of the great Buddhist ruler King Ashoka (which Mahayana texts often do) suggesting that it predates his time; that in its descriptions of

1881-453: Is meant in this non-literal sense. The existence of the bhanaka tradition existing until later periods, along with other sources, shows that oral tradition continued to exist side by side with written scriptures for many centuries to come. Thus, the so-called writing down of the scriptures was only the beginning of a new form of tradition, and the innovation was likely opposed by the more conservative monks. As with many other innovations, it

1980-562: Is not hampered by any obstacles, that he is free from desires, (abstaining from) property, killing, telling lies, and sexual intercourse; (and from) wrath, pride, deceit, greed, love, and hate: thus giving up every passion that involves him in sin, (such as) killing of beings. (Such a man) deserves the name of a Śramaṇa, who subdues (moreover) his senses, is well qualified (for his task), and abandons his body. The Sūtrakrtanga records that prince, Ardraka , who became disciple to Mahavira, arguing with other heretical teachers, told Makkhali Gosala

2079-759: Is probably the second half of the Nalakasutta (Sn 699–723), and Upatisapasine may correspond to the Sariputtasutta (Sn 955–975). The identification of most of the other titles is less certain, but Schmithausen, following Oldenberg before him, identifies what Asoka calls the Laghulovada with part of a prose text in the Majjhima Nikaya , the Ambalatthika-Rahulovada Sutta (M no. 61). This seems to be evidence that some of these texts were already fixed by

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2178-424: Is the complete truth, have made very important contributions to ancient Indian philosophy , especially in the areas of skepticism and relativity. Jain monastics are known as śramaṇas while lay practitioners are called śrāvakas . The religion or code of conduct of the monks is known as the śramaṇa dharma. Jain canons like Ācārāṅga Sūtra and other later texts contain many references to Sramanas. One verse of

2277-827: Is the standard collection of scriptures in the Theravada Buddhist tradition, as preserved in the Pāli language. It is the most complete extant early Buddhist canon. It derives mainly from the Tamrashatiya school. During the First Buddhist Council , three months after the parinibbana of Gautama Buddha in Rajgir , Ananda recited the Sutta Pitaka , and Upali recited the Vinaya Pitaka . The Arhats present accepted

2376-405: Is traditionally believed by Theravadins that most of the Pali Canon originated from the Buddha and his immediate disciples. According to the scriptures, a council was held shortly after the Buddha's passing to collect and preserve his teachings. The Theravada tradition states that the Canon was recited orally from the 5th century to the first century BC, when it was written down. The memorization

2475-532: The Abhidhamma Pitaka (literally "beyond the dhamma", "higher dhamma" or "special dhamma", Sanskrit: Abhidharma Pitaka ), is a collection of texts which give a scholastic explanation of Buddhist doctrines particularly about mind, and sometimes referred to as the "systematic philosophy" basket. There are seven books in the Abhidhamma Pitaka: The traditional position is that abhidhamma refers to

2574-511: The Khuddaka Nikaya 's Culla Niddesa (Nd2 656, 1463) and in post- canonical commentaries . This enumeration is: The commentary mentions that views, doubt, attachment to rites and rituals, jealousy and greed are thrown off at the first stage of Awakening (sotāpatti); gross sensual lust and anger by the second stage (sakadāgāmitā) and even subtle forms of the same by the third stage (anāgāmitā); and conceit, lust for existence and ignorance by

2673-606: The Majjhima Nikaya was published by Wisdom Publications in 1995. Translations by Bhikkhu Bodhi of the Samyutta Nikaya and the Anguttara Nikaya were published by Wisdom Publications in 2003 and 2012, respectively. In 2018, new translations of the entirety of the five Nikayas were made freely available on the website suttacentral by the Australian Bhikkhu Sujato , the translations were also released into

2772-568: The Noble Eightfold Path , which is described as the right path to Nibbana, leading one past ignorance, sensual desire, anger and despair. Śīla refers to "moral conduct", vata (or bata ) to "religious duty, observance, rite, practice, custom," and parāmāsa to "being attached to" or "a contagion" and has the connotation of "mishandling" the Dhamma. Altogether, sīlabbata-parāmāso has been translated as "the contagion of mere rule and ritual,

