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75-646: Taite (called Ta'idu in Assyrian sources) was one of the capitals of the Mitanni Empire. Its exact location is still unknown, although it is speculated to be in the Khabur region. The site of Tall Al-Hamidiya has recently been proposed as the location of ancient Taite. Tell Farfara and the Anatolian site of Üçtepe Höyük has also been suggested, among others. It has also been proposed that there two settlements name Ta'idu in

150-528: A different king than Barattarna by M. P. Maidman, Eva von Dassow, and Ian Mladjov. Thutmose III again waged war in Mitanni in the 33rd year of his rule. The Egyptian army crossed the Euphrates at Carchemish and reached a town called Iryn (maybe present day Erin, 20 km northwest of Aleppo.) They sailed down the Euphrates to Emar ( Maskanah ) and then returned home via Mitanni. A hunt for elephants at Lake Nija

225-499: A few successful clashes with the Egyptians over the control of Syria, Mitanni sought peace with them, and an alliance was formed. During the reign of Shuttarna II , in the early 14th century BC, the relationship was very amicable, and he sent his daughter Gilu-Hepa to Egypt for marriage with Pharaoh Amenhotep III . Mitanni was now at its peak of power. However, by the reign of Eriba-Adad I (1390–1366 BC) Mitanni influence over Assyria

300-473: A logogram for Akkadian " rab " having the same meaning; "Ḫani-Rabbat" denoting "the Great Hani". J. A. Knudtzon , and E. A. Speiser after him, supported instead the reading of " gal " on the basis of its alternative spelling with " gal 9 ", which has since become the majority view. There is still a difficulty to explain the suffix " -bat " if the first sign did not end in " b ," or the apparent similarity to

375-429: A priest bound to a powerful Mitannian leader." To the east of upper Tigris river, Trans-Tigridian region in northern Iraq, a site now called Bassetki was excavated, which in all likelihood was the ancient town of Mardama with Mitanni layers from 1550 to 1300 BC, as its Phase A9 (in trench T2) may alternatively represent a Middle Bronze/Late Bronze transitional, or Proto-Mitanni occupation within 16th century BC. In

450-475: A role in the royal power of old Babylonia. Shamash was the god of the sun, of justice, and of divination, as was mentioned in the Code of Hammurabi. The text states, "May the god Shamash, the great judge of heaven and Earth, who provides just ways for all living creatures, the lord, my trust, overturn his kingship." Shamash was considered to have an influence on Hammurabi, and represented the concept that he will execute

525-591: A subsequent excavation season, the deeper Phase A10 was identified as having a mix of Middle Bronze and Mitanni potteries, considered to be in the turn of the Middle to the Late Bronze Age transitional period (late 17th – early 16th century BC). In 2010, the 3,400-year-old ruins of Kemune , a Bronze Age Mitanni palace on the banks of the Tigris in modern-day Iraqi Kurdistan , were discovered. It became possible to excavate

600-477: A two century abandonment between the MBA destruction and the Mitanni re-occupation. At least since around 1550 BC, at the beginning of Late Bronze age, Painted Nuzi Ware was identified as a characteristic pottery in Mitanni sites. The origin of this decorated pottery is an unsolved question, but a possible previous development as Aegean Kamares Ware has been suggested by Pecorelia (2000); S. Soldi claims that Tell Brak

675-551: Is complicated by there being, according to linguists, three separate dialects of Hurrian, central-western, northern, and eastern. The Egyptians considered the Euphrates River to form the boundary between Syria and Naharain . The Egyptian official astronomer and clockmaker Amenemhet (Amen-hemet) apparently ordered to be written on his tomb that he returned from the "foreign country called Mtn ( Mi-ti-ni )," but Alexandra von Lieven (2016) and Eva von Dassow (2022) consider that

750-580: Is generally believed that Indo-Aryan peoples settled in Upper Mesopotamia and northern Syria , and established the Kingdom of Mitanni following a period of political vacuum, while also adopting Hurrian. This is considered a part of the Indo-Aryan migrations . Since the late 20th century, the view that the Mitanni kingdom was ruled by royal house and aristocracy of Indo-Aryan origin has been prevalent among

