" Sweet Porridge " ( German : Der süße Brei ), often known in English under the title of " The Magic Porridge Pot ", is a folkloric German fairy tale recorded by the Brothers Grimm , as tale number 103 in Grimm's Fairy Tales , in the 19th century. It is Aarne–Thompson–Uther type 565, "the magic mill". Other tales of this type include Why the Sea Is Salt and The Water Mother .
79-406: There was a poor but good little girl who lived alone with her mother, and they no longer had anything to eat. So the child went into the forest, and there an aged woman met her who was aware of her sorrow, and presented her with a little pot, which when she said, "Cook, little pot, cook," would cook good, sweet millet porridge , and when she said, "Stop, little pot," it ceased to cook. The girl took
158-409: A Pneumocystis carinii infection, which indicates a weak immune system. Triploidy may be the result of either digyny (the extra haploid set is from the mother) or diandry (the extra haploid set is from the father). Diandry is mostly caused by reduplication of the paternal haploid set from a single sperm, but may also be the consequence of dispermic (two sperm) fertilization of the egg. Digyny
237-626: A hybrid genome with two sets of chromosomes derived from Triticum urartu and two sets of chromosomes derived from Aegilops speltoides . Each chromosome pair derived from the Triticum urartu parent is homoeologous to the opposite chromosome pair derived from the Aegilops speltoides parent, though each chromosome pair unto itself is homologous . Examples in animals are more common in non-vertebrates such as flatworms , leeches , and brine shrimp . Within vertebrates, examples of stable polyploidy include
316-410: A miscarriage ; those that do survive to term typically die shortly after birth. In some cases, survival past birth may be extended if there is mixoploidy with both a diploid and a triploid cell population present. There has been one report of a child surviving to the age of seven months with complete triploidy syndrome. He failed to exhibit normal mental or physical neonatal development, and died from
395-516: A morphometric analysis method which distinguishes seeds of P. miliaceum and P. ruderale on the basis of micromorphology. Native names for proso millet in its cultivated area include: Tetraploid Polyploidy is a condition in which the cells of an organism have more than two paired sets of ( homologous ) chromosomes . Most species whose cells have nuclei ( eukaryotes ) are diploid , meaning they have two complete sets of chromosomes, one from each of two parents; each set contains
474-502: A bridge between hunter-gatherer-focused lifestyles and early agricultural civilizations. Archaeological charred grains of common millet were found in several Neolithic sites in Europe and Transcaucasia but radiocarbon dates obtained thanks to AMS method directly from the grains, indicated that it appeared in that area in the 2nd millennium BC. Proso millet is a relatively low-demanding crop, and diseases are not known; consequently, it
553-534: A close relative of that species. The second subgenome does not show close homology to any known diploid Panicum species, but some unknown diploid ancestor apparently also contributed a copy of its genome to a separate allotetraploid species P. repens (torpedo grass). The two subgenomes within proso millet are estimated to have diverged 5.6 million years ago. However, the species has experienced only limited amounts of fractionation and copies of most genes are still retained on both subgenomes. A sequenced version of
632-606: A good substrate for fermentation and malting with grains having similar starch contents as wheat grains. One study suggested that starch derived from proso millet can be converted to ethanol with an only moderately lower efficiency than starch derived from corn. As proso millet is compatible with low-input agriculture, cultivation on marginal soils for biofuel production may present a new market for farmers. Insect pests include: Weedy and feral types are classified as Panicum ruderale (Kitag.) Chang comb. Nov. or Panicum miliaceum subsp. ruderale . A 2018 report developed
711-459: A market as an organic gluten-free grain. Proso millet is one of the few types of millet not cultivated in Africa. In Inner Mongolia and northwestern Shanxi, China, fermented proso millet porridge known as "suan zhou" (酸粥) is popular. Millet is soaked to allow fermentation, then water is emptied to obtain porridge. The emptied water is served as a millet drink called "suan mi tang" (酸米湯). The porridge