2871-514: The Public domain . A Japanese translation of the Canon, edited by Takakusu Junjiro , was published in 65 volumes from 1935 to 1941 as The Mahātripiṭaka of the Southern Tradition (南伝大蔵経 Nanden daizōkyō ). A Chinese translation of the above-mentioned Japanese translation was undertaken between 1990–1998 and thereafter printed under the patronage of Kaoshiung's Yuan Heng Temple. As noted above,

2970-691: The Suttanipata . However, some scholars, particularly in Japan, maintain that the Suttanipāta is the earliest of all Buddhist scriptures, followed by the Itivuttaka and Udāna . However, some of the developments in teachings may only reflect changes in teaching that the Buddha himself adopted, during the 45 years that the Buddha was teaching. Scholars generally agree that the early books include some later additions. Aspects of these late additions are or may be from

3069-519: The epistemic authority of the Vedas , while a part of the śramaṇa tradition became part of Hinduism as one stage in the Ashrama dharma, that is as renunciate sannyasins . Pali samaṇa has been suggested as the ultimate origin of the word Evenki сама̄н ( samān ) "shaman", possibly via Middle Chinese or Tocharian B ; however, the etymology of this word, which is also found in other Tungusic languages ,

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3168-702: The khandhas there is a permanent entity, an attā ." Similarly, in MN 2, the Sabbasava Sutta, the Buddha describes "a fetter of views" in the following manner: In general, "doubt" ( vicikicchā ) refers to doubt about the Buddha's teachings, the Dhamma . (Alternate contemporaneous teachings are represented in the adjacent table.) More specifically, in SN 22.84, the Tissa Sutta, the Buddha explicitly cautions against uncertainty regarding

3267-610: The Ācāranga sūtra defines a good śramaṇa: Disregarding (all calamities) he lives together with clever monks, insensitive to pain and pleasure, not hurting the movable and immovable (beings), not killing, bearing all: so is described the great sage, a good Sramana. The chapter on renunciation contains a śramaṇa vow of non-possession: I shall become a śramaṇa who owns no house, no property, no sons, no cattle, who eats what others give him; I shall commit no sinful action; Master, I renounce to accept anything that has not been given.' Having taken such vows, (a mendicant) should not, on entering

3366-422: The Ājīvika . The śramaṇa religions became popular in the same circles of mendicants from greater Magadha that led to the development of spiritual practices, as well as the popular concepts in all major Indian religions such as saṃsāra (the cycle of birth and death) and moksha (liberation from that cycle). The Śramaṇic traditions have a diverse range of beliefs, ranging from accepting or denying

3465-561: The 2nd century CE text Ashokavadana , the Mauryan emperor Bindusara was a patron of the Ajivikas, and it reached its peak of popularity during this time. Ashokavadana also mentions that Bindusara's son Ashoka converted to Buddhism, became enraged at a picture that depicted Buddha in negative light, and issued an order to kill all the Ajivikas in Pundravardhana . Around 18,000 followers of

3564-417: The 3rd century BCE Dhammapada , verse 265: samitattā pāpānaŋ ʻsamaṇoʼ ti pavuccati ("someone who has pacified evil is called samaṇa "). The word śramaṇa is postulated to be derived from the verbal root śram , meaning "to exert effort, labor or to perform austerity". The history of wandering monks in ancient India is partly untraceable. The term 'parivrajaka' was perhaps applicable to all

3663-499: The 5th century AD. Gregory Schopen argues that it is not until the 5th to 6th centuries AD that we have any definite evidence about the contents of the Canon. This position was criticized by A. Wynne. Western scholarship suggests that the composition of the Abhidhamma Pitaka likely began around 300 BCE, but may have drawn on an earlier tradition of lists and rubrics known as " matrika ". Traditional accounts include it among

3762-635: The Abhidhamma works recognized by other Buddhist schools. The Canon is traditionally described by the Theravada as the Word of the Buddha ( buddhavacana ), though this is not intended in a literal sense, since it includes teachings by disciples. The traditional Theravādin ( Mahavihārin ) interpretation of the Pali Canon is given in a series of commentaries covering nearly the whole Canon, compiled by Buddhaghosa ( fl. 4th–5th century AD) and later monks, mainly on