825-452: The Amorite king Idrimi of Alalakh his vassal, and five generations seems to separate this king (also known as Parattarna) from the rise of Mitanni kingdom. The state of Kizzuwatna in the west also shifted its allegiance to Mitanni, and Assyria in the east had become largely a Mitannian vassal state by the mid-15th century BC. The nation grew stronger during the reign of Shaushtatar , but

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900-478: The Annals of Thutmose III mention Naharin, in particular those of his regnal years 33, 35, and 42. After that time, records become more available from local sources until the empire's end in the mid-13th century BC. The first known use of Indo-Aryan names for Mitanni rulers begins with Shuttarna I who succeeded his father Kirta on the throne. King Barattarna of Mitanni expanded the kingdom west to Aleppo and made

975-458: The Hittites under Mursilis I (at the end of Samsuditana 's reign over Babylon) tells a story about a twin eclipse — which is crucial for a correct Babylonian chronology. The pair of lunar and solar eclipses occurred in the month of Shimanu ( Sivan ). The lunar eclipse took place on February 9, 1659 BC. It started at 4:43 a.m. and ended at 6:47 a.m. The latter was invisible, which satisfies

1050-606: The Ilısu Dam in the right bank of upper Tigris , southern Turkey, have shown a very early beginning of Mitanni period, as in the ruins of a temple in Müslümantepe, ritual artefacts and a Mitannian cylinder seal were found, radiocarbon-dated to 1760–1610 BC. Archaeologist Eyyüp Ay, in his (2021) paper, describes the second phase of the temple as an "administrative center, which had craftsmen working in its workshops as well as farmers, gardeners and shepherds, [that] might have been ruled by

1125-589: The Sanskrit verb mith ( मिथ् ; lit.   ' to unite, pair, couple, meet ' ). The name Maitanni thus meant the "united kingdom." Paralleling the evolution of Proto-Indo-Aryan máytʰati , meaning lit.   ' he unites ' , into Sanskrit méthati ( मेथति ), the name Maitanni evolved into the later form Mitanni , where the stem maita- had given way to mita- . Andrea Trameri (15 October 2024), along with Gernot Wilhelm (1997: 290), regards that Maitani means "of M(a)itta,"

1200-430: The rump state of Hanigalbat. Eventually, under Shalmaneser I, that remaining part of the former Mitanni territory came under direct Assyrian control. This continued until the decline of Middle Assyrian power after the death of Tukulti-Ninurta I. While under direct Assyrian control Hanigalbat was ruled by appointed governors such as the Assyrian grand-vizier Ilī-padâ , father of Ninurta-apal-Ekur (1191–1179), who took

1275-451: The 2nd excavation the entire city was mapped and 100 Middle Assyrian tablets were discovered. They were dated to after the city's destruction by earthquake and have not yet been published. The three phases of Mitanni at Kurd Qaburstan , were obtained as c. 1538–1505 BC for Phase three, with Phase two beginning c. 1512–1491 BC and ending c. 1501–1479 BC, and with Phase One beginning c. 1489–1463 BC and ending c. 1475–1435 BC. The data suggests

1350-712: The Assyrians. These names seem to have referred to the same kingdom and were often used interchangeably, according to Michael C. Astour. Hittite annals mention a people called Hurri ( Ḫu-ur-ri ), located in northeastern Syria. A Hittite fragment, probably from the time of Mursili I , mentions a "King of the Hurri," and the Assyro-Akkadian version of the text renders "Hurri" as Hanigalbat . Tushratta, who styles himself "king of Mitanni" in his Akkadian Amarna letters , refers to his kingdom as Hanigalbat. The earliest attestation of

1425-639: The Empire lost territory and money, and faced great degradation. The attacks from Hittites who were trying to expand outside of Anatolia eventually led to the destruction of Babylon . The Kassite Period then followed the First Babylonian Dynasty, ruling from 1570 to 1154 BC. By the time of Babylon's fall the Kassites had already been part of the region for a century and a half, acting sometimes with Babylon's interests and sometimes against. The sun played

