Tandava (also spelled as Tāṇḍavam ), also known as Tāṇḍava Natyam , is a divine dance performed by Hindu god Shiva . Shiva is depicted as dancing the Tandava in his form of Nataraja .
115-681: The Natya Shastra , a Sanskrit treatise on the performing arts, describes various aspects of the Tandava. Tandava, as performed in the sacred dance-drama of India, has vigorous, brisk movements. Performed with joy, the dance is called Ananda Tandava . Performed in a violent mood, the dance is called Raudra or Rudra Tandava . The types of Tandava found in the Hindu texts are: Ananda Tandava, Tripura Tandava, Sandhya Tandava, Samhara Tandava, Kali (Kalika) Tandava, Uma Tandava, Shiva Tandava, Krishna Tandava and Gauri Tandava. Tandava mudras and postures occur within
230-484: A comprehensive aid to the learning of virtue, proper behavior, ethical and moral fortitude, courage, love and adoration of the divine. — Susan L. Schwartz The contents of the Natyashastra , states Susan Schwartz, are "in part theatrical manual, part philosophy of aesthetics, part mythological history, part theology". It is the oldest surviving encyclopedic treatise on dramaturgy from India, with sections on
345-484: A Jain householder is the voluntary ritual practice of "assuming temporary ascetic status". There are many rituals in Jainism's various sects. According to Dundas, the ritualistic lay path among Śvētāmbara Jains is "heavily imbued with ascetic values", where the rituals either revere or celebrate the ascetic life of tirthankaras, or progressively approach the psychological and physical life of an ascetic. The ultimate ritual
460-567: A Jain mendicant for the period. Śvētāmbara Jains do similarly in the eight day paryusana with samvatsari-pratikramana . The practice is believed to remove karma from one's soul and provides merit ( punya ). A "one day" fast lasts about 36 hours, starting at sunset before the day of the fast and ending 48 minutes after sunrise the day after. Among laypeople, fasting is more commonly observed by women, as it shows their piety and religious purity, gains merit earning and helps ensure future well-being for their family. Some religious fasts are observed in
575-424: A body are called Siddhas (liberated souls). Only a soul with human body can attain enlightenment and liberation. The liberated beings are the supreme beings and are worshipped by all heavenly, earthly and hellish beings who aspire to attain liberation themselves. Purification of soul and liberation can be achieved through the path of three jewels: Samyak Darśana (Correct View), meaning faith, acceptance of
690-522: A classic Sanskrit bhasya ("reviews and commentaries") – written by Abhinavagupta . The title of the text is composed of two words, "Nāṭya" and "Shāstra". The root of the Sanskrit word Nāṭya is Nata (नट) which means "act, represent". The word Shāstra (शास्त्र) means "precept, rules, manual, compendium, book or treatise", and is generally used as a suffix in the Indian literature context, for knowledge in
805-452: A defined area of practice. Performance arts and culture Let Nāṭya (drama and dance) be the fifth vedic scripture . Combined with an epic story, tending to virtue, wealth, joy and spiritual freedom, it must contain the significance of every scripture, and forward every art. — Nāṭyaśāstra 1.14–15 The composition date of Nāṭya Shāstra is unknown. Estimates vary between 500 BCE to 500 CE. The text may have started in
920-507: A drama can deploy to carry its message. The text describes four means of communication between the actors and the audience – words, gestures, dresses, representation of temperament and aharya (make ups, cosmetics), all of which should be harmonious with the temperament envisioned in the drama. The text discusses the dominant, transitory and temperamental states, for dramatic arts, and the means that an artist can use to express these states, in chapters 6 through 7. The Natyashastra describes
1035-411: A duty to rescue all creatures", but resulting from "continual self-discipline", a cleansing of the soul that leads to one's own spiritual development which ultimately affects one's salvation and release from rebirths. Jains believe that causing injury to any being in any form creates bad karma which affects one's rebirth, future well-being and causes suffering. Late medieval Jain scholars re-examined
1150-545: A form of Vedic ritual ceremony (yajna). The general approach of the text is treated entertainment as an effect, but not the primary goal of arts. The primary goal is to lift and transport the spectators, unto the expression of ultimate reality and transcendent values. The text allows, states Schwartz, the artists "enormous innovation" as they connect the playwright and the spectators, through their performance, to Rasa (the essence, juice). The "rasa theory" of Natyashastra , states Daniel Meyer-Dinkgräfe, presumes that bliss
1265-589: A higher level of consciousness, suggests Natyashastra . Great songs do not instruct or lecture, they delight and liberate from within to a state of godlike ecstasy. According to Susan Schwartz, these sentiments and ideas of Natyashastra likely influenced the devotional songs and musical trends of the Bhakti movement that emerged in Hinduism during the second half of the 1st millennium CE. Indian dance ( nritta , नृत्त) traditions, states Daniel Meyer-Dinkgräfe, have roots in
SECTION 10
#17328551366011380-607: A manner similar to those found in more ancient Vedanga texts such as the Pingala Sutras . Chapters 28 through 34 are dedicated to music, both vocal and instrument based. Chapter 28, discusses the harmonic scale, calling the unit of tonal measurement or audible unit as Shruti , with verse 28.21 introducing the musical scale as follows, Jain Jainism ( / ˈ dʒ eɪ n ɪ z əm / JAY -niz-əm ), also known as Jain Dharma ,
1495-525: A play and the construction of a stage to host it, genres of acting, body movements, make up and costumes, role and goals of an art director, the musical scales, musical instruments and the integration of music with art performance. The Nāṭya Śāstra is notable as an ancient encyclopedic treatise on the arts, one which has influenced dance, music and literary traditions in India. It is also notable for its aesthetic "Rasa" theory, which asserts that entertainment
1610-464: A predominantly lacto-vegetarian lifestyle. Parasparopagraho jīvānām (the function of souls is to help one another) is the faith's motto, and the Namokar Mantra is its most common and strongest prayer. Jainism is one of the oldest religions still practiced today. It has two major ancient sub-traditions, Digambaras and Śvētāmbaras , which hold different views on ascetic practices, gender, and