3861-523: The Ajivika sect were executed as a result of this order. Jaina texts mention separation and conflict between Mahavira and Gosala, accusation of contemptuous comments, and an occasion where the Jaina and Ajivika monastic orders "came to blows". However, given the texts alleging conflict and portraying Ajivikas and Gosala in negative light were written centuries after the incident by their śramaṇa opponents, and given

3960-425: The Buddha, and that the later teachings were memorized by the Buddha's followers while he was still alive. His thesis is based on study of the processes of the first great council, and the methods for memorization used by the monks, which started during the Buddha's lifetime. It's also based on the capability of a few monks, to this day, to memorize the entire canon. Bhikkhu Sujato and Bhikkhu Brahmali argue that it

4059-454: The Canon consists of three pitakas. Details are given below. For more complete information, see standard references on Pali literature. The first category, the Vinaya Pitaka , is mostly concerned with the rules of the sangha , both monks and nuns . The rules are preceded by stories telling how the Buddha came to lay them down, and followed by explanations and analysis. According to

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4158-531: The Canon for some time, but they do not appear to have tampered with what they already had from an earlier period." A variety of factors suggest that the early Sri Lankan Buddhists regarded canonical literature as such and transmitted it conservatively. Theravada tradition generally treats the Canon as a whole as originating with the Buddha and his immediate disciples (with the exception of certain, generally Abhidhamma texts, that explicitly refer to events long after his death). Scholars differ in their views regarding

4257-783: The Canon was published in Burma in 1900, in 38 volumes. The following editions of the Pali text of the Canon are readily available in the West: Pali Canon in English Translation , 1895-, in progress, 43 volumes so far, Pali Text Society, Bristol; for details of these and other translations of individual books see the separate articles. In 1994, the then President of the Pali Text Society stated that most of these translations were unsatisfactory. Another former President said in 2003 that most of

4356-692: The Canon, where the Buddha describes the Agnihotra as the foremost sacrifice and the Sāvitrī as the foremost meter: Shramana A śramaṇa ( Sanskrit : श्रमण , Sanskrit pronunciation: [ɕrɐmɐɳɐ] ; Pali : 𑀲𑀫𑀡 , romanized:  samaṇa ; Chinese : 沙門 ; pinyin : shāmén ; Vietnamese : sa môn ) is a person "who labours, toils, or exerts themselves for some higher or religious purpose" or "seeker, one who performs acts of austerity, ascetic". The śramaṇa tradition includes primarily Jainism , Buddhism , and others such as

4455-533: The Fetters," the Buddha states that one abandons the fetters "when one knows and sees ... as impermanent " (Pali: anicca ) the twelve sense bases ( āyatana ), the associated six sense-consciousness ( viññaṇa ), and the resultant contact ( phassa ) and sensations ( vedanā ). Similarly, in SN 35.55, "Uprooting the Fetters," the Buddha states that one uproots the fetters "when one knows and sees ... as nonself " ( anatta )

4554-526: The Mahavira as about contemporaneous with the Buddha in the 5th-century BCE, and accordingly the historical Parshvanatha , based on the c. 250-year gap, is placed in 8th or 7th century BCE. It was as a śramaṇa that the Buddha left his father's palace and practised austerities. Gautama Buddha , after fasting nearly to death by starvation, regarded extreme austerities and self-mortification as useless or unnecessary in attaining enlightenment, recommending instead

4653-542: The Pali Canon is found also in the scriptures of other early schools of Buddhism, parts of whose versions are preserved, mainly in Chinese. Many scholars have argued that this shared material can be attributed to the period of Pre-sectarian Buddhism . This is the period before the early schools separated in about the fourth or third century BC. Some scholars see the Pali Canon as expanding and changing from an unknown nucleus. Arguments given for an agnostic attitude include that

4752-439: The Pali Canon of Sri Lanka is a modified Canon and "there is no good reason to assume that Sri Lankan Buddhism resembles Early Buddhism in the mainland, and there are numerous reasons to argue that it does not." Dr. Peter Masefield M.P.T.S. researched a form of Pali known as Indochinese Pali or "Kham Pali". It had been considered a degraded form of Pali, but Masefield states that further examination of texts will probably show it

