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61-515: Being close to Potosí the thermal springs called "Ojo del Inca" (Eye of the Inca) in Tarapaya are often visited by tourists. 19°28′31″S 65°47′53″W  /  19.4753°S 65.7981°W  / -19.4753; -65.7981 This Potosí Department location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Potos%C3%AD Potosí , known as Villa Imperial de Potosí in

122-470: A thin section using a method like the Gazzi-Dickinson Method . This yields the relative percentages of quartz, feldspar, and lithic grains and the amount of clay matrix. The composition of a sandstone can provide important information on the genesis of the sediments when used with a triangular Q uartz, F eldspar, L ithic fragment ( QFL diagrams ). However, geologist have not been able to agree on

183-594: A 20% severance tax on gross value. From the raw materials extracted from the mines, coins called pieces of eight were fashioned at the Potosí mint. For Europeans, Peru– Bolivia was located in the Viceroyalty of Peru and was known as " Upper Peru " before becoming independent as part of Bolivia . Potosí was a mythical land of riches, it is mentioned in Miguel de Cervantes ' famous novel, Don Quixote (second part, chap. LXXI) as

244-448: A Potosí"), meaning "to be of great value". The rich mountain, Cerro Rico , produced an estimated 60% of all silver mined in the world during the second half of the 16th century. Potosí miners at first mined the rich oxidized ores with native silver and silver chloride ( cerargyrite ) that could be fed directly into smelting furnaces. Especially successful were the small clay "flower pot" furnaces called guayras , which had been used by

305-442: A candle tied to their foreheads. Many of them died or were seriously injured due to falls, accidents, and the harsh conditions of the mine life. Illness was another danger: at such a high altitude, pneumonia was always a concern, especially given the extreme and rapid changes of temperature experienced by workers climbing from the heat of the deep shafts to the freezing elements of the surface at 16,000 feet, and mercury poisoning took

366-473: A greater extent. According to his research, though as few as 4500 mitayos were actively laboring in the mines at any given time, this was due to the mita ordinaria system, in which the up to 13,500 men conscripted per year were divided into three parts, each working one out of every three weeks. In addition, many of the remaining mingas and wage workers were either mita ordinaria workers on their off weeks or former mitayos who remained in Potosí. Within

427-529: A land of "extraordinary richness". One theory holds that the mint mark of Potosí (the letters "PTSI" superimposed on one another) is the origin of the dollar sign . The urban complex in the remote Andes was important enough to be designated a Villa Imperial in the hierarchy of Spanish urban settlements. Although in mountainous terrain, the core of Potosí was laid out in the standard Spanish grid pattern, where by 1610 some 3,000 Spaniards and 35,000 creoles, mostly male, were resident. Indigenous settlements outside

488-465: A little over a century earlier. This only increased the burden on the remaining natives, and at some point in the 1600s, up to half of the eligible male population might find themselves working at Potosí. Nevertheless, the number of mitayos dropped to about 4,000 by 1689, prompting the Viceroy Duke of Palata to raise the number again through a new census and inclusion of new populations not subject to

549-510: A result of the extreme precipitation deficit during the winter months, with the resulting aridity leading to an increased diurnal temperature variation. Potosí is home to football teams Real and Nacional , which play their matches at the 32,000-capacity multi-purpose stadium Estadio Víctor Agustín Ugarte , one of the highest stadiums in the world. The city is served by Aeropuerto Capitán Nicolas Rojas , with commercial airline flights by Boliviana de Aviación , Bolivia's flag air carrier. There

610-478: A sandstone goes through as the degree of kinetic processing of the sediments increases. Dott's (1964) sandstone classification scheme is one of many such schemes used by geologists for classifying sandstones. Dott's scheme is a modification of Gilbert's classification of silicate sandstones, and it incorporates R.L. Folk's dual textural and compositional maturity concepts into one classification system. The philosophy behind combining Gilbert's and R. L. Folk's schemes