1725-523: A social and supportive female group. Long fasts are celebrated by friends and families with special ceremonies. Jainism considers meditation ( dhyana ) a necessary practice, but its goals are very different from those in Buddhism and Hinduism. In Jainism, meditation is concerned more with stopping karmic attachments and activity, not as a means to transformational insights or self-realization in other Indian religions. According to Padmanabh Jaini , Sāmāyika
1840-411: A stricter vow by eating only once a day. Jains fast particularly during festivals. This practice is called upavasa , tapasya or vrata , and may be practiced according to one's ability. Digambaras fast for Dasa-laksana-parvan , eating only one or two meals per day, drinking only boiled water for ten days, or fasting completely on the first and last days of the festival, mimicking the practices of
1955-477: A super sensual inner state of being. The Natya connects through abhinaya , that is applying body-speech-mind and scene, wherein asserts Natyashastra , the actors use two practices of dharmi (performance), in four styles and four regional variations, accompanied by song and music in a playhouse carefully designed to achieve siddhi (success in production). The verse details the eleven essential components of drama and dramatic production: The text discusses
2070-773: A supersensual state of discovery and understanding. The stories and plots were provided by the Itihasas (epics), the Puranas and the Kathas genre of Hindu literature. The text also states that the god Brahma combined the elements of acting from the four Vedas: "recitation from the Rigveda , music from the Samaveda , mimetic art from the Yajurveda , and sentiments from the Atharvaveda ." The text states that
2185-665: A universal religious tolerance", and a teaching of "plurality" and "benign attitude to other [ethical, religious] positions". Dundas states this is a misreading of historical texts and Mahāvīra's teachings. According to him, the "many pointedness, multiple perspective" teachings of the Mahāvīra is about the nature of absolute reality and human existence. He claims that it is not about condoning activities such as killing animals for food, nor violence against disbelievers or any other living being as "perhaps right". The five vows for Jain monks and nuns, for example, are strict requirements and there
2300-407: A variety of performance arts as well as the design of the stage. The text details three architectural styles for the playhouse: Drama, in this ancient Sanskrit text, is an art to engage every aspect of life, in order to glorify and gift a state of joyful consciousness. The text discusses the universal and inner principles of drama, that it asserts successfully affects and journeys the audience to
2415-400: Is anekāntavāda , from anekānta ("many-sidedness," etymologically " non -oneness" or "not being one") and vada ("doctrine"). The doctrine states that truth and reality are complex and always have multiple aspects. It further states that reality can be experienced, but cannot be fully expressed with language. It suggests that human attempts to communicate are Naya , "partial expression of
SECTION 20
#17328551366012530-440: Is sallekhana , a religious death through ascetic abandonment of food and drinks. The Digambara Jains follow the same theme, but the life cycle and religious rituals are closer to a Hindu liturgy. The overlap is mainly in the life cycle (rites-of-passage) rituals, and likely developed because Jain and Hindu societies overlapped, and rituals were viewed as necessary and secular. Jains ritually worship numerous deities, especially
2645-1022: Is a "religious death" ritual observed at the end of life, historically by Jain monks and nuns, but rare in the modern age. In this vow, there is voluntary and gradual reduction of food and liquid intake to end one's life by choice and with dispassion, This is believed to reduce negative karma that affects a soul's future rebirths. Of the major Indian religions, Jainism has had the strongest ascetic tradition. Ascetic life may include nakedness, symbolizing non-possession even of clothes, fasting, body mortification, and penance, to burn away past karma and stop producing new karma, both of which are believed essential for reaching siddha and moksha ("liberation from rebirths" and "salvation"). Jain texts like Tattvartha Sūtra and Uttaradhyayana Sūtra discuss austerities in detail. Six outer and six inner practices are oft-repeated in later Jain texts. Outer austerities include complete fasting, eating limited amounts, eating restricted items, abstaining from tasty foods, mortifying
2760-424: Is a Sanskrit treatise on the performing arts . The text is attributed to sage Bharata , and its first complete compilation is dated to between 200 BCE and 200 CE, but estimates vary between 500 BCE and 500 CE. The text consists of 36 chapters with a cumulative total of 6,000 poetic verses describing performance arts. The subjects covered by the treatise include dramatic composition, structure of
2875-412: Is a desired effect of performance arts but not the primary goal, and that the primary goal is to transport the individual in the audience into another parallel reality, full of wonder, where they experience the essence of their own consciousness, and reflect on spiritual and moral questions. The text further inspired secondary literature such as the 10th century commentary Abhinavabharati – an example of
2990-985: Is a fundamental tenet of Jainism. It holds that one must abandon all violent activity and that without such a commitment to non-violence all religious behavior is worthless. In Jain theology, it does not matter how correct or defensible the violence may be, one must not kill or harm any being, and non-violence is the highest religious duty. Jain texts such as Ācārāṅga Sūtra and Tattvarthasūtra state that one must renounce all killing of living beings, whether tiny or large, movable or immovable. Its theology teaches that one must neither kill another living being, nor cause another to kill, nor consent to any killing directly or indirectly. Furthermore, Jainism emphasizes non-violence against all beings not only in action but also in speech and in thought. It states that instead of hate or violence against anyone, "all living creatures must help each other". Jains believe that violence negatively affects and destroys one's soul, particularly when
3105-478: Is a practice of "brief periods in meditation" in Jainism that is a part of siksavrata (ritual restraint). The goal of Sāmāyika is to achieve equanimity, and it is the second siksavrata . The samayika ritual is practiced at least three times a day by mendicants, while a layperson includes it with other ritual practices such as Puja in a Jain temple and doing charity work. According to Johnson, as well as Jaini, samayika connotes more than meditation, and for