1500-411: The First Babylonian Dynasty, but with historical events portrayed in literature and the existence of year-name lists, it is possible to establish a chronology. With little evidence on hand, there is not much known about the reigns of the kings from Sumuabum through Sin-muballit — other than the fact they were Amorites rather than Akkadians . What is known, however, is that they did not add much to

1575-487: The First Babylonian dynasty are hard to pinpoint because Babylon itself yields few archaeological materials intact due to a high water table . The evidence that survived throughout the years includes written records such as royal and votive inscriptions, literary texts, and lists of year-names. The minimal amount of evidence in economic and legal documents makes it difficult to illustrate the economic and social history of

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1650-609: The Hurrians were keen to keep the Hittites inside the Anatolian highland. Kizzuwatna in the west and Ishuwa in the north were important allies against the hostile Hittites. Mitanni's major rival was Egypt under the Thutmosids . However, with the ascent of the Hittite Empire , Mitanni and Egypt struck an alliance to protect their mutual interests from the threat of Hittite domination. After

1725-644: The Indo-Aryan *marya , which means 'man' or 'youth', associated to military affairs and chariots. A concept known as "Dark Age" was applied, until recently, to the archaeological gap between the Middle and Late Bronze Age on Northern Mesopotamian sites, but Costanza Coppini considers it a "transition" instead, which can be called "Late Bronze Age 0," attested from the Tell Leilan's end caused by Samsu-iluna during his 23rd year of reign, c. 1728 BCE [Middle Chronology], to Mitanni's predominance (c. 1600-1550 BCE). These are

1800-486: The Mitanni are of Indo-Aryan or Proto-Indo-Aryan origins. Starting from Shuttarna I who is the first Mitanni ruler historically attested to have existed, the Mitanni had Indo-Aryan throne names . The Kikkuli 's horse training text includes technical terms of Indo-Aryan origin, and the Indo-Aryan deities Mitra , Varuna , Indra , and Nasatya ( Ashvins ) are listed and invoked in two treaties found in Hattusa , between

1875-511: The Semitic feminine ending " -at ," if derived from a Hurrian word. More recently, in 2011, scholar Miguel Valério, then at the New University of Lisbon provided detailed support in favor of the older reading Hani-Rabbat . The re-reading makes an argument on the basis of frequency, where " gal " not " gal 9 ," is far more numerous; the later being the deviation found in six documents, all from

1950-551: The Syro-Mesopotamian region. These documents survived because Hammurabi had burned the palace down — which buried the material, thus preserving it. War was a common occurrence for the kingdoms in Syria and Mesopotamia, so the majority of the documents from that era were in regard to military affairs. The documents included letters written by the messengers of the kings, discussing conflicts, divine oaths, agreements, and treaties between

2025-517: The dates of many older sourcebooks seem to be outdated and incorrect. There are further difficulties: the 21-year span of the detailed observations of the planet Venus may or may not coincide with the reign of this king, because his name is not mentioned, only the Year of the Golden Throne. A few sources, some printed almost a century ago, claim that the original text mentions an occultation of Venus by

2100-542: The era, "Dipilirabi", is also known as "Dipilirapi".). The Code of Hammurabi — one of the oldest written laws in history, and one of the most famous ancient texts from the Near East, and among the best known artifacts of the ancient world — is from the first Babylonian dynasty. The code is written in cuneiform on a 2.25 meter (7 foot 4½ inch) diorite stele. At the top, it portrays the Babylonian king receiving his kingship from

2175-445: The expedition to Mitanni could have taken place in pharaoh Ahmose I 's reign ( c.  1550 –1525 BC), actually by Amenemhet's father. During the reign of pharaoh Thutmose I (1506–1493 BC), the names Mitanni and Naharin are among the reminiscences of several of the pharaoh's officers. One of them, Ahmose si-Abina, wrote: "...His Majesty arrived at Naharin..." Another one, Ahmose pa-Nekhbit, recorded: "...when I captured for him in