671-459: A set of boundaries separating regions of the QFL triangle. Visual aids are diagrams that allow geologists to interpret different characteristics of a sandstone. For example, a QFL chart can be marked with a provenance model that shows the likely tectonic origin of sandstones with various compositions of framework grains. Likewise, the stage of textural maturity chart illustrates the different stages that

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732-465: A thunderous noise, whereas it does in Aymara . Thus, if Potosí encompasses the idea of a thunderous noise, the location would have an Aymaran root rather than a Quechuan. The actual sharp structure of the term is contrary to the nature of both Aymara and Quechua. Another explanation, given by several Quechua speakers, is that potoq is an onomatopoeic word that reproduces the sound of the hammer against

793-445: A twofold classification: Cement is what binds the siliciclastic framework grains together. Cement is a secondary mineral that forms after deposition and during burial of the sandstone. These cementing materials may be either silicate minerals or non-silicate minerals, such as calcite. Sandstone that becomes depleted of its cement binder through weathering gradually becomes friable and unstable. This process can be somewhat reversed by

854-837: Is a distinction that can be recognized in the field . In turn, the distinction between an orthoquartzite and a metaquartzite is the onset of recrystallization of existing grains. The dividing line may be placed at the point where strained quartz grains begin to be replaced by new, unstrained, small quartz grains, producing a mortar texture that can be identified in thin sections under a polarizing microscope. With increasing grade of metamorphism, further recrystallization produces foam texture , characterized by polygonal grains meeting at triple junctions, and then porphyroblastic texture , characterized by coarse, irregular grains, including some larger grains ( porphyroblasts .) Sandstone has been used since prehistoric times for construction, decorative art works and tools. It has been widely employed around

915-796: Is also a railroad, the Rio Mulatos-Potosí line . The city of San Luis Potosí in Mexico was named after Potosí in Bolivia. In the United States, the name Potosi was optimistically given to lead-mining towns of Potosi, Wisconsin , and Potosi, Missouri , and also to the silver-mining town of Potosi, Nevada . Sandstone Sandstone is a clastic sedimentary rock composed mainly of sand-sized (0.0625 to 2 mm) silicate grains, cemented together by another mineral. Sandstones comprise about 20–25% of all sedimentary rocks . Most sandstone

976-546: Is composed of quartz or feldspar , because they are the most resistant minerals to the weathering processes at the Earth's surface. Like uncemented sand , sandstone may be imparted any color by impurities within the minerals, but the most common colors are tan, brown, yellow, red, grey, pink, white, and black. Because sandstone beds can form highly visible cliffs and other topographic features, certain colors of sandstone have become strongly identified with certain regions, such as

1037-523: Is likely formed during eogenesis. Deeper burial is accompanied by mesogenesis , during which most of the compaction and lithification takes place. Compaction takes place as the sand comes under increasing pressure from overlying sediments. Sediment grains move into more compact arrangements, ductile grains (such as mica grains) are deformed, and pore space is reduced. In addition to this physical compaction, chemical compaction may take place via pressure solution . Points of contact between grains are under

1098-697: Is no authoritative etymology for the word Potosí . According to legend, in about 1462, Huayna Capac , the eleventh Sapa Inca of what by then was known as the Inca Empire "set out for Ccolque Porco and Andaccaua, the location of his mines from which were taken innumerable arrobas of silver" (an arroba is a Spanish unit of weight equivalent to approximately 25 lb (11 kg)). Before leaving there, he saw Potosí, and admiring its beauty and grandeur, he said (speaking to those of his Court): "This doubtless must have much silver in its heart"; whereby he subsequently ordered his vassals to go to Ccolque Porco ... and work

1159-431: Is redeposited in the unstrained pore spaces. Mechanical compaction takes place primarily at depths less than 1,000 meters (3,300 ft). Chemical compaction continues to depths of 2,000 meters (6,600 ft), and most cementation takes place at depths of 2,000–5,000 meters (6,600–16,400 ft). Unroofing of buried sandstone is accompanied by telogenesis , the third and final stage of diagenesis. As erosion reduces