3220-421: Is a sin in Jainism, with negative karmic effects. Jainism states that souls begin in a primordial state, and either evolve to a higher state or regress if driven by their karma. It further clarifies that abhavya (incapable) souls can never attain moksha (liberation). It explains that the abhavya state is entered after an intentional and shockingly evil act. Souls can be good or evil in Jainism, unlike
3335-565: Is a wandering mendicant in the Digambara tradition, or a resident mendicant in the Śvētāmbara tradition. For Jain laypersons, it recommends limited possession of property that has been honestly earned, and giving excess property to charity. According to Natubhai Shah, aparigraha applies to both the material and the psychic. Material possessions refer to various forms of property. Psychic possessions refer to emotions, likes and dislikes, and attachments of any form. Unchecked attachment to possessions
3450-462: Is accepted as a truth, as in Hinduism but not Buddhism. The cycle of rebirths has a definite beginning and end in Jainism. Jain theosophy asserts that each soul passes through 8,400,000 birth-situations as they circle through Saṃsāra , going through five types of bodies: earth bodies, water bodies, fire bodies, air bodies and vegetable lives, constantly changing with all human and non-human activities from rainfall to breathing. Harming any life form
3565-616: Is also often used. Bharatanatyam and Kuchipudi have variants of Krishna dancing his Tandava on Kaliya. The Manipuri dance is categorized as either "Tandava" (vigorous, usually go with Shiva, Shakti or Krishna as warrior-savior themed plays) or lasya (delicate, usually go with love stories of Radha and Krishna). In the Krishna Tandava in Raslila performance of Manipuri dance is graceful yet with swift movement and acrobatic gestures. The 108 karanas of Tandava have inspired Shiva sculptures of
Tandava - Misplaced Pages Continue
3680-450: Is an Indian religion . Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankara s (supreme preachers of Dharma ), with the first in the current time cycle being Rishabhadeva , whom the tradition holds to have lived millions of years ago, the twenty-third tirthankara Parshvanatha , whom historians date to the 9th century BCE , and the twenty-fourth tirthankara Mahavira , around 600 BCE. Jainism
3795-534: Is called devapuja , and is found in all Jain sub-traditions. Typically, the Jain layperson enters the Derasar (Jain temple) inner sanctum in simple clothing and bare feet with a plate filled with offerings, bows down, says the namaskar , completes his or her litany and prayers, sometimes is assisted by the temple priest, leaves the offerings and then departs. Jain practices include performing abhisheka (ceremonial bath) of
3910-411: Is considered an eternal dharma with the tirthankaras guiding every time cycle of the cosmology . Central to understanding Jain philosophy is the concept of bhedvigyān , or the clear distinction in the nature of the soul and non-soul entities. This principle underscores the innate purity and potential for liberation within every soul , distinct from the physical and mental elements that bind it to
4025-426: Is considered as "faith in the tattvas ". The spiritual goal in Jainism is to reach moksha for ascetics, but for most Jain laypersons, it is to accumulate good karma that leads to better rebirth and a step closer to liberation. Jain philosophy accepts three reliable means of knowledge ( pramana ). It holds that correct knowledge is based on perception ( pratyaksa ), inference ( anumana ) and testimony ( sabda or
4140-446: Is encouraged if there are concerns about animal welfare. Jain monks, nuns and some followers avoid root vegetables such as potatoes, onions, and garlic because tiny organisms are injured when the plant is pulled up, and because a bulb or tuber's ability to sprout is seen as characteristic of a higher living being. Jain monks and advanced lay people avoid eating after sunset, observing a vow of ratri-bhojana-tyaga-vrata . Monks observe
4255-487: Is intrinsic and innate in man, it exists in oneself, that manifests non-materially through spiritual and personally subjective means. Performance arts aim to empower man to experience this rasa , or re-experience it. Actors aim to journey the spectator to this aesthetic experience within him. Rasa is prepared, states Natya Shastra , through a creative synthesis and expression of vibhava (determinants), anubhava (consequents) and vyabhicharibhava (transitory states). In
4370-474: Is mentioned in other late Vedic texts, as are two scholars names Shilalin ( IAST : Śilālin) and Krishashva (Kṛśaśva), credited to be pioneers in the studies of ancient drama, singing, dance and Sanskrit compositions for these arts. The Natyashastra refers to drama performers as Śhailālinas, likely because they were so known at the time the text was written, a name derived from the legacy of the vedic sage Śilālin credited with Natasutras . Richmond et al. estimate
4485-481: Is no "perhaps" about them. Similarly, since ancient times, Jainism co-existed with Buddhism and Hinduism according to Dundas, but Jainism disagreed, in specific areas, with the knowledge systems and beliefs of these traditions, and vice versa. The third main principle in Jainism is aparigraha which means non-attachment to worldly possessions. For monks and nuns, Jainism requires a vow of complete non-possession of any property, relations and emotions. The ascetic
4600-448: Is not" to metaphysical questions. The Mahāvīra, in contrast, taught his followers to accept both "it is", and "it is not", qualified with "perhaps", to understand Absolute Reality. The permanent being is conceptualized as jiva (soul) and ajiva (matter) within a dualistic anekāntavāda framework. According to Paul Dundas , in contemporary times the anekāntavāda doctrine has been interpreted by some Jains as intending to "promote
4715-458: Is observed by Jains as the anniversary of Mahāvīra's attainment of moksha . The Hindu festival of Diwali is also celebrated on the same date ( Kartika Amavasya ). Jain temples, homes, offices, and shops are decorated with lights and diyas (small oil lamps). The lights are symbolic of knowledge or removal of ignorance. Sweets are often distributed. On Diwali morning, Nirvan Ladoo is offered after praying to Mahāvīra in all Jain temples across
Tandava - Misplaced Pages Continue