790-846: A mechanism for a kind of 'reverse speciation', whereby gene flow is enabled following the polyploidy event, even between lineages that previously experienced no gene flow as diploids. This has been detailed at the genomic level in Arabidopsis arenosa and Arabidopsis lyrata . Each of these species experienced independent autopolyploidy events (within-species polyploidy, described below), which then enabled subsequent interspecies gene flow of adaptive alleles, in this case stabilising each young polyploid lineage. Such polyploidy-enabled adaptive introgression may allow polyploids at act as 'allelic sponges', whereby they accumulate cryptic genomic variation that may be recruited upon encountering later environmental challenges. Polyploid types are labeled according to
869-481: A more common path to allopolyploidy because F 1 hybrids between taxa often have relatively high rates of unreduced gamete formation – divergence between the genomes of the two taxa result in abnormal pairing between homoeologous chromosomes or nondisjunction during meiosis. In this case, allopolyploidy can actually restore normal, bivalent meiotic pairing by providing each homoeologous chromosome with its own homologue. If divergence between homoeologous chromosomes
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#1732859258784948-403: A paleopolyploid. It is a middle aged polyploid. Often this refers to whole genome duplication followed by intermediate levels of diploidization. Ancient genome duplications probably occurred in the evolutionary history of all life. Duplication events that occurred long ago in the history of various evolutionary lineages can be difficult to detect because of subsequent diploidization (such that
1027-820: A pickup attached to a combine. Possible yields are between 2.5 and 4.5 tonnes per hectare (1.00 and 1.79 long ton/acre; 1.1 and 2.0 short ton/acre) under optimal conditions. Studies in Germany showed that even higher yields can be attained. In the United States, as of 2015, the total cultivated area of proso millet was 204,366 hectares (505,000 acres), mostly in the Great Plains states. The top three producers in 2015 were Colorado, Nebraska, and South Dakota, with 109,265 hectares (270,000 acres), 42,492 hectares (105,000 acres), and 28,328 hectares (70,000 acres). Historically grown as animal and bird seed, as of 2020, it has found
1106-695: A polyploid starts to behave cytogenetically as a diploid over time) as mutations and gene translations gradually make one copy of each chromosome unlike the other copy. Over time, it is also common for duplicated copies of genes to accumulate mutations and become inactive pseudogenes. In many cases, these events can be inferred only through comparing sequenced genomes . Examples of unexpected but recently confirmed ancient genome duplications include baker's yeast ( Saccharomyces cerevisiae ), mustard weed/thale cress ( Arabidopsis thaliana ), rice ( Oryza sativa ), and two rounds of whole genome duplication (the 2R hypothesis ) in an early evolutionary ancestor of
1185-579: A sterile triploid hybrid between E. guttata and E. lutea, both of which have been introduced and naturalised in the United Kingdom. New populations of E. peregrina arose on the Scottish mainland and the Orkney Islands via genome duplication from local populations of E. × robertsii . Because of a rare genetic mutation, E. peregrina is not sterile. On the other hand, polyploidization can also be
1264-413: A texture. Proso millet is primarily grown as livestock and poultry fodder . As food it is very deficient in lysine and needs complementation. Proso millet is also a poor fodder due to its low leaf-to-stem ratio and a possible irritant effect due to its hairy stem. Foxtail millet, having a higher leaf-to-stem ratio and less hairy stems, is preferred as fodder, particularly the variety called moha, which
1343-523: Is a high-quality fodder. Millet flour is 9% water, 75% carbohydrates , 11% protein , and 4% fat (table). In a reference amount of 100 grams (3.5 oz), millet flour supplies 382 calories , and is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value , DV) of several B vitamins and dietary minerals (table). The demand for more diverse and healthier cereal-based foods is increasing, particularly in affluent countries. Protein content in proso millet grains
1422-407: Is common among ferns and flowering plants (see Hibiscus rosa-sinensis ), including both wild and cultivated species . Wheat , for example, after millennia of hybridization and modification by humans, has strains that are diploid (two sets of chromosomes), tetraploid (four sets of chromosomes) with the common name of durum or macaroni wheat, and hexaploid (six sets of chromosomes) with