4851-498: The Pali canon to the Buddha's early followers. Peter Harvey states that "much" of the Pali Canon must derive from the Buddha's teaching, but also that "parts of the Pali Canon clearly originated after the time of the Buddha." A.K. Warder stated that there is no evidence to suggest that the shared teaching of the early schools was formulated by anyone else than the Buddha and his immediate followers. J.W. de Jong said it would be "hypocritical" to assert that we can say nothing about

4950-528: The Sri Lankan Pali Canon had been translated first into Indo-Chinese Pali, and then, at least in part, back again into Pali. One of the edicts of Ashoka , the "Calcutta-Bairat edict", lists several works from the canon which Ashoka considered advantageous. According to Alexander Wynne: The general consensus seems to be that what Asoka calls Munigatha correspond to the Munisutta (Sn 207–221), Moneyasute

5049-466: The Vedic era, neither did the Śramaṇa concept refer to an identifiable class, nor to ascetic groups as it does in later Indian literature. Additionally, in the early texts, some pre-dating 3rd-century BCE ruler Ashoka , the Brahmana and Śramaṇa are neither distinct nor opposed. The distinction, according to Olivelle, in later Indian literature "may have been a later semantic development possibly influenced by

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5148-519: The absolute teaching, while the suttas are adapted to the hearer. Most scholars describe the abhidhamma as an attempt to systematize the teachings of the suttas: Cousins says that where the suttas think in terms of sequences or processes the abhidhamma thinks in terms of specific events or occasions. The Pali Canon uses many Brahmanical terminology and concepts. For example, the Sundarika Sutta includes an analogy, quoted in several other places in

5247-512: The appropriation of the latter term [Sramana] by Buddhism and Jainism". The Vedic society, states Olivelle, contained many people whose roots were non-Aryan who must have influenced the Aryan classes. However, it is difficult to identify and isolate these influences, in part because the vedic culture not only developed from influences but also from its inner dynamism and socio-economic developments. According to Indian anthropologist Ramaprasad Chanda

5346-755: The arrival of Buddha. According to the Jain Agamas and the Buddhist Pāli Canon , there were other śramaṇa leaders at the time of Buddha. In the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta ( DN 16), a śramaṇa named Subhadda mentions: ...those ascetics, samaṇa and Brahmins who have orders and followings, who are teachers, well-known and famous as founders of schools, and popularly regarded as saints, like Pūraṇa Kassapa , Makkhali Gosāla , Ajita Kesakambalī , Pakudha Kaccāyana , Sanjaya Belatthiputta and Nigaṇṭha Nātaputta (Mahavira)... The traditional view of scholars in

5445-475: The available evidence. According to Olivelle, and other scholars such as Edward Crangle, the concept of Śramaṇa exists in the early Brahmanical literature. The term is used in an adjectival sense for sages who lived a special way of life that the Vedic culture considered extraordinary. However, Vedic literature does not provide details of that life. The term did not imply any opposition to either Brahmins or householders. In all likelihood states Olivelle, during

5544-496: The base of people wanting to become Buddhists. Buddhism also developed a code for interaction of world-pursuing lay people and world-denying Buddhist monastic communities , which encouraged continued relationship between the two. Collins states, for example, that two rules of the vinaya (monastic code) were that a person could not join a monastic community without parent's permission, and that at least one son remained with each family to care for that family. Buddhism also combined

5643-720: The basis of earlier materials now lost. Subcommentaries were written afterward, commenting further on the Canon and its commentaries. The traditional Theravādin interpretation is summarized in Buddhaghosa's Visuddhimagga . A spokesman for the Buddha Sasana Council of Burma states that the Canon contains everything needed to show the path to nirvāna ; the commentaries and subcommentaries sometimes include much speculative matter, but are faithful to its teachings and often give very illuminating illustrations. In Sri Lanka and Thailand , "official" Buddhism has in large part adopted

5742-457: The canon was composed soon after Buddha's paranirvana, but after a period of free improvisation, and then the core teachings were preserved nearly verbatim by memory. Hajime Nakamura writes that while nothing can be definitively attributed to Gautama as a historical figure, some sayings or phrases must derive from him. Most scholars agree there was a rough body of sacred literature that an early community maintained and transmitted. Much of