4830-459: Is presented in chapters 26 and 35 of the text. The theory of music, techniques for singing, and music instruments are discussed over chapters 28 to 34. The text in its final chapters describes the various types of dramatic characters, their roles and need for team work, what constitutes an ideal troupe, closing out the text with its comments of the importance of performance arts on culture. Dramatic arts Natyashastra praises dramatic arts as
4945-430: Is said to have performed the Tandava in honour of Rishabha (Jain tirthankar) on the latter's birth. The similarly correlated Buddhist deity Acala is shown in some depictions to trample upon Vighnarāja, a demon of obstacles, in the manner of Tandava. In Kathak dance three types of Tandavas are generally used, they are, Krishna Tandava, Shiva Tandava and Ravana Tandava, but sometimes a fourth variety - Kalika Tandava,
5060-429: Is said to result in direct harm to one's personality. Jainism teaches five ethical duties, which it calls five vows. These are called anuvratas (small vows) for Jain laypersons, and mahavratas (great vows) for Jain mendicants. For both, its moral precepts preface that the Jain has access to a guru (teacher, counsellor), deva (Jina, god), doctrine, and that the individual is free from five offences: doubts about
5175-674: Is treated as absolute. The doctrine is ancient, found in Buddhist texts such as the Samaññaphala Sutta . The Jain Agamas suggest that Mahāvīra's approach to answering all metaphysical philosophical questions was a "qualified yes" ( syāt ). These texts identify anekāntavāda as a key difference from the Buddha 's teachings. The Buddha taught the Middle Way, rejecting extremes of the answer "it is" or "it
5290-521: The Jinas . In Jainism a Jina as deva is not an avatar (incarnation), but the highest state of omniscience that an ascetic tirthankara achieved. Out of the 24 tirthankaras, Jains predominantly worship four: Mahāvīra, Parshvanatha , Neminatha and Rishabhanatha . Among the non- tirthankara saints, devotional worship is common for Bahubali among the Digambaras. The Panch Kalyanaka rituals remember
5405-428: The "Rasa" theory on aesthetics in performance arts, while chapters 8 to 13 are dedicated to the art of acting. Stage instruments such as methods for holding accessories, weapons, relative movement of actors and actresses, scene formulation, stage zones, conventions and customs are included in chapters 10 to 13 of the Natyashastra . The chapters 14 to 20 are dedicated to plot and structure of underlying text behind
5520-611: The Ahiṃsā doctrine when faced with external threat or violence. For example, they justified violence by monks to protect nuns. According to Dundas , the Jain scholar Jinadattasuri wrote during a time of destruction of temples and persecution that "anybody engaged in a religious activity who was forced to fight and kill somebody would not lose any spiritual merit but instead attain deliverance". However, examples in Jain texts that condone fighting and killing under certain circumstances are relatively rare. The second main principle of Jainism
5635-613: The Gana was free form art and included singing. The Sanskrit musical tradition spread widely in the Indian subcontinent during the late 1st millennium BCE, and the ancient Tamil classics make it "abundantly clear that a cultivated musical tradition existed in South India as early as the last few pre-Christian centuries". The art schools of Shilalin and Krishashva, mentioned in both the Brahmanas and
5750-591: The Kalpasutras and Srautasutras , may have been associated with the performance of vedic rituals, which involved storytelling with embedded ethical values. The Vedanga texts such as verse 1.4.29 of Panini Sutras mention these as well. The roots of the Natyashastra thus likely trace to the more ancient vedic traditions of integrating ritual recitation, dialogue and song in a dramatic representation of spiritual themes. The Sanskrit verses in chapter 13.2 of Shatapatha Brahmana (~800–700 BCE), for example, are written in
5865-532: The Natasutras to have been composed around 600 BCE. According to Lewis Rowell, a professor of Music specializing on classical Indian music, the earliest Indian artistic thought included three arts, syllabic recital ( vadya ), melos ( gita ) and dance ( nrtta ), as well as two musical genre, Gandharva (formal, composed, ceremonial music) and Gana (informal, improvised, entertainment music). The Gandharva subgenre also implied celestial, divine associations, while
SECTION 50
#17328551366015980-538: The Natya Shastra ) in the use of Angaharas and Karanas modes of the Tandava at Shiva's order. Some scholars consider that Tandu himself must have been the author of an earlier work on the dramatic arts , which was incorporated into the Natya Shastra. The Natya Shastra portrays Shiva narrating about the various aspects of the dance to the god Brahma . The 32 Angaharas and 108 Karanas are discussed by Bharata in
6095-622: The Rishi-mandala including the tirthankaras . The Jain tantric traditions use mantra and rituals that are believed to accrue merit for rebirth realms. The most important annual Jain festival is called the Paryushana by Svetambaras and Dasa lakshana parva by the Digambaras. It is celebrated from the 12th day of the waning moon in the traditional lunisolar month of Bhadrapada in the Indian calendar . This typically falls in August or September of
6210-520: The Rudra Tandava depicts his violent nature, first as the creator and later as the destroyer of the universe, even of death itself, the Ananda Tandava depicts him as joyful. In Shaiva Siddhanta tradition, Shiva as Nataraja (lit. "King of dance") is considered to be supreme lord of dance. Tandava takes its name from Tandu ( taṇḍu ), the attendant of Shiva, who instructed Bharata (author of
6325-494: The Sandhya Tandava , the other gods like Brahma , Vishnu , Sarasvati , Lakshmi and Indra play musical instruments and sing Shiva's praises. The Shiva Tandava Stotra is a stotra (Hindu hymn) that describes Shiva's power and beauty, believed to have been written by Ravana , a great devotee of Shiva. Ganesha , the son of Shiva, is depicted as Ashtabhuja tandavsa nritya murtis (Eight armed form of Ganesha dancing
6440-414: The ajiva (non-living). Jains distinguish a substance from a complex body, or thing, by declaring the former a simple indestructible element, while the latter is a compound made of one or more substances that can be destroyed. Tattva connotes reality or truth in Jain philosophy and is the framework for salvation. According to Digambara Jains, there are seven tattvas : the sentient ( jiva or living),