1501-471: Is comparable with that of wheat, but the share of some essential amino acids ( leucine , isoleucine , and methionine ) is substantially higher in proso millet. Among the most commonly consumed products are ready-to-eat breakfast cereals made purely from millet flour, and a variety of noodles and bakery products that are, however, often produced from mixtures with wheat flour to improve their sensory quality. Starch derived from millets has been shown to be
1580-446: Is dotted by past and recent whole-genome duplication events (see Albertin and Marullo 2012 for review). Several examples of polyploids are known: In addition, polyploidy is frequently associated with hybridization and reticulate evolution that appear to be highly prevalent in several fungal taxa. Indeed, homoploid speciation (hybrid speciation without a change in chromosome number) has been evidenced for some fungal species (such as
1659-470: Is eaten alongside pickles , e.g. turnips, carrots, radish and celery. The porridge may be stirred-fried and is called "chao suan zhou" (炒酸粥). The porridge may also be steamed into solids known as "suan lao fan" (酸撈飯). While the traditional grain is proso millet, it is mixed with rice when available. Many folk idioms of sourness derive from this dish. In the United States, proso millet is used to brew gluten-free beer , being mixed with other grains to produce
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#17328592587841738-698: Is even across the two subgenomes, this can theoretically result in rapid restoration of bivalent pairing and disomic inheritance following allopolyploidization. However multivalent pairing is common in many recently formed allopolyploids, so it is likely that the majority of meiotic stabilization occurs gradually through selection. Because pairing between homoeologous chromosomes is rare in established allopolyploids, they may benefit from fixed heterozygosity of homoeologous alleles. In certain cases, such heterozygosity can have beneficial heterotic effects, either in terms of fitness in natural contexts or desirable traits in agricultural contexts. This could partially explain
1817-885: Is frequent in plants, some estimates suggesting that 30–80% of living plant species are polyploid, and many lineages show evidence of ancient polyploidy ( paleopolyploidy ) in their genomes. Huge explosions in angiosperm species diversity appear to have coincided with the timing of ancient genome duplications shared by many species. It has been established that 15% of angiosperm and 31% of fern speciation events are accompanied by ploidy increase. Polyploid plants can arise spontaneously in nature by several mechanisms, including meiotic or mitotic failures, and fusion of unreduced (2 n ) gametes. Both autopolyploids (e.g. potato ) and allopolyploids (such as canola, wheat and cotton) can be found among both wild and domesticated plant species. Most polyploids display novel variation or morphologies relative to their parental species, that may contribute to
1896-495: Is haploid, and produces gametes by mitosis ; the sporophyte generation is diploid and produces spores by meiosis . Polyploidy is the result of whole-genome duplication during the evolution of species. It may occur due to abnormal cell division , either during mitosis, or more commonly from the failure of chromosomes to separate during meiosis or from the fertilization of an egg by more than one sperm. In addition, it can be induced in plants and cell cultures by some chemicals:
1975-399: Is helpful for further cultivation. Cultivation in no-till farming systems is also possible and often practiced in the United States. Sowing then can be done two weeks later. Only a few diseases and pests are known to attack proso millet, but they are not economically important. Weeds are a bigger problem. The critical phase is in juvenile development. The formation of the grains happens in
2054-514: Is more rarely diagnosed than triploidy, but is observed in 1–2% of early miscarriages. However, some tetraploid cells are commonly found in chromosome analysis at prenatal diagnosis and these are generally considered 'harmless'. It is not clear whether these tetraploid cells simply tend to arise during in vitro cell culture or whether they are also present in placental cells in vivo . There are, at any rate, very few clinical reports of fetuses/infants diagnosed with tetraploidy mosaicism. Mixoploidy