5841-743: The common era, inscriptions suggests that the Ājīvikas had a significant presence in the South Indian state of Karnataka and the Kolar district of Tamil Nadu . Original scriptures of the Ājīvika school of philosophy once existed, but these are unavailable and probably lost. Their theories are extracted from mentions of Ājīvikas in the secondary sources of ancient Indian literature. Scholars question whether Ājīvika philosophy has been fairly and completely summarized in these secondary sources, written by ancient Buddhist and Jaina scholars, who represented competing and adversarial philosophies to Ājīvikas. According to

5940-518: The concept of Soul , fatalism to free will, idealization of extreme asceticism to that of family life, renunciation, strict ahimsa (non-violence) and vegetarianism to permissibility of violence and meat-eating. One of the earliest recorded uses of the word śramaṇa , in the sense of a mendicant, is in verse 4.3.22 of the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad composed by about the 6th century BCE. The concept of renunciation and monk-like lifestyle

6039-427: The continuing interaction, such as giving alms to renunciants, in terms of merit gained for good rebirth and good karma by the lay people. This code played a historic role in its growth, and provided a means for reliable alms (food, clothing) and social support for Buddhism. Randall Collins states that Buddhism was more a reform movement within the educated religious classes, composed mostly of Brahmins , rather than

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6138-428: The evidence for the Buddha's teachings dates from long after his death. Some scholars of later Indian Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism say that little or nothing goes back to the Buddha. Ronald Davidson has little confidence that much, if any, of surviving Buddhist scripture is actually the word of the historical Buddha. Geoffrey Samuel says the Pali Canon largely derives from the work of Buddhaghosa and his colleagues in

6237-413: The evidence suggests that only parts of the Canon ever enjoyed wide currency, and that non-canonical works were sometimes much more widely used; the details varied from place to place. Rupert Gethin suggests that the whole of Buddhist history may be regarded as a working out of the implications of the early scriptures. According to a late part of the Pali Canon, the Buddha taught the three pitakas. It

6336-399: The eye and material forms and the fetter that arises dependent on both (eye and forms); he understands how the arising of the non-arisen fetter comes to be; he understands how the abandoning of the arisen fetter comes to be; and he understands how the non-arising in the future of the abandoned fetter comes to be. [And thus] he understands the ear and sounds .... the organ of smell and odors ....

6435-544: The fetter of the ear, but rather the desire and lust that arise there in dependence on both: that is the fetter there...." The fetters are enumerated in different ways in the Pali canon 's Sutta Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka . The Pali canon's Sutta Pitaka identifies ten "fetters of becoming": As indicated in the adjacent table, throughout the Sutta Pitaka, the first five fetters are referred to as "lower fetters" ( orambhāgiyāni saṃyojanāni ) and are eradicated upon becoming

6534-493: The field, represented for example by Govind Chandra Pande in his 1957 study on the origins of Buddhism, is that Śramaṇa began as a "distinct and separate cultural and religious" tradition from Vedic religion . However, this claim is disputed by several Indologists and Sanskrit scholars such as Patrick Olivelle . Patrick Olivelle , a professor of Indology and known for his translations of major ancient Sanskrit works, states in his 1993 study that contrary to some representations,

6633-591: The fourth and final stage (arahatta). Uniquely, the Sutta Pitaka's "Householder Potaliya" Sutta ( MN 54), identifies eight fetters (including three of the Five Precepts ) whose abandonment "lead[s] to the cutting off of affairs" ( vohāra-samucchedāya saṃvattanti ): The following fetters are the first three mentioned in the Sutta Pitaka's list of ten fetters, as well as the Sa ṅ gīti Sutta and Abhidhamma Pitaka's list of "three fetters" (DN 33, Dhs. 1002 ff .). As indicated below, eradication of these three fetters

6732-492: The height of their prominence in the late 1st millennium BCE, then declined, yet continued to exist in south India until the 14th century CE, as evidenced by inscriptions found in southern India. Ancient texts of Buddhism and Jainism mention a city in the first millennium BCE named Savatthi (Sanskrit Śravasti ) as the hub of the Ājīvikas; it was located in what is now the North Indian state of Uttar Pradesh . In later part of