6555-458: The nondualism of some forms of Hinduism and Buddhism. According to Jainism, a Siddha (liberated soul) has gone beyond Saṃsāra , is at the apex, is omniscient, and remains there eternally. Jain texts propound that the universe consists of many eternal lokas (realms of existence). As in Buddhism and Hinduism, both time and the universe are eternal, but the universe is transient. The universe, body, matter and time are considered separate from
6670-439: The 1st millennium BCE, expanded over time, and most scholars suggest, based on mention of this text in other Indian literature, that the first complete version of the text was likely finished between 200 BCE to 200 CE. The Nāṭyaśāstra is traditionally alleged to be linked to a 36,000 verse Vedic composition called Adibharata , however there is no corroborating evidence that such a text ever existed. The text has survived into
6785-667: The 1st-millennium BCE, particularly the Tandava style which fuses many of these into a composite image found at the Nataraja temple of Chidambaram . Shiva as Nataraja or Krishna dancing the Tandava is a recurring theme in the Chola period bronzes. Various Shiva temples in South India depict the dancing Nataraja. Natya Shastra Divisions Sama vedic Yajur vedic Atharva vedic Vaishnava puranas Shaiva puranas Shakta puranas Traditional The Nāṭya Shāstra ( Sanskrit : नाट्य शास्त्र , Nāṭyaśāstra )
6900-523: The 2011 census. Outside India, some of the largest Jain communities can be found in Canada , Europe , and the United States . Japan is also home to a fast-growing community of converts. Major festivals include Paryushana and Das Lakshana , Ashtanika , Mahavir Janma Kalyanak , Akshaya Tritiya , and Dipawali . Jainism is transtheistic and forecasts that the universe evolves without violating
7015-400: The 4th chapter of the Natya Shastra, Tandava Lakshanam . Karana is the combination of hand gestures with feet to form a dance posture. Angahara is composed of seven or more Karanas. "How many various dances of Shiva are known to His worshipers I cannot say. No doubt the root idea behind all of these dances is more or less one and the same, the manifestation of primal rhythmic energy. Whatever
SECTION 60
#17328551366017130-517: The Gregorian calendar. It lasts eight days for Svetambaras, and ten days among the Digambaras. It is a time when lay people fast and pray. The five vows are emphasized during this time. Svetambaras recite the Kalpasūtras , while Digambaras read their own texts. The festival is an occasion where Jains make active effort to stop cruelty towards other life forms, freeing animals in captivity and preventing
7245-478: The Jain text Tattvartha sūtra , the first two are indirect knowledge and the remaining three are direct knowledge. According to Jainism, the existence of "a bound and ever changing soul" is a self-evident truth, an axiom which does not need to be proven. It maintains that there are numerous souls, but every one of them has three qualities ( Guṇa ): consciousness ( chaitanya , the most important), bliss ( sukha ) and vibrational energy ( virya ). It further claims
7360-463: The Mahāvīra (Vardhamana) set an example by performing severe austerities for twelve years. Monastic organization, sangh , has a four-fold order consisting of sadhu (male ascetics, muni ), sadhvi (female ascetics, aryika ), śrāvaka (laymen), and śrāvikā (laywomen). The latter two support the ascetics and their monastic organizations called gacch or samuday , in autonomous regional Jain congregations. Jain monastic rules have encouraged
7475-588: The Tandava) in temple sculptures. The Bhagavata Purana talks of Krishna dancing his Tandava on the head of the serpent Kaliya . King Chikka Devaraja (the fourteenth maharaja of the Kingdom of Mysore ) minted a series of gold coins called "Devaraja [with] the image of dancing Krishna" ( tandava krishnamurti devaraja ) to commemorate his coronation. Purandara Dasa calls the dancing Krishna ("Nritya Krishna") as "Tandava Krishna". According to Jain traditions, Indra
7590-506: The aesthetics of Natyashastra . The text defines the basic dance unit to be a karana , which is a specific combination of the hands and feet integrated with specific body posture and gait ( sthana and chari respectively). Chapter 4 describes 108 karanas as the building blocks to the art of dance. The text states the various movements of major and minor limbs with facial states as means of articulating ideas and expressing emotions. The Natyashastra is, states Emmie te Nijenhuis ,
7705-496: The arts by the time Agni Purana was composed. The Natyashastra is the oldest surviving ancient Indian work on performance arts. The roots of the text extend at least as far back as the Naṭasūtras , dated to around the mid 1st millennium BCE. The Natasutras are mentioned in the text of Panini , the sage who wrote the classic on Sanskrit grammar , and who is dated to about 500 BCE. This performance arts related Sutra text
7820-437: The audience tastes dominant states of a drama through expression of words, gestures and temperaments. These dominant states are love, mirth, sorrow, anger, energy, terror, disgust and astonishment. Further, states the text, there are 33 psychological states which are transitory such as discouragement, weakness, apprehension, intoxication, tiredness, anxiety, agitation, despair, impatience. There are eight temperamental states that
7935-456: The body of a heavenly celestial do so because of their positive karma. It is further stated that they possess a more transcendent knowledge about material things and can anticipate events in the human realms. However, once their past karmic merit is exhausted, it is explained that their souls are reborn again as humans, animals or other beings. The perfect enlightened souls with a body are called Arihants (victors) and perfect souls without
8050-634: The cycle of birth and rebirth . Recognizing and internalizing this separation is essential for spiritual progress and the attainment of samyak darshan or self realization , which marks the beginning of the aspirant's journey towards liberation . The three main pillars of Jainism are ahiṃsā (non-violence), anekāntavāda (non-absolutism), and aparigraha (asceticism). Jain monks take five main vows: ahiṃsā (non-violence), satya (truth), asteya (not stealing), brahmacharya (chastity), and aparigraha (non-possessiveness). These principles have affected Jain culture in many ways, such as leading to
8165-413: The faith, indecisiveness about the truths of Jainism, insincerity of desire for Jain teachings, non-recognition of fellow Jains, and insufficient admiration of fellow Jains' spiritual endeavors. Such a person undertakes the following Five vows of Jainism: Jainism prescribes seven supplementary vows, including three guņa vratas (merit vows) and four śikşā vratas . The Sallekhana (or Santhara ) vow