2250-659: The first half of 14th century BC, a large region from North-West Syria to the Eastern Tigris was under Mitanni's control. Mitanni, which first rose to power before 1550 BC, presents the following known kings: All dates must be taken with caution since they are worked out only by comparison with the chronology of other ancient Near Eastern nations . King Barattarna is known from a cuneiform tablet in Nuzi and an inscription by Idrimi of Alalakh . He reigned c.  1500 –1480 BC. Egyptian sources do not mention his name; that he

2325-650: The first half of the 16th century BC, and its beginnings date to well before the time of Thutmose I , dating actually to the time of the Hittite sovereigns Hattusili I and Mursili I . Hurrians are mentioned in the private Nuzi texts, in Ugarit , and the Hittite archives in Hattusa ( Boğazköy ). Cuneiform texts from Mari mention rulers of city-states in upper Mesopotamia with both Amurru (Amorite) and Hurrian names. Rulers with Hurrian names are also attested for Urshum and Hassum , and tablets from Alalakh (layer VII, from

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2400-661: The first traces of what, in the Late Bronze Age I, was Mitanni in historical terms, at the emergence of the third phase of Khabur ware . The archaeological core zone of Mitanni is Upper Mesopotamia and the Trans-Tigridian region (Northeastern Iraq). Sites with Mitannian remains were found mainly in three regions of Upper Mesopotamia: Northeastern Syria Jazira Region , Northern Syria, and Southeastern Turkey (Upper Tigris). Mitanni's first phase in Jazira Region features Late Khabur Ware from around 1600 to 1550 BC; this pottery

2475-614: The formidable power of Eshnunna , inheriting its well-established trade routes and the economic stability that came along with them. It was not long before Hammurabi's armies took Assyria and parts of the Zagros Mountains . Eventually in 1761 BC, Babylon gained control over Mari , making up virtually all the territory of Mesopotamia that had been under the Third Dynasty of Ur . During Hammurabi's thirtieth year as king, he conquered Larsa from Rim-Sin I , thus, gaining control over

2550-454: The growing power of the Hittites and Assyrians. The Hittite king Suppiluliuma I invaded the Mitanni vassal states in northern Syria and replaced them with loyal subjects. In the capital Washukanni , a new power struggle broke out. The Hittites and the Assyrians supported different pretenders to the throne. Finally a Hittite army conquered the capital Washukanni and installed Shattiwaza , the son of Tushratta, as their vassal king of Mitanni in

2625-471: The high ground and a 40 hectare lower town developed. The Mitanni occupation lasted until the site was destroyed (in two phases) between c.  1300 and 1275 BC, presumably by the Assyrians. Two Mitanni-era tablets were found during the modern excavation. One (TB 6002) mentioned "Artassumara the king, son of Shuttarna the king". Seventeen late period Mitanni tablets were found at Tall Al-Hamidiya . The oldest tablet issued by an unknown Mitannian king

2700-425: The history and diplomacy of the first Babylonian dynasty during Hammurabi's reign. The archives of Hammurabi at the site of Babylon cannot be recovered, since its remains are under the local water table, and have practically turned to mud. But Zimri-Lim's palace at Mari held an archive that included letters and other texts that provide insight into the alliance between the king and Hammurabi, as well as other leaders in

2775-515: The kings Sattiwaza of Mitanni and Šuppiluliuma I the Hittite: (treaty KBo I 3) and (treaty KBo I 1 and its duplicates). The toponym of the Mitanni capital of Washukanni is also "unanimously accepted" to have been derived from an Indo-Aryan dialect. Annelies Kammenhuber (1968) suggested that this vocabulary was derived from the still undivided Indo-Iranian language, but Mayrhofer has shown that specifically Indo-Aryan features are present. It

2850-516: The land (in order to attain) appropriate behavior, I established truth and justice as the declaration of the land, I enhanced the well-being of the people." It then goes on to detail the laws of just punishment for crimes and provide rules for his people to abide by. King Hammurabi ruled Babylon from 1792 to 1750 BC. When he first came to power, the empire only consisted of a few towns in the area near Babylon: Dilbat , Sippar , Kish , and Borsippa . By 1762 BC, Hammurabi managed to succeed in capturing