6831-467: The independent existence of soul and matter, predominance of karma , the denial of a creative and omnipotent God , belief in an eternal and uncreated universe , a strong emphasis on nonviolence , an accent on anekantavada and morality and ethics based on liberation of the soul . The Jain philosophy of anekantavada and syādvāda , which posits that the truth or reality is perceived differently from different points of view, and that no single point of view

6930-416: The infatuation of good works, the delusion that they suffice" or, more simply, "fall[ing] back on attachment to precepts and rules." While the fetter of doubt can be seen as pertaining to the teachings of competing samana during the times of the Buddha, this fetter regarding rites and rituals likely refers to some practices of contemporary brahmanic authorities. "Here, O bhikkhus , a bhikkhu understands

7029-481: The interpretations of Western scholars. Although the Canon has existed in written form for two millennia, its earlier oral nature has not been forgotten in Buddhist practice: memorization and recitation remain common. Among frequently recited texts are the Paritta . Even lay people usually know at least a few short texts by heart and recite them regularly; this is considered a form of meditation, at least if one understands

7128-447: The language of the kingdom of Magadhi as spoken by the Buddha, linguists have identified Pali as being more closely related to other prakrit languages of western India, and found substantial incompatibilities with the few preserved examples of Magadhi and other north-eastern prakrit languages. Linguistic research suggests that the teachings of the Buddha may have been recorded in an eastern Indian language originally, and transposed into

7227-549: The late 4th century AD). The surviving Sri Lankan version is the most complete, but was extensively redacted about 1,000 years after Buddha's death, in the 5th or 6th century CE. The earliest textual fragments of canonical Pali were found in the Pyu city-states in Burma dating only to the mid 5th to mid 6th century CE. The Pāli Canon falls into three general categories, called pitaka (from Pali piṭaka , meaning "basket", referring to

7326-550: The life of Buddha, Mahavira and the Buddha were leaders of their śramaṇa orders. Nigaṇṭha Nātaputta refers to Mahāvīra. According to Pande, Jainas were the same as the Niganthas mentioned in the Buddhist texts, and they were a well established sect when Buddha began preaching. He states, without identifying supporting evidence, that " Jainas " appear to have belonged to the non-Vedic Munis and Sramanas who may have been ultimately connected with pre-Vedic civilization". The śramaṇa system

7425-499: The long loose locks (of hair) supports Agni, and moisture, heaven, and earth; He is all sky to look upon: he with long hair is called this light. The Munis , girdled with the wind, wear garments of soil hue; They, following the wind's swift course, go where the Gods have gone before. The hymn uses the term vātaraśana (वातरशन) which means "girdled with wind". Some scholars have interpreted this to mean "sky-clad, naked monk" and therefore

7524-476: The meaning. Monks are of course expected to know quite a bit more (see Dhammapada below for an example). A Burmese monk named Vicittasara even learned the entire Canon by heart for the Sixth Council (again according to the usual Theravada numbering). The relation of the scriptures to Buddhism as it actually exists among ordinary monks and lay people is, as with other major religious traditions, problematic:

7623-520: The nucleus of the Buddhist teachings in the Pali Canon may derive from Gautama Buddha himself, but that part of it also was developed after the Buddha by his early followers. Richard Gombrich says that the main preachings of the Buddha (as in the Vinaya and Sutta Pitaka ) are coherent and cogent, and must be the work of a single person: the Buddha himself, not a committee of followers after his death. Other scholars are more cautious, and attribute part of

7722-460: The organ of taste and flavors .... the organ of touch and tactual objects .... [and] consciousness and mental objects ...." – Satipatthana Sutta ( MN 10) In MN 64, the "Greater Discourse to Mālunkyāputta," the Buddha states that the path to abandoning the five lower fetters (that is, the first five of the aforementioned "ten fetters") is through using jhana attainment and vipassana insights in tandem. In SN 35.54, "Abandoning