8280-518: The feminine version of Tandava. There are two types of Lasya, Jarita Lasya and Yauvaka Lasya. The Hindu scriptures narrate various occasions when Shiva performed the Tandava. When Sati (first wife of Shiva, who was reborn as Parvati) gave up her life in Daksha's sacrifice , Shiva is said to have performed the Rudra Tandava to express his grief and anger. The Shivapradosha stotra says when Shiva performs
8395-452: The first eon the universe generates, and in the next it degenerates. Thus, it divides the worldly cycle of time into two half-cycles, utsarpiṇī (ascending, progressive prosperity and happiness) and avasarpiṇī (descending, increasing sorrow and immorality). It states that the world is currently in the fifth ara of avasarpiṇī , full of sorrow and religious decline, where the height of living beings shrinks. According to Jainism, after
8510-529: The five life events of the tirthankaras , including the Panch Kalyanaka Pratishtha Mahotsava , Panch Kalyanaka Puja and Snatrapuja . The basic ritual is darsana (seeing) of deva , which includes Jina, or other yaksas , gods and goddesses such as Brahmadeva, 52 Viras, Padmavati , Ambika and 16 Vidyadevis (including Sarasvati and Lakshmi ). Terapanthi Digambaras limit their ritual worship to tirthankaras. The worship ritual
8625-445: The flesh, and guarding the flesh (avoiding anything that is a source of temptation). Inner austerities include expiation, confession, respecting and assisting mendicants , studying, meditation, and ignoring bodily wants in order to abandon the body. Lists of internal and external austerities vary with the text and tradition. Asceticism is viewed as a means to control desires, and to purify the jiva (soul). The tirthankaras such as
8740-424: The form of a riddle play between two actors. The Vedic sacrifice ( yajna ) is presented as a kind of drama, with its actors, its dialogues, its portion to be set to music, its interludes, and its climaxes. The most studied version of the text, consisting of about 6000 poetic verses, is structured into 36 chapters. The tradition believes that the text originally had 12,000 verses. Somewhat different versions of
8855-625: The good and the bad, actions and feelings, of each character, whether God or man. According to Natyashastra , state Sally Banes and Andre Lepeck, drama is that art which accepts human beings are in different inner states when they arrive as audience, then through the art performed, it provides enjoyment to those wanting pleasure, solace to those in grief, calmness to those who are worried, energy to those who are brave, courage to those who are cowards, eroticism to those who want company, enjoyment to those who are rich, knowledge to those who are uneducated, wisdom to those who are educated. Drama represents
8970-403: The images. Some Jain sects employ a pujari (also called upadhye ), who may be a Hindu, to perform priestly duties at the temple. More elaborate worship includes offerings such as rice, fresh and dry fruits, flowers, coconut, sweets, and money. Some may light up a lamp with camphor and make auspicious marks with sandalwood paste. Devotees also recite Jain texts, particularly the life stories of
9085-454: The insentient ( ajiva or non-living), the karmic influx to the soul ( Āsrava , which is a mix of living and non-living), the bondage of karmic particles to the soul ( Bandha ), the stoppage of karmic particles ( Saṃvara ), the wiping away of past karmic particles ( Nirjarā ), and the liberation ( Moksha ). Śvētāmbaras add two further tattvas , namely good karma ( Punya ) and bad karma ( Paapa ). The true insight in Jain philosophy
9200-503: The law of substance dualism , and the actual realization of this principle plays out through the phenomena of both parallelism and interactionism . Dravya means substances or entity in Sanskrit . Jains believe the universe is made up of six eternal substances: sentient beings or souls ( jīva ), non-sentient substance or matter ( pudgala ), the principle of motion ( dharma ), the principle of rest ( adharma ), space ( ākāśa ), and time ( kāla ). The last five are united as
9315-500: The lunisolar month of Chaitra in the traditional Indian calendar. This typically falls in March or April of the Gregorian calendar. The festivities include visiting Jain temples, pilgrimages to shrines, reading Jain texts and processions of Mahāvīra by the community. At his legendary birthplace of Kundagrama in Bihar , north of Patna, special events are held by Jains. The next day of Dipawali
9430-495: The manuscripts exist, and these contain 37 or 38 chapters. Predominant number of its verses are in precise Anustubh meter (4x8, or exactly 32 syllables in every shloka ), some verses are in Arya meter (a morae-based Sanskrit meter), and the text has some text that is in prose particularly in chapters 6, 7 and 28. The structure of the text harmoniously compiles aspects of the theatrical arts into separate chapters. The text opens with
9545-411: The material they are made of). The Natyashastra accepts these four categories as given, and dedicates four separate chapters to them, one each on stringed instruments ('tat' or chordophones ), hollow instruments ('sushir' or aerophones ), solid instruments ('ghan' or idiophones ), and covered instruments ('avanaddha' or membranophones ). Chapters 15 and 16 of the text discuss Sanskrit prosody in
9660-494: The message and the meaning being communicated. After the 10th-century, Hindu temples were designed to include stages for performance arts (for example, kuttampalams ), or prayer halls (for example, namghar ) that seconded as dramatic arts stage, based on the square principle described in the Natyashastra , such as those in the peninsular and eastern states of India. The Natyashastra discusses Vedic songs, and also dedicates over 130 verses to non-Vedic songs. Chapter 17 of
9775-514: The mixture of poetic verses and prose in a few extant manuscripts of Natyashastra may be because of this. According to Pramod Kale, who received a doctorate on the text from the University of Wisconsin, the surviving version of Natya Shastra likely existed by the 8th-century. The author of the Natya Shastra is unknown, and the Hindu tradition attributes it to the Rishi (sage) Bharata . It may be
9890-462: The modern age in several manuscript versions, wherein the title of the chapters varies and in some cases the content of the few chapters differ. Some recensions show significant interpolations and corruption of the text, along with internal contradictions and sudden changes in style. Scholars such as PV Kane state that some text was likely changed as well as added to the original between the 3rd to 8th century CE, thus creating some variant editions, and