2133-473: Is most commonly caused by either failure of one meiotic division during oogenesis leading to a diploid oocyte or failure to extrude one polar body from the oocyte . Diandry appears to predominate among early miscarriages , while digyny predominates among triploid zygotes that survive into the fetal period. However, among early miscarriages, digyny is also more common in those cases less than 8 + 1 ⁄ 2 weeks gestational age or those in which an embryo
2212-433: Is most commonly induced by treating seeds with the chemical colchicine . Some crops are found in a variety of ploidies: tulips and lilies are commonly found as both diploid and triploid; daylilies ( Hemerocallis cultivars) are available as either diploid or tetraploid; apples and kinnow mandarins can be diploid, triploid, or tetraploid. Besides plants and animals, the evolutionary history of various fungal species
2291-623: Is often associated with apomictic mating systems. In agricultural systems, autotriploidy can result in seedlessness, as in watermelons and bananas . Triploidy is also utilized in salmon and trout farming to induce sterility. Rarely, autopolyploids arise from spontaneous, somatic genome doubling, which has been observed in apple ( Malus domesticus ) bud sports . This is also the most common pathway of artificially induced polyploidy, where methods such as protoplast fusion or treatment with colchicine , oryzalin or mitotic inhibitors are used to disrupt normal mitotic division, which results in
2370-419: Is often used in organic farming systems in Europe. In the United States, it is often used as an intercrop. Thus, proso millet can help to avoid a summer fallow, and continuous crop rotation can be achieved. Its superficial root system and its resistance to atrazine residue make proso millet a good intercrop between two water- and pesticide -demanding crops. The stubbles of the last crop, by allowing more heat into
2449-440: Is part of cytology and, more specifically, cytogenetics . Although the replication and transcription of DNA is highly standardized in eukaryotes , the same cannot be said for their karyotypes, which are highly variable between species in chromosome number and in detailed organization despite being constructed out of the same macromolecules. In some cases, there is even significant variation within species. This variation provides
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2528-435: Is present. There are also two distinct phenotypes in triploid placentas and fetuses that are dependent on the origin of the extra haploid set. In digyny, there is typically an asymmetric poorly grown fetus , with marked adrenal hypoplasia and a very small placenta . In diandry, a partial hydatidiform mole develops. These parent-of-origin effects reflect the effects of genomic imprinting . Complete tetraploidy
2607-412: Is quite commonly observed in human preimplantation embryos and includes haploid/diploid as well as diploid/tetraploid mixed cell populations. It is unknown whether these embryos fail to implant and are therefore rarely detected in ongoing pregnancies or if there is simply a selective process favoring the diploid cells. A polyploidy event occurred within the stem lineage of the teleost fish. Polyploidy
2686-429: Is recommended. Planting proso millet in a crop rotation after maize should be avoided due to its same weed spectrum. Because proso millet is an undemanding crop, it may be used at the end of the rotation . Harvest time is at the end of August until mid-September. Determining the best harvest date is not easy because all the grains do not ripen simultaneously. The grains on the top of the panicle ripen first, while
2765-624: Is the Coast Redwood Sequoia sempervirens , which is a hexaploid (6 x ) with 66 chromosomes (2 n = 6 x = 66), although the origin is unclear. Aquatic plants, especially the Monocotyledons , include a large number of polyploids. The induction of polyploidy is a common technique to overcome the sterility of a hybrid species during plant breeding. For example, triticale is the hybrid of wheat ( Triticum turgidum ) and rye ( Secale cereale ). It combines sought-after characteristics of
2844-758: Is thermophilic like maize , so shady locations of the field should be avoided. It is sensitive to temperatures lower than 10 to 13 °C (50 to 55 °F). Proso millet is highly drought-resistant, which makes it of interest to regions with low water availability and longer periods without rain. The soil should be light or medium-heavy. Due to its flat root systems, soil compaction must be avoided. Furthermore, proso millet does not tolerate soil wetness caused by dammed-up water. A 2019 study found different cultivars have significantly different effects on rhizosphere assemblage, and also that Proteobacteria , Bacteroidetes , Chloroflexi , Gemmatimonadetes , Firmicutes , Verrucomicrobia , and Planctomycetes are