2925-545: The land of Naharin..." After the Battle of Megiddo , an officer of pharaoh Thutmose III (1479–1425 BC), in the pharaoh's 22 regnal year, reported: "That [wretched] enemy of Kadesh has come and has entered into Megiddo. He is [there] at this moment. He has gathered to him the princes of [every] foreign country [which had been] loyal to Egypt, as well as (those) as far as Naharin and M[itanni], them of Hurru, them of Kode, their horses, their armies." In several later military campaigns

3000-461: The late Old Babylonian period , during the reign of Ammi-Saduqa , ( c.  1638 –1618 BC), in low middle chronology. The Mitanni Empire was a strong regional power limited by the Hittites to the north, Egyptians to the west, Kassites to the south, and later by the Assyrians to the east. At its maximum extent Mitanni ranged as far west as Kizzuwatna by the Taurus Mountains , Tunip in

3075-459: The late 14th century BC. The kingdom had by now been reduced to the Khabur Valley . The Assyrians had not given up their claim on Mitanni, and in the 13th century BC, Shalmaneser I annexed the kingdom. The Mitanni dynasty had ruled over the northern Euphrates-Tigris region between c.  1600 and 1350 BC, but succumbed to Hittite and later Assyrian attacks, and Mitanni was reduced to

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3150-678: The later part of the Old Babylonian period) mention people with Hurrian names at the mouth of the Orontes . There is no evidence for any invasion from the North-east. Generally, these onomastic sources have been taken as evidence for a Hurrian expansion to the South and the West. A Hittite fragment, probably from the time of Mursili I , mentions a "King of the Hurrians" ( LUGAL ERÍN.MEŠ Hurri ). This terminology

3225-521: The laws of justice on land just as Shamash does in his role as a god. A recent translation of the Chogha Gavaneh tablets from modern-day Iran, which date back to 1800 BC, indicates close contacts between Babylon and the town at the site of present-day Chogha Gavaneh, which is located in the intermontane valley of modern Islamabad in Iran's central Zagros and Dyala region. A text about the fall of Babylon by

3300-505: The lucrative urban centers of Nippur , Ur , Uruk , and Isin . Hammurabi was one of the most notable kings of the first Babylonian dynasty because of his success in gaining control over Southern Mesopotamia and establishing Babylon as the center of his Empire. Babylon would then come to dominate Mesopotamia for over a thousand years. Zimri-Lim, king of the nearby polity of Mari , plays a significant role for modern historians. He contributed immense amounts of historical writing that describe

3375-401: The middle of the 14th century BC, making Assyria once more a great power. At the death of Shuttarna, Mitanni was ravaged by a war of succession. Eventually Tushratta, a son of Shuttarna, ascended the throne, but the kingdom had been weakened considerably and both the Hittite and Assyrian threats increased. At the same time, the diplomatic relationship with Egypt went cold, the Egyptians fearing

3450-2400: The moon. However, this may be a misinterpretation. Modern calculations support the year of 1659 BC for the fall of Babylon, based on the statistical probability of the planet's observations. The presently-accepted middle chronology is too low from the astronomical point of view. r.  c. 1830 – c. 1817 BC ( SC ) (14 years) r.  c. 1817 – c. 1781 BC (SC) (36 years) r.  c. 1781 – c. 1767 BC (SC) (14 years) r.  c. 1767 – c. 1749 BC (SC) (17 years) r.  c. 1748 – c. 1729 BC (SC) (19 years) r.  c. 1648 – c. 1620 BC (SC) (28 years) r.  c. 1620 – c. 1583 BC (SC) (37 years) r.  c. 1582 – c. 1562 BC (SC) (21 years) r.  c. 1562 – c. 1531 BC (SC) (31 years) ( Shamshi-Adad dynasty 1808–1736 BCE) (Amorites) Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi (Non-dynastic usurpers 1735–1701 BCE) Puzur-Sin Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi ( Adaside dynasty 1700–722 BCE) Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II Second Intermediate Period Sixteenth Dynasty Abydos Dynasty Seventeenth Dynasty (1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon

3525-496: The name of "an individual leader (or clan), and not a territory or population." The Mitanni kingdom was firstly known as Ḫabingalbat before 1600 BC in Babylonia, during the reign of Ammi-Saduqa , attested as ḫa-bi-in-gal-ba-ti-i , and ḫa-bi-in-ga-al-ba-at , in two texts of the late Old Babylonian period . Egyptians referred to it as Naharin and Mitanni , it was Ḫurri to the Hittites, and Ḫanigalbat or Ḫani-Rabbat to

3600-500: The periphery of the Akkadian sphere of influence. It is additionally argued that although they are graphically distinct, there is a high degree of overlap between the two signs, as " gal 9 " denotes " dannum " or ""strong"" opposed to "great", easily being used as synonyms. Both signs also represent correlative readings; alternative readings of " gal 9 " include " rib " and " rip ," just like " gal " being read as " rab ." The situation

3675-559: The powers. There is also little that is known about the kings who succeeded Hammurabi. The kings from Samsuiluna to Samsuditana have very few records of the occurrences during their reigns. However, we do know that Samsuiluna was successful in beating Rim-Sîn II , but nevertheless lost major parts of Babylon's conquered land — only having real authority over the core of the Babylonian territory left from Hammurabi's reign. The kings who succeeded Samsuiluna would face similar turmoil. The first Babylonian dynasty eventually came to an end as

3750-425: The record, and which also tells that the moon was still in eclipse. The solar eclipse occurred on February 23, 1659 BC. It started at 10:26 a.m., has its maximum at 11:45 a.m., and ended at 1:04 p.m. The Venus tablets of Ammisaduqa (i.e., several ancient versions on clay tablets) are also well-known, and several books had been published about them. Several dates have been offered for their events, but

3825-419: The region as of the late 3rd millennium BC. A king of Urkesh with a Hurrian name, Tupkish, was found on a clay sealing dated c.  2300 BC at Tell Mozan. The first recorded inscription of their language was of Tish-atal ( c.  21st century BC ), king of Urkesh . Later on, Hurrians made up the main population of Mitanni, which was firstly known as Ḫabigalbat , at Babylonia, in two texts of

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3900-780: The region. During the Fall of the Mitanni Empire, the conquering Assyrian ruler Adad-Nirari (1307–1275 BC or 1295–1263 BC) slaughtered the inhabitants. He sowed the grounds with salt. He later reports restoring the capital city Taidu. This Ancient Near East –related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Mitanni Mitanni ( c.  1550 –1260 BC), earlier called Ḫabigalbat in old Babylonian texts, c.  1600 BC ; Hanigalbat or Hani-Rabbat in Assyrian records, or Naharin in Egyptian texts,

3975-507: The role of Indo-Aryan speakers in establishing its dynasty, have disputed the significance of Indo-Aryan vocabulary in an otherwise Hurrian-speaking state stating that it does not indicate any Indo-Aryan origins for Mitanni kings. According to Alexander Lubotsky (2023), however, the military elite of the Mitanni kingdom (see Maryannu ) was of Aryan descent and their language displays a clear Indo-Aryan character. Jasper Eidem in 2014 reported on Farouk Ismail's earlier study, in reference to

4050-494: The ruins in 2018 and again in 2022 when a drought caused water levels to drop considerably. In the 1st excavation 10 Mitanni-era tablets were found, in Babylonian cuneiform written in Akkadian, bearing Hurrian names, dating to the Middle-Trans-Tigridian IA and IB periods. Middle Trans-Tigridian IA and IB are dated to ( c.  1550 -1350 BC) and ( c.  1350 -1270 BC) respectively by Peter Pfälzner (2007). In

4125-424: The scholars; accordingly, a branch of Indo-Aryans separated from the other Indo-Iranians around the turn of second millennium BCE and migrated into West Asia , hence giving rise to the Mitanni kingdom, while also adopting Hurrian language. Some of the recent studies such as those by Eva von Dassow (2022) and Cotticelli-Kurras and Pisaniello (2023), while noting the modern identification of Mittani as Indo-Aryan and