10005-430: The mythical genesis and history of drama, mentions the role of different Hindu deities in various aspects of the arts, and the recommended puja (consecration ceremony) of a stage for performance arts. The text, states Natalia Lidova, then describes the theory of Tāṇḍava dance ( Shiva ), the theory of rasa , of bhāva, expression, gestures, acting techniques, basic steps, standing postures. Chapters 6 and 7 present
10120-549: The oldest surviving text that systematically treats "the theory and instruments of Indian music". Music has been an integral part of performance arts in the Hindu tradition since its Vedic times, and the theories of music found in the Natyashastra are also found in many Puranas , such as the Markandeya Purana . Prior to the Natyashastra, the ancient Indian tradition classified musical instruments into four groups based on their acoustic principle (how they work, rather than
10235-461: The origins of Shiva's dance, it became in time the clearest image of the activity of God which any art or religion can boast of." - Ananda Coomaraswamy The dance is described as a pictorial allegory of the five principle manifestations of eternal energy: The dance performed by Shiva's wife Parvati in response to Shiva's Tandava is known as Lasya , in which the movements are gentle, graceful and sometimes erotic. Some scholars consider Lasya to be
10350-515: The other hand, wear seamless white clothes. During Chandragupta Maurya's reign, Jain tradition states that Acharya Bhadrabahu predicted a twelve-year-long famine and moved to Karnataka with his disciples. Sthulabhadra , a pupil of Acharya Bhadrabahu, is believed to have stayed in Magadha. Later, as stated in tradition, when followers of Acharya Bhadrabahu returned, they found those who had remained at Magadha had started wearing white clothes, which
10465-504: The performance art. These sections include the theory of Sanskrit prosody , musical meters and the language of expression. Chapter 17 presents the attributes of poetry and figures of speech, while chapter 18 presents the art of speech and delivery in the performance arts. The text lists ten kinds of play, presents its theory of plot, costumes, and make-up. The text dedicates several chapters exclusively to women in performance arts, with chapter 24 on female theater. The training of actors
10580-422: The person by itself without volition, if his Kundalini (shakti within) is invoked. Mudras and postures of sculptures in ancient Indian temples are a mere depiction of spirituality (invoked spirit, the kundalini), which actually is supposed to occur in the person as a fruit of his practices. Shiva Tandava is described as a vigorous dance that is the source of the cycle of creation, preservation and dissolution. While
10695-512: The playwright should know the bhavas (inner state of being) of all characters in the story, and it is these bhavas that the audience of that drama connects with. The hero is shown to be similar to everyone in some ways, trying to achieve the four goals of human life in Hindu philosophy, then the vastu (plot) emerges through the "representation of three worlds – the divine, the human, the demonic". Drama has dharma, it has artha, it has kama, it has humor, fighting and killing. The best drama shows
10810-405: The process of emotionally engaging the individual in the audience, the text outlines the use of eight sentiments – erotic, comic, pathetic, terrible, furious, odious, heroic and marvellous. The Natyashastra defines drama in verse 6.10 as that which aesthetically arouses joy in the spectator, through the medium of actor's art of communication, that helps connect and transport the individual into
10925-570: The sixth ara , the universe will be reawakened in a new cycle. Jainism is a transtheistic religion, holding that the universe was not created , and will exist forever. It is independent, having no creator, governor, judge, or destroyer. In this, it is unlike the Abrahamic religions and the theistic strands of Hinduism , but similar to Buddhism. However, Jainism believes in the world of heavenly and hellish beings who are born, die and are reborn like earthly beings. The souls who live happily in
11040-500: The slaughter of animals. Forgiveness I forgive all living beings, may all living beings forgive me. All in this world are my friends, I have no enemies. — Jain festival prayer on the last day The last day involves a focused prayer and meditation session known as Samvatsari . Jains consider this a day of atonement, granting forgiveness to others, seeking forgiveness from all living beings, physically or mentally asking for forgiveness and resolving to treat everyone in
11155-461: The soul ( jiva ). Their interaction explains life, living, death and rebirth in Jain philosophy. The Jain cosmic universe has three parts, the upper, middle, and lower worlds ( urdhva loka , madhya loka , and adho loka ). Jainism states that Kāla (time) is without beginning and eternal; the cosmic wheel of time, kālachakra , rotates ceaselessly. In this part of the universe, it explains, there are six periods of time within two eons ( ara ), and in
11270-454: The soul, travel with the soul in bound form between rebirths, and affect the suffering and happiness experienced by the jiva in the lokas . Karma is believed to obscure and obstruct the innate nature and striving of the soul, as well as its spiritual potential in the next rebirth. The conceptual framework of the Saṃsāra doctrine differs between Jainism and other Indian religions. Soul ( jiva )
11385-408: The stage for performance arts as the sacred space for artists, and discusses the specifics of stage design, positioning the actors, the relative locations, movement on stage, entrance and exit, change in background, transition, objects displayed on the stage, and such architectural features of a theatre; the text asserts that these aspects help the audience get absorbed in the drama as well as understand
11500-457: The text is entirely dedicated to poetry and the structure of a song, which it states is also the template for composing plays. Its chapter 31 asserts that there are seven types of songs, and these are Mandraka , Aparantaka , Rovindaka , Prakari , Ullopyaka , Ovedaka and Uttara . It also elaborates on 33 melodic alankaras in songs. These are melodic tools of art for any song, and they are essential. Without these melodic intonations, states