7821-577: The origin of Buddhism, not entirely to the Buddha, but to a "great religious ferment" towards the end of the Vedic period when the Brahmanic and Sramanic traditions intermingled. The Buddhist text of the Samaññaphala Sutta identifies six pre-Buddhist śrāmana schools, identifying them by their leader. These six schools are represented in the text to have diverse philosophies, which according to Padmanabh Jaini , may be "a biased picture and does not give

7920-453: The origin of the Pali Canon, but generally believe that the Canon includes several strata of relatively early and late texts, but with little consensus regarding the relative dating of different sections of the Canon or which texts belong to which era. Prayudh Payutto argues that the Pali Canon represents the teachings of the Buddha essentially unchanged apart from minor modifications. He argues that it also incorporates teachings that precede

8019-470: The original Śramaṇa tradition was a part of the Vedic one. He writes, Sramana in that context obviously means a person who is in the habit of performing srama. Far from separating these seers from the vedic ritual tradition, therefore, śramaṇa places them right at the center of that tradition. Those who see them [Sramana seers] as non-Brahmanical, anti-Brahmanical, or even non-Aryan precursors of later sectarian ascetics are drawing conclusions that far outstrip

8118-481: The origins of Sramanism back to pre-Vedic and pre-Aryan cultures, particularly those practicing magic. He posited that the practice of asceticism could be linked to the initiatory phases of seclusion and abstinence observed by shamans. According to Bronkhorst, the sramana culture arose in " Greater Magadha ," which was Indo-Aryan, but not Vedic. In this culture, Kshatriyas were placed higher than Brahmins, and it rejected Vedic authority and rituals. Pande attributes

8217-523: The peripatetic monks of India, such as those found in Buddhism, Jainism and Brahmanism. The śramaṇa refers to a variety of renunciate ascetic traditions from the middle of the 1st millennium BCE. The śramaṇas were individual, experiential and free-form traditions. The term "śramaṇas" is used sometimes to contrast them with "Brahmins" in terms of their religious models. Part of the śramaṇa tradition retained their distinct identity from Hinduism by rejecting

8316-508: The political geography it presents India at the time of Buddha, which changed soon after his death; that it has no mention of places in South India, which would have been well known to Indians not long after Buddha's death; and various other lines of evidence dating the material back to his time. The views of scholars concerning the authorship of the Pali Canon can be grouped into three categories: Several scholars of early Buddhism argue that

8415-449: The qualities of śramaṇas: He who (teaches) the great vows (of monks) and the five small vows (of the laity 3), the five Âsravas and the stoppage of the Âsravas, and control, who avoids Karman in this blessed life of Śramaṇas, him I call a Śramaṇa. Buddha initially practiced severe austerities, fasting himself nearly to death of starvation. However, he later considered extreme austerities and self-mortification as unnecessary and recommended

8514-469: The receptacles in which the palm-leaf manuscripts were kept). Thus, the canon is traditionally known as the Tipiṭaka ("three baskets"). The three pitakas are as follows: The Vinaya Pitaka and the Sutta Pitaka are remarkably similar to the works of the early Buddhist schools, often termed Early Buddhist Texts . The Abhidhamma Pitaka, however, is a strictly Theravada collection and has little in common with

8613-518: The recitations, and henceforth, the teachings were preserved orally by the Sangha . The Tipitaka that was transmitted to Sri Lanka during the reign of King Asoka was initially preserved orally and was later written down on palm leaves during the Fourth Buddhist Council in 29 BC, approximately 454 years after the death of Gautama Buddha . The claim that the texts were "spoken by the Buddha"

8712-583: The sense bases, sense consciousness, contact and sensations. The Pali canon traditionally describes cutting through the fetters in four stages : Similar Buddhist concepts found throughout the Pali Canon include the five hindrances ( nīvara ṇ āni ) and the ten defilements ( kilesā ). Comparatively speaking, in the Theravada tradition, fetters span multiple lifetimes and are difficult to remove, while hindrances are transitory obstacles. Defilements encompass all mental defilements including both fetters and hindrances. Pali canon The Pāli Canon

8811-538: The stories, the rules were devised on an ad hoc basis as the Buddha encountered various behavioral problems or disputes among his followers. This pitaka can be divided into three parts: The second category is the Sutta Pitaka (literally "basket of threads", or of "the well spoken"; Sanskrit: Sutra Pitaka , following the former meaning) which consists primarily of accounts of the Buddha's teachings. The Sutta Pitaka has five subdivisions, or nikayas : The third category,

8910-518: The teachings of earliest Buddhism, arguing that "the basic ideas of Buddhism found in the canonical writings could very well have been proclaimed by him [the Buddha], transmitted and developed by his disciples and, finally, codified in fixed formulas." Alex Wynne said that some texts in the Pali Canon may go back to the very beginning of Buddhism, which perhaps include the substance of the Buddha's teaching, and in some cases, maybe even his words. He suggests

9009-532: The texts recited at the First Buddhist Council and attribute differences in form and style to its composition by Sariputra . Opinions differ on what the earliest books of the Canon are. The majority of Western scholars consider the earliest identifiable stratum to be mainly prose works, the Vinaya (excluding the Parivāra) and the first four nikāyas of the Sutta Pitaka, and perhaps also some short verse works such as

9108-573: The time of the reign of Ashoka (304–232 BC), which means that some of the texts carried by the Buddhist missionaries at this time might also have been fixed. According to the Sri Lankan Mahavamsa , the Pali Canon was written down in the reign of King Vattagāmini ( Vaṭṭagāmiṇi ) (1st century BCE) in Sri Lanka , at the Fourth Buddhist council . Most scholars hold that little if anything

9207-469: The tradition of individual ascetic and latter of disciples, and that Buddhism and Jainism ultimately emerged from these as sectarian manifestations. These traditions drew upon already established Brahmanical concepts, states Wiltshire, to communicate their own distinct doctrines. Reginald Ray concurs that Śramaṇa movements already existed and were established traditions in pre-6th century BCE India, but disagrees with Wiltshire that they were nonsectarian before

9306-426: The translations were done very badly. The style of many translations from the Canon has been criticized as "Buddhist Hybrid English" , a term invented by Paul Griffiths for translations from Sanskrit. He describes it as "deplorable", "comprehensible only to the initiate, written by and for Buddhologists". Selections: see List of Pali Canon anthologies . A translation by Bhikkhu Nanamoli and Bhikkhu Bodhi of

9405-477: The versions in Buddhist and Jaina texts are different, the reliability of these stories, states Basham, is questionable. Jainism derives its philosophy from the teachings and lives of the twenty-four Tirthankaras , of whom Mahavira was the last. Acharyas Umaswati , Kundakunda , Haribhadra , Yaśovijaya Gaṇi and others further developed and reorganized Jain philosophy in its present form. The distinguishing features of Jain philosophy are its belief in

9504-522: The west Indian precursor of Pali sometime before the Asokan era. Much of the material in the Canon is not specifically Theravādin, but is instead the collection of teachings that this school preserved from the early, non-sectarian body of teachings. According to Peter Harvey , it contains material which is at odds with later Theravādin orthodoxy. He states that "the Theravādins, then, may have added texts to

9603-489: Was added to the Canon after this, though Schopen questions this. The climate of Theravāda countries is not conducive to the survival of manuscripts. Apart from brief quotations in inscriptions and a two-page fragment from the eighth or ninth century found in Nepal , the oldest manuscripts known are from late in the fifteenth century, and there is not very much from before the eighteenth. The first complete printed edition of

9702-526: Was only after some time that it was generally accepted. Therefore, it was much later that the records of this event were transformed into an account of a "council" (sangayana or sangiti ) which was held under the patronage of King Vattagamani . Textual fragments of similar teachings have been found in the agama of other major Buddhist schools in India. They were, however, written down in various Prakrits other than Pali as well as Sanskrit . Some of those were later translated into Chinese (earliest dating to

9801-627: Was reinforced by regular communal recitations. The tradition holds that only a few later additions were made. The Theravādin pitakas were first written down in Sri Lanka in the Alu Viharaya Temple no earlier than 29–17 BC. The geographic setting of identifiable texts within the Canon generally corresponds to locations in the Ganges region of northeastern India, including the kingdoms of Kosala , Kasi , Vajji , and Magadha . While Theravada tradition has generally regarded Pali as being synonymous with

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