2923-551: Is under- or over-represented are said to be aneuploid (from the Greek words meaning "not", "good", and "fold"). Aneuploidy refers to a numerical change in part of the chromosome set, whereas polyploidy refers to a numerical change in the whole set of chromosomes. Polyploidy occurs in some tissues of animals that are otherwise diploid, such as human muscle tissues. This is known as endopolyploidy . Species whose cells do not have nuclei, that is, prokaryotes , may be polyploid, as seen in
3002-493: The Middle East , Turkey , Romania , and the Great Plains states of the United States. About 500,000 acres (200,000 hectares) are grown each year. The crop is notable both for its extremely short lifecycle, with some varieties producing grain only 60 days after planting, and its low water requirements, producing grain more efficiently per unit of moisture than any other grain species tested. The name "proso millet" comes from
3081-546: The basidiomycota Microbotryum violaceum ). As for plants and animals, fungal hybrids and polyploids display structural and functional modifications compared to their progenitors and diploid counterparts. In particular, the structural and functional outcomes of polyploid Saccharomyces genomes strikingly reflect the evolutionary fate of plant polyploid ones. Large chromosomal rearrangements leading to chimeric chromosomes have been described, as well as more punctual genetic modifications such as gene loss. The homoealleles of
3160-664: The salmonids and many cyprinids (i.e. carp ). Some fish have as many as 400 chromosomes. Polyploidy also occurs commonly in amphibians; for example the biomedically important genus Xenopus contains many different species with as many as 12 sets of chromosomes (dodecaploid). Polyploid lizards are also quite common. Most are sterile and reproduce by parthenogenesis ; others, like Liolaemus chiliensis , maintain sexual reproduction. Polyploid mole salamanders (mostly triploids) are all female and reproduce by kleptogenesis , "stealing" spermatophores from diploid males of related species to trigger egg development but not incorporating
3239-420: The vertebrates (which includes the human lineage) and another near the origin of the teleost fishes . Angiosperms ( flowering plants ) have paleopolyploidy in their ancestry. All eukaryotes probably have experienced a polyploidy event at some point in their evolutionary history. A karyotype is the characteristic chromosome complement of a eukaryote species . The preparation and study of karyotypes
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3318-416: The 3- to 5-leaf stage. After that, all nutrients should be available for the millet, so preventing the growth of weeds is necessary. In conventional farming , herbicides may be used. In organic farming , harrow weeder or interrow cultivator use is possible, but special sowing parameters are needed. For good crop development, fertilization with 50 to 75 kilograms (110 to 165 lb) nitrogen per hectare
3397-425: The agamic complexes of Crepis . Some plants are triploid. As meiosis is disturbed, these plants are sterile, with all plants having the same genetic constitution: Among them, the exclusively vegetatively propagated saffron crocus ( Crocus sativus ). Also, the extremely rare Tasmanian shrub Lomatia tasmanica is a triploid sterile species. There are few naturally occurring polyploid conifers . One example
3476-575: The allotetraploid yeast S. pastorianus show unequal contribution to the transcriptome . Phenotypic diversification is also observed following polyploidization and/or hybridization in fungi, producing the fuel for natural selection and subsequent adaptation and speciation. Other eukaryotic taxa have experienced one or more polyploidization events during their evolutionary history (see Albertin and Marullo, 2012 for review). The oomycetes , which are non-true fungi members, contain several examples of paleopolyploid and polyploid species, such as within
3555-567: The basis for a range of studies in what might be called evolutionary cytology. Homoeologous chromosomes are those brought together following inter-species hybridization and allopolyploidization , and whose relationship was completely homologous in an ancestral species. For example, durum wheat is the result of the inter-species hybridization of two diploid grass species Triticum urartu and Aegilops speltoides . Both diploid ancestors had two sets of 7 chromosomes, which were similar in terms of size and genes contained on them. Durum wheat contains