11615-474: The text, a song becomes like "a night without the moon, a river without water, a creeper without a flower and a woman without an ornament". A song also has four basic architectural varna to empower its meaning, and these tone patterns are ascending line, steady line, descending line and the unsteady line. The ideal poem produces bliss in the reader, or listener. It transports the audience into an imaginative world, transforms his inner state, and delivers him to
11730-447: The texts considered canonical. Both sub-traditions have mendicants supported by laypersons ( śrāvakas and śrāvikas ). The Śvētāmbara tradition in turn has two sub-traditions: Deravasi, also known as Mandirmargis, and Sthānakavasī. The religion has between four and five million followers, known as Jains or Jainas , who reside mostly in India , where they numbered around 4.5 million at
11845-573: The theory and practice of various performance arts. The text extends its reach into asking and understanding the goals of performance arts, the nature of the playwright, the artists and the spectators, their intimate relationship during the performance. Natya topics as envisioned in this text includes what in western performing arts would include drama, dance, theatre, poetry and music. The text integrates its aesthetics, axiology and description of arts with mythologies associated with Hindu Devas and Devis . Performance arts, states Natyashastra , are
11960-465: The tirthankaras. Traditional Jains, like Buddhists and Hindus, believe in the efficacy of mantras and that certain sounds and words are inherently auspicious, powerful and spiritual. The most famous of the mantras, broadly accepted in various sects of Jainism, is the "five homage" ( panca namaskara ) mantra which is believed to be eternal and existent since the first tirthankara's time. Medieval worship practices included making tantric diagrams of
12075-538: The truth of soul ( jīva ); Samyak Gyana (Correct Knowledge), meaning undoubting knowledge of the tattvas ; and Samyak Charitra (Correct Conduct), meaning behavior consistent with the Five vows. Jain texts often add samyak tapas (Correct Asceticism) as a fourth jewel, emphasizing belief in ascetic practices as the means to liberation ( moksha ). The four jewels are called Moksha Marga (the path of liberation). The principle of ahimsa (non-violence or non-injury)
12190-459: The truth". According to it, one can experience the taste of truth, but cannot fully express that taste through language. It holds that attempts to express experience are syāt , or valid "in some respect", but remain "perhaps, just one perspective, incomplete". It concludes that in the same way, spiritual truths can be experienced but not fully expressed. It suggests that the great error is belief in ekānta (one-sidedness), where some relative truth
12305-407: The truths about life and worlds, through emotions and circumstances, to deliver entertainment, but more importantly ethos, questions, peace and happiness. The text goes into specifics to explain the means available within dramatic arts to achieve its goals. Just like the taste of food, states Natyashastra , is determined by combination of vegetables, spices and other articles such as sugar and salt,
12420-480: The use of mouth cover, as well as the Dandasan – a long stick with woolen threads – to gently remove ants and insects that may come in their path. The practice of non-violence towards all living beings has led to Jain culture being vegetarian . Devout Jains practice lacto-vegetarianism , meaning that they eat no eggs, but accept dairy products if there is no violence against animals during their production. Veganism
12535-406: The vibration draws karmic particles to the soul and creates bondages, but is also what adds merit or demerit to the soul. Jain texts state that souls exist as "clothed with material bodies", where it entirely fills up the body. Karma, as in other Indian religions, connotes in Jainism the universal cause and effect law. However, it is envisioned as a material substance (subtle matter) that can bind to
12650-433: The violence is done with intent, hate or carelessness, or when one indirectly causes or consents to the killing of a human or non-human living being. The doctrine exists in Hinduism and Buddhism, but is most highly developed in Jainism. The theological basis of non-violence as the highest religious duty has been interpreted by some Jain scholars not to "be driven by merit from giving or compassion to other creatures, nor
12765-559: The word of scriptures). These ideas are elaborated in Jain texts such as Tattvarthasūtra , Parvacanasara , Nandi and Anuyogadvarini . Some Jain texts add analogy ( upamana ) as the fourth reliable means, in a manner similar to epistemological theories found in other Indian religions. In Jainism, jnāna (knowledge) is said to be of five kinds – mati jñāna (sensory knowledge), śrutu jñāna (scriptural knowledge), avadhi jñāna ( clairvoyance ), manah prayāya Jñāna ( telepathy ) and kevala jnana ( omniscience ). According to
12880-461: The work of several authors, but scholars disagree. Bharat Gupt states that the text stylistically shows characteristics of a single compiler in the existing version, a view shared by Kapila Vatsyayan . The Agni Purana , a generic encyclopedia, includes chapters on dramatic arts and poetry, which follow the Natyashastra format, but enumerates more styles and types of performance arts, which states Winternitz, may reflect an expansion in studies of
12995-411: The world as friends. Forgiveness is asked by saying " Micchami Dukkadam " or " Khamat khamna " to others. This means, "If I have offended you in any way, knowingly or unknowingly, in thought, word or action, then I seek your forgiveness." The literal meaning of Paryushana is "abiding" or "coming together". Mahavir Janma Kalyanak celebrates the birth of Mahāvīra. It is celebrated on the 13th day of
13110-495: The world. The Jain new year starts right after Diwali. Some other festivals celebrated by Jains are Akshaya Tritiya and Raksha Bandhan , similar to those in the Hindu communities. The Jain community is divided into two major denominations , Digambara and Śvētāmbara . Monks of the Digambara (sky-clad) tradition do not wear clothes. Female monastics of the Digambara sect wear unstitched plain white sarees and are referred to as Aryikas . Śvētāmbara (white-clad) monastics, on
13225-507: Was unacceptable to the others who remained naked. This is how Jains believe the Digambara and Śvētāmbara schism began, with the former being naked while the latter wore white clothes. Digambara saw this as being opposed to the Jain tenet of aparigraha which, according to them, required not even possession of clothes, i.e. complete nudity. In the fifth-century CE, the Council of Valabhi was organized by Śvētāmbara, which Digambara did not attend. At
#600399