4200-488: The site of Tell Fekheriye as recent German archaeological excavations suggest. The city of Taite was also known to be a Mitanni "royal city" whose current location is unknown. The major 3rd millennium urban center of Tell Brak which had dwindled to a minor settlement in Old Babylonian times, saw major development c.  1600 by the Mitanni. Monumental buildings including a palace and temple were constructed on

4275-531: The size of the territory. When the Amorite king Hammurabi came into power, his military victories were successful in gaining more land for the Empire. However, Babylon was just one of the several important powers among Isin and Larsa . The accomplishments of the first known king of the Dynasty, Sumuabum , include his efforts in expanding Babylonian territory by conquering Dilbat and Kish . His successor, Sumualailum,

4350-512: The south, Arraphe in the east, and north to Lake Van . Their sphere of influence is shown in Hurrian place names, personal names and the spread through Syria and the Levant of a distinct pottery type, Nuzi ware . The earliest recorded form of the name of this state is Maitanni , composed of a Hurrian suffix -nni added to the Indo-Aryan stem maita- , meaning "to unite" and comparable with

4425-612: The southern shore of the northern Euphrates region, near the vicinity of Terqa (capital of the Kingdom of Hana ) and the Khabur River. The term developed into more than just a designation for a people group, but also took on a topographic aspect as well. In the Middle Assyrian period , a phrase " 𒌷𒆳𒄩𒉡𒀭𒋫 " " KUR Ḫa-nu AN.TA ," "cities of the Upper Hanu" has suggested that there

4500-539: The status of a province of the Middle Assyrian Empire between c.  1350 and 1260 BC. As early as Akkadian times, Hurrians are known to have lived east of the river Tigris on the northern rim of Mesopotamia, and in the Khabur Valley. The group which became Mitanni gradually moved south into Mesopotamia before the 17th century BC. It was already a powerful kingdom at the end of the 17th century or in

4575-405: The sun god Shamash ; on the bottom is the collection of written laws. The text itself explains how Hammurabi came to power and created a set of laws to ensure justice throughout his territory — emphasizing that these are the divine roles that were given to him. Before presenting the laws written in the Code, Hammurabi states, "When the god Marduk commanded me to provide just ways for the people of

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4650-597: The term Ḫanigalbat can be read in Akkadian , along with the Hittite version mentioning "the Hurrian enemy," in a copy from the 13th century BC of the "Annals of Ḫattušili I ," who possibly reigned after 1630 BC. The reading of the Assyrian term Ḫanigalbat has a history of multiple renderings. The first portion has been connected to, " 𒄩𒉡 Ḫa-nu ," "Hanu" or "Hana," first attested in Mari to describe nomadic inhabitants along

4725-495: The title of King of Hanigalbat . He resided in the newly built (over an existing Mitanni tower and residence) Assyrian administrative centre at Tell Sabi Abyad . The Babylonian Kings List A names the Assyrian ruler Sennacherib (705–681 BC) and his son Ashur-nadin-shumi (700–694) as being "Dynasty of Ḫabigal". The name Hanigalbat was still in use as late as the later portion of the 1st millennium BC. A number of theonyms, proper names and glosses (technical terminology) of

4800-426: The walls and began building canals. However, Sin-muballit is known for his successful defeats of Rim-Sin I, which protected Babylon from further invasion. Sin-muballit would then pass on the role of king to his son, Hammurabi . Hammurabi is also at times referred to as "Hammurapi" in ancient texts, including multiple primary-source Babylonian letters. This is a common phenomenon in Amorite names. (Another Amorite of

4875-417: The word marijannu that was found in a letter from Tell Leilan in northeastern Syria dating to a period slightly before 1761 BC, which is the time when the reign of Zimri-Lim ended in the region of Mari . Kroonen et al. (2018) consider this as an early Indo-Aryan linguistic presence in Syria two centuries prior to the formation of the Mitanni realm, as mariannu is generally seen as a Hurrianized form of