1220-443: Is that it is better able to "portray the continuous nature of textural variation from mudstone to arenite and from stable to unstable grain composition". Dott's classification scheme is based on the mineralogy of framework grains, and on the type of matrix present in between the framework grains. In this specific classification scheme, Dott has set the boundary between arenite and wackes at 15% matrix. In addition, Dott also breaks up

1281-631: The Rio de la Plata . Some of the silver was also transported to Acapulco, Mexico , where it was sent via the Manila Galleons to buy Asian products. Cerro de Potosí's peak is 4,824 m (15,827 ft) above sea level . Today, Potosí continues to be an important mining center, and is the largest urban center in the Department of Potosí. A growing city, Potosí is now famous for its well-preserved colonial architecture, and unusual geographic setting as one of

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1342-613: The Spanish Empire until Guanajuato in Mexico surpassed it in the 18th century. The silver was taken by llama and mule train to the Pacific coast, shipped north to Panama City , and carried by mule train across the isthmus of Panama to Nombre de Dios or Portobelo , whence it was taken to Spain on the Spanish treasure fleets . Some of the silver also made its way east to Buenos Aires , via

1403-437: The dacite volcanic dome . The hill is "honeycombed" with underground workings, reaching from the summit to depths of 1,150 m (3,770 ft). The conical hill has a reddish-brown gossan cap of iron-oxides and quartz, with grayish-blue altered dacite and many mine dumps below. Basement rocks consist of Ordovician clastic sediments consisting of phyllite with some sandstone interbedding . At about 13.8 Ma ,

1464-528: The Incan vassals desisted in their purpose and returned to Porco and told the king what had happened; relating the occurrence in their own language, on coming to the word noise, they said "Potocsí" which means there was a great thunderous noise, and from that later was derived (corrupting a letter) the name of potosí. It is believed that Potosí is a Quechua word. However, in Quechua the root p'otoj does not refer to

1525-474: The Incas. By 1565, the miners had exhausted the direct-smelting ore, and silver production plummeted. Silver production was revived by the introduction of the patio process , invented by Spanish merchant Bartolomé de Medina in 1554. The patio process used mercury amalgamation to extract silver from lower-grade ores, and those containing silver sulfide ( argentite ), as was typical of the unoxidized ores found deeper in

1586-507: The Philippines using the Manila Galleons , resulted in a spectacular mining boom. The true champion of this boom in the silver industry was indeed the Spanish crown. By allowing private-sector entrepreneurs to operate mines under license and placing high taxes on mining profits, the Spanish empire was able to extract the greatest benefits. An example of a tax that was levied includes the quinto ,

1647-491: The application of tetraethyl orthosilicate (Si(OC 2 H 5 ) 4 ) which will deposit amorphous silicon dioxide between the sand grains. The reaction is as follows. Pore space includes the open spaces within a rock or a soil. The pore space in a rock has a direct relationship to the porosity and permeability of the rock. The porosity and permeability are directly influenced by the way the sand grains are packed together. Sandstones are typically classified by point-counting

1708-500: The colonial period, is the capital city and a municipality of the Department of Potosí in Bolivia . It is one of the highest cities in the world at a nominal 4,090 m (13,420 ft). For centuries, it was the location of the Spanish colonial silver mint . A considerable amount of the city's colonial architecture has been preserved in the historic center of the city, which—along with

1769-686: The command of Juan José Castelli ), which led to an increased sense that Potosí required its own independent government. Later, the Second Auxiliary Army (under the command of Manuel Belgrano ) was forced to retreat, Belgrano made the decision to blow up the Casa de la Moneda . The natives undid the fuse, as many refused to evacuate and would have lost their lives. Two more expeditions from Buenos Aires would seize Potosí. Potosí continues to be an important administrative center, mining town, tourist attraction, and population center in modern Bolivia. There

1830-468: The common minerals most resistant to weathering processes at the Earth's surface, as seen in the Goldich dissolution series . Framework grains can be classified into several different categories based on their mineral composition: Matrix is very fine material, which is present within interstitial pore space between the framework grains. The nature of the matrix within the interstitial pore space results in