3634-432: The best known is colchicine , which can result in chromosome doubling, though its use may have other less obvious consequences as well. Oryzalin will also double the existing chromosome content. Among mammals , a high frequency of polyploid cells is found in organs such as the brain, liver, heart, and bone marrow. It also occurs in the somatic cells of other animals , such as goldfish , salmon , and salamanders . It
3713-457: The common name of bread wheat. Many agriculturally important plants of the genus Brassica are also tetraploids. Sugarcane can have ploidy levels higher than octaploid . Polyploidization can be a mechanism of sympatric speciation because polyploids are usually unable to interbreed with their diploid ancestors. An example is the plant Erythranthe peregrina . Sequencing confirmed that this species originated from E. × robertsii ,
3792-407: The diploid species. A similar relationship exists between three diploid species of Tragopogon ( T. dubius , T. pratensis , and T. porrifolius ) and two allotetraploid species ( T. mirus and T. miscellus ). Complex patterns of allopolyploid evolution have also been observed in animals, as in the frog genus Xenopus . Organisms in which a particular chromosome, or chromosome segment,
3871-581: The ends of a spectrum of divergence between parental subgenomes. Polyploids that fall between these two extremes, which are often referred to as segmental allopolyploids, may display intermediate levels of polysomic inheritance that vary by locus. About half of all polyploids are thought to be the result of autopolyploidy, although many factors make this proportion hard to estimate. Allopolyploids or amphipolyploids or heteropolyploids are polyploids with chromosomes derived from two or more diverged taxa. As in autopolyploidy, this primarily occurs through
3950-471: The evolved polyploids. The high degree of homology among duplicated chromosomes causes autopolyploids to display polysomic inheritance . This trait is often used as a diagnostic criterion to distinguish autopolyploids from allopolyploids, which commonly display disomic inheritance after they progress past the neopolyploid stage. While most polyploid species are unambiguously characterized as either autopolyploid or allopolyploid, these categories represent
4029-604: The four expected if it were truly a tetraploid. This rodent is not a rat , but kin to guinea pigs and chinchillas . Its "new" diploid (2 n ) number is 102 and so its cells are roughly twice normal size. Its closest living relation is Octomys mimax , the Andean Viscacha-Rat of the same family, whose 2 n = 56. It was therefore surmised that an Octomys -like ancestor produced tetraploid (i.e., 2 n = 4 x = 112) offspring that were, by virtue of their doubled chromosomes, reproductively isolated from their parents. Polyploidy
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#17328592587844108-436: The frog, Xenopus (an extension of the work of Briggs and King in 1952) that were able to develop to the tadpole stage. The British scientist J. B. S. Haldane hailed the work for its potential medical applications and, in describing the results, became one of the first to use the word " clone " in reference to animals. Later work by Shinya Yamanaka showed how mature cells can be reprogrammed to become pluripotent, extending
4187-425: The fusion of unreduced (2 n ) gametes, which can take place before or after hybridization . In the former case, unreduced gametes from each diploid taxon – or reduced gametes from two autotetraploid taxa – combine to form allopolyploid offspring. In the latter case, one or more diploid F 1 hybrids produce unreduced gametes that fuse to form allopolyploid progeny. Hybridization followed by genome duplication may be
4266-509: The fusion of unreduced (2 n ) gametes, which results in either triploid ( n + 2 n = 3 n ) or tetraploid (2 n + 2 n = 4 n ) offspring. Triploid offspring are typically sterile (as in the phenomenon of triploid block ), but in some cases they may produce high proportions of unreduced gametes and thus aid the formation of tetraploids. This pathway to tetraploidy is referred to as the triploid bridge . Triploids may also persist through asexual reproduction . In fact, stable autotriploidy in plants