4950-411: Was a Hurrian -speaking state in northern Syria and southeast Anatolia (modern-day Turkey ) with Indo-Aryan linguistic and political influences . Since no histories, royal annals or chronicles have yet been found in its excavated sites, knowledge about Mitanni is sparse compared to the other powers in the area, and dependent on what its neighbours commented in their texts. The Hurrians were in

5025-458: Was a continuity from the previous non-Mitannian Old Babylonian period. From around 1550 to 1270 BC, Painted Nuzi Ware (the most characteristic pottery in Mitanni times) developed as a contemporary to Younger Khabur Ware. Mitanni had outposts centred on its capital, Washukanni , whose location has been determined by archaeologists to be on the headwaters of the Khabur River , most likely at

5100-468: Was a distinction between two different Hanu's, likely across each side of the river. This northern side designation spans much of the core territory of Mitanni state. The two signs that have led to variant readings are " 𒃲 gal " and its alternative form " 𒆗 gal 9 ". The first attempts at decipherment in the late 19th century rendered forms interpreting " gal ," meaning "great" in Sumerian, as

5175-490: Was able to complete the wall around Babylon that Sumuabum had begun constructing. Sumualailum was also able to defeat rebellions in Kish and became successful in the destruction of Kazallu, and even had brief control over Nippur (though it did not last). There is little information available about the reigns of Sabium , Apil-Sin and Sin-muballit, other than that they continued ruling the conquered territory, as well as strengthening

5250-470: Was found in the site of Tell Hammam et-Turkman , dated to c. 1500 BCE. Mitanni period occupation, between 1400 and 1200 BC (radiocarbon) was found at the site of Tell Bazi . Finds included a Mitanni cylinder seal and several ritual bowls. Two cuneiform tablets of the Mitanni period sealed by Mitanni ruler Saushtatar , one by Artatama I were also found. There is also a record of Mitanni governance at Tell Hadidi (Azu). The (2017) salvage excavations at

5325-785: Was important enough to be included in the annals. Victories over Mitanni are recorded from the Egyptian campaigns in Nuhašše (middle part of Syria). Barattarna or his son Shaushtatar controlled the North Mitanni interior up to Nuhašše , and the coastal territories from Kizzuwatna to Alalakh in the kingdom of Mukish at the mouth of the Orontes. Idrimi of Alalakh, returning from Egyptian exile, could only ascend his throne with Barattarna's consent. While he got to rule Mukish and Ama'u, Aleppo remained with Mitanni. Old Babylonian Empire The origins of

5400-522: Was last used for King Tushratta of Mitanni, in a letter in the Amarna archives. The normal title of the king was 'King of the Hurri-men' (without the determinative KUR indicating a country). With the final decline of the Mitanni Empire the western portions of its territory came under direct control of the Hittites and the eastern portions came under direct control of the Assyrians. The middle part continued on as

5475-583: Was on the wane. Eriba-Adad I became involved in a dynastic battle between Tushratta and his brother Artatama II and after this his son Shuttarna II , who called himself king of the Hurri while seeking support from the Assyrians. A pro-Hurri/Assyria faction appeared at the royal Mitanni court. Eriba-Adad I had thus loosened Mitanni influence over Assyria, and in turn had now made Assyria an influence over Mitanni affairs. King Ashur-uballit I (1365–1330 BC) of Assyria attacked Shuttarna and annexed Mitanni territory in

5550-407: Was one of the first centers specializing in the production of this Painted Nuzi Ware, and analyses on samples support the assumption that it was produced locally in various centers throughout the Mitanni kingdom. It was particularly appreciated in Upper Mesopotamia , but appears only sporadically in western Syrian cities such as Alalakh and Ugarit . At the height of its power, during the 15th and

5625-406: Was the king of Naharin whom Thutmose III (1479 – 1425 BC) fought against, can only be deduced from assumptions. This king, also known as Parratarna is considered, by J. A. Belmonte-Marin quoting H. Klengel, to have reigned c.  1510 –1490 BC (middle chronology). Parsha(ta)tar, known from another Nuzi inscription (HSS 13 165), an undated inventory list which mentions his death, is considered

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