1891-556: The core were more haphazard. The villa was governed by a Spanish corregidor and town council. Some 40 notaries documented and recorded commercial transactions as well as last wills and testaments. Since Potosí was of such economic importance to the Spanish Empire , the crown bureaucracy was a significant presence. Large churches, lavishly decorated inside, were built, and friars from the Dominican, Franciscans, Augustinians, Mercederians, and Jesuits were present, but no convent for women. There

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1952-456: The depositional environment, older sand is buried by younger sediments, and it undergoes diagenesis . This mostly consists of compaction and lithification of the sand. Early stages of diagenesis, described as eogenesis , take place at shallow depths (a few tens of meters) and are characterized by bioturbation and mineralogical changes in the sands, with only slight compaction. The red hematite that gives red bed sandstones their color

2013-407: The depth of burial, renewed exposure to meteoric water produces additional changes to the sandstone, such as dissolution of some of the cement to produce secondary porosity . Framework grains are sand-sized (0.0625-to-2-millimeter (0.00246 to 0.07874 in) diameter) detrital fragments that make up the bulk of a sandstone. Most framework grains are composed of quartz or feldspar , which are

2074-446: The different types of framework grains that can be present in a sandstone into three major categories: quartz, feldspar, and lithic grains. When sandstone is subjected to the great heat and pressure associated with regional metamorphism , the individual quartz grains recrystallize, along with the former cementing material, to form the metamorphic rock called quartzite . Most or all of the original texture and sedimentary structures of

2135-544: The dome was extruded . During the explosive process, the Venus breccia formed when the ascending dacite magma reacted with groundwater to produce a phreatic eruption . The released pressure allowed the formation of the Caracoles tuff ring on top of the breccia. The magma then extruded outward from a dike to form a volcanic dome over the tuff . The dacite dome is 1,700 m (5,600 ft) by 1,200 m (3,900 ft) at

2196-477: The female population were sex workers, which is a typical phenomenon in mining towns generally. In the early 17th century, Basques were well established in the city and made up for a substantial number of the inhabitants in Potosí. They gathered in a confederation opposed to another one, the Vicuñas , a melting pot of natives and non-Basque Spanish and Portuguese colonists, fighting for control over ore extraction from

2257-509: The globally important Cerro Rico de Potosí—are part of a designated UNESCO World Heritage Site. Potosí lies at the foot of the Cerro de Potosí —sometimes referred to as the Cerro Rico ("rich mountain")—a mountain popularly conceived of as being "made of" silver ore that dominates the city. The Cerro Rico is the reason for Potosí's historical importance since it was the major supply of silver for

2318-433: The greatest strain, and the strained mineral is more soluble than the rest of the grain. As a result, the contact points are dissolved away, allowing the grains to come into closer contact. Lithification follows closely on compaction, as increased temperatures at depth hasten deposition of cement that binds the grains together. Pressure solution contributes to cementing, as the mineral dissolved from strained contact points

2379-442: The hardness of individual grains, uniformity of grain size and friability of their structure, some types of sandstone are excellent materials from which to make grindstones , for sharpening blades and other implements. Non-friable sandstone can be used to make grindstones for grinding grain, e.g., gritstone . A type of pure quartz sandstone, orthoquartzite, with more of 90–95 percent of quartz, has been proposed for nomination to

2440-487: The highest cities in the world. It features a rare cold highland climate, and is marked by its long dry period, and short but strong wet season. While famous for its dominance as a mining center in early Spanish colonial history, Potosí still sits at one of the largest silver deposit systems in the world. Located in the Bolivian Tin Belt, Cerro Rico de Potosí is the world's largest silver deposit and has been mined since

2501-501: The impact of the Potosi mita on the Indians is that mita labor was only one form of work at the mines. A 1603 report stated that of 58,800 Indians working at Potosi, 5100 were mitayos , or fewer than one in ten. In addition to the mitayos there were 10,500 mingas (contractual workers) and 43,200 free wage earners." However, historian Peter Bakewell emphasizes the role of mita labor in Potosí to