4345-648: The genus Phytophthora . Some species of brown algae ( Fucales , Laminariales and diatoms ) contain apparent polyploid genomes. In the Alveolata group, the remarkable species Paramecium tetraurelia underwent three successive rounds of whole-genome duplication and established itself as a major model for paleopolyploid studies. Each Deinococcus radiodurans bacterium contains 4-8 copies of its chromosome . Exposure of D. radiodurans to X-ray irradiation or desiccation can shatter its genomes into hundred of short random fragments. Nevertheless, D. radiodurans
4424-410: The grains in the lower parts need more time, making compromise and harvest necessary to optimize yield. Harvesting can be done with a conventional combine harvester with the moisture content of the grains around 15-20%. Usually, proso millet is mowed into windrows first, since the plants are not dry like wheat . There, they can wither, which makes the threshing easier. Then the harvest is done with
4503-455: The kitchen and whole house were full, and then the next house, and then the whole street, just as if it wanted to satisfy the hunger of the whole world, and there was the greatest distress, but no one knew how to stop it. At last when only one single house remained, the child came home and just said, "Stop, little pot," and it stopped and gave up cooking, and whosoever wished to return to the town had to eat their way back. A rather similar story
4582-429: The large bacterium Epulopiscium fishelsoni . Hence ploidy is defined with respect to a cell. A monoploid has only one set of chromosomes and the term is usually only applied to cells or organisms that are normally diploid. The more general term for such organisms is haploid . A polyploid that is newly formed. That has become polyploid in more recent history; it is not as new as a neopolyploid and not as old as
4661-518: The males' DNA into the offspring. While some tissues of mammals, such as parenchymal liver cells, are polyploid, rare instances of polyploid mammals are known, but most often result in prenatal death. An octodontid rodent of Argentina 's harsh desert regions, known as the plains viscacha rat ( Tympanoctomys barrerae ) has been reported as an exception to this 'rule'. However, careful analysis using chromosome paints shows that there are only two copies of each chromosome in T. barrerae , not
4740-410: The most common members, in declining order. The seedbed should be finely crumbled as for sugar beet and rapeseed . In Europe, proso millet is sowed between mid-April and the end of May. About 500 grams per acre (44 oz/ha) of seeds are required, which is roughly 500 per square metre (2,000,000/acre). In organic farming , this amount should be increased if a harrow weeder is used. For sowing,
4819-408: The number of chromosome sets in the nucleus . The letter x is used to represent the number of chromosomes in a single set: Autopolyploids are polyploids with multiple chromosome sets derived from a single taxon . Two examples of natural autopolyploids are the piggyback plant, Tolmiea menzisii and the white sturgeon, Acipenser transmontanum . Most instances of autopolyploidy result from
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#17328592587844898-464: The pan-Slavic general and generic name for millet ( Serbo-Croatian : proso / просо , Czech : proso , Polish : proso , Russian : просо ). Proso millet is a relative of foxtail millet , pearl millet , maize , and sorghum within the grass subfamily Panicoideae . While all of these crops use C4 photosynthesis , the others all employ the NADP-ME as their primary carbon shuttle pathway, while
4977-417: The parents, but the initial hybrids are sterile. After polyploidization, the hybrid becomes fertile and can thus be further propagated to become triticale. In some situations, polyploid crops are preferred because they are sterile. For example, many seedless fruit varieties are seedless as a result of polyploidy. Such crops are propagated using asexual techniques, such as grafting . Polyploidy in crop plants
5056-518: The porridge... Proso millet Panicum miliaceum is a grain crop with many common names , including proso millet , broomcorn millet , common millet , hog millet , Kashfi millet , red millet , and white millet . Archaeobotanical evidence suggests millet was first domesticated about 10,000 BP in Northern China. Major cultivated areas include Northern China , Himachal Pradesh of India, Nepal , Russia , Ukraine , Belarus ,
5135-715: The possibilities to non-stem cells. Gurdon and Yamanaka were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in 2012 for this work. True polyploidy rarely occurs in humans, although polyploid cells occur in