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2562-426: The indigenous population. These mitayos faced harsh conditions in the mines, where they were often given the least desirable jobs. While more skilled laborers extracted the ore, mitayos were tasked with carrying it back to the surface in baskets, leather bags, or cloth sacks. These loads often weighed between 100 and 300 lbs, and the workers had to carry them up rickety ladders in steep, narrow shafts lit only by

2623-421: The lives of many involved in the refining process. The Potosí mita caused dramatic demographic shifts in the local indigenous population as wives and children moved with workers to Potosí while thousands more fled their traditional villages, forfeiting their ayllu land rights in order to escape the labor draft. By the late 17th century, upper Peru had lost nearly 50% of its indigenous population compared to

2684-583: The mines and its management. Eventually, tension among both factions came to a head, resulting in the eruption of overt armed conflict starting 1622 up to 1625. The Spanish Crown intervened, siding at one point with the Basques. Both factions reached a settlement sealed with a wedding between the son and daughter of the leaders in either side, the Basque Francisco Oyanume and the Vicuña general Castillo. One of

2745-461: The mines and remove from them all the rich metal. They did so, and having brought their tools of flint and reinforced wood, they climbed the hill; and after having probed for its veins, they were about to open those veins when they heard a frightening thunderous noise which shook the whole hill, and after this, they heard a voice which said: "Do not take the silver from this hill, because it is destined for other masters." Amazed at hearing this reasoning,

2806-399: The mines, a figure called el Tío acts as a deity of the land itself. El Tío serves as a figure of the mountain itself. Laborers within the mines offer coca leaves and alcohol to statues constructed within the mines of the deity to protect themselves from the dangerous conditions. Potosí was a multiracial society, with native Andeans, Spanish settlers, and black slaves. The largest sector of

2867-479: The mita ( forasteros ). The reform failed, and the Duke's successor set the official number to 4,108 mitayos (1,367 active each week). In reality, the number of mitayos was even lower due to the increasing practice of buying oneself out of the obligation. For the remaining mita workforce, however, conditions remained harsh. Mine and mill owners notoriously ignored official regulations on provisions and especially withheld

2928-512: The money the Indians should receive as recompensation for their travel. Just the cost of traveling to Potosí and back could be more than a mitayo was paid in a year, and so many of them chose to remain in Potosí as wage workers when their mita was finished. Former mitayos living in Potosí were not only exempt from the draft, but usually earned considerably more due to the valuable skills they had gained in permanent services. According to historian Noble David Cook, "A key factor in understanding

2989-521: The most famous Basque residents in Potosí (1617–19) was Catalina de Erauso , a nun who escaped her convent and dressed as a man, becoming a driver of llamas and a soldier. During the Bolivian War of Independence (1809–1825), Potosí frequently passed between the control of Royalist and Patriot forces. Major leadership mistakes came when the First Auxiliary Army arrived from Buenos Aires (under

3050-483: The mountain. In 1609, another mercury amalgamation method, the pan amalgamation process was invented in Potosí, and proved better-adapted to the conditions at Potosí. Spanish American mines were the world's most abundant sources of silver during this time period. Spanish America's ability to supply a great amount of silver and China's strong demand for this commodity which the Spanish supplied via Latin American trade with

3111-493: The much lower temperatures and pressures associated with diagenesis of sedimentary rock, but diagenesis has cemented the rock so thoroughly that microscopic examination is necessary to distinguish it from metamorphic quartzite. The term orthoquartzite is used to distinguish such sedimentary rock from metaquartzite produced by metamorphism. By extension, the term orthoquartzite has occasionally been more generally applied to any quartz-cemented quartz arenite . Orthoquartzite (in

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3172-464: The narrow sense) is often 99% SiO 2 with only very minor amounts of iron oxide and trace resistant minerals such as zircon , rutile and magnetite . Although few fossils are normally present, the original texture and sedimentary structures are preserved. The typical distinction between a true orthoquartzite and an ordinary quartz sandstone is that an orthoquartzite is so highly cemented that it will fracture across grains, not around them. This

3233-676: The ore, and oral tradition has it that the town derived its name from this word. Potosí has a rare climate for a city of its size, due to its extreme elevation at over 4,000m. Semi-arid and with average temperatures in its warmest month sitting right at 10 °C, the city's climate straddles a subtropical highland climate , Cwc , within the Köppen climate classification , with subpolar oceanic characteristics and an alpine climate (E). Summers are cool and wet. with daily highs rarely rising above 20 °C. Winters have cooler days with much colder nights, averaging −4 °C. These low temperatures are

3294-526: The population were native men, forced to labor underground mining the silver ore, but there were considerable opportunities for merchants and native traders, who became wealthy. Suppliers of food as well as holders of urban and rural real estate prospered in Potosí. Women, particularly widows, held property, since they were guaranteed a portion of their husband's estate under Spanish law. Small-scale female vendors dominated street markets and stalls, selling food, coca leaves, and chicha (maize beer). A portion of

3355-638: The product of physical and chemical weathering of bedrock. Weathering and erosion are most rapid in areas of high relief, such as volcanic arcs , areas of continental rifting , and orogenic belts . Eroded sand is transported by rivers or by the wind from its source areas to depositional environments where tectonics has created accommodation space for sediments to accumulate. Forearc basins tend to accumulate sand rich in lithic grains and plagioclase . Intracontinental basins and grabens along continental margins are also common environments for deposition of sand. As sediments continue to accumulate in

3416-704: The red rock deserts of Arches National Park and other areas of the American Southwest . Rock formations composed of sandstone usually allow the percolation of water and other fluids and are porous enough to store large quantities, making them valuable aquifers and petroleum reservoirs . Quartz-bearing sandstone can be changed into quartzite through metamorphism , usually related to tectonic compression within orogenic belts . Sandstones are clastic in origin (as opposed to either organic , like chalk and coal , or chemical , like gypsum and jasper ). The silicate sand grains from which they form are

3477-417: The sandstone are erased by the metamorphism. The grains are so tightly interlocked that when the rock is broken, it fractures through the grains to form an irregular or conchoidal fracture. Geologists had recognized by 1941 that some rocks show the macroscopic characteristics of quartzite, even though they have not undergone metamorphism at high pressure and temperature. These rocks have been subject only to

3538-502: The sixteenth century, producing up to 60,000 tonnes by 1996. Estimates are that much silver still remains in the mines. Potosí became the second largest city, and the site of the first mint, in the Americas. By 1891, low silver prices prompted the change to mining tin, which continued until 1985. At peak production in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the ore contained up to 40% silver. The ore deposits reside in veins present in

3599-433: The surface and narrows down to the 100 m (330 ft) wide dike at depth. Hydrothermal circulation and fracturing soon followed, altering the dacite and depositing ore minerals and gangue in the veins. Founded in 1545 as a mining town, it soon produced fabulous wealth, and the population eventually exceeded 200,000 people. The city gave rise to a Spanish expression, still in use: valer un Potosí ("to be worth

3660-612: The world in constructing temples, churches, homes and other buildings, and in civil engineering . Although its resistance to weathering varies, sandstone is easy to work. That makes it a common building and paving material, including in asphalt concrete . However, some types that have been used in the past, such as the Collyhurst sandstone used in North West England , have had poor long-term weather resistance, necessitating repair and replacement in older buildings. Because of

3721-575: Was an ecclesiastical court for legal issues regarding the clergy. Indigenous laborers were required to work in Potosí's silver mines through the Spanish mita system of forced labor, based on an analogous mit'a system traditional to pre-Hispanic Andean society (though the mit'a directed labor for public works and collective agricultural projects). Laborers were drawn from the native population of an area that encompassed almost 200,000 square miles. Thirteen thousand men were conscripted each year, constituting about one out of every seven adult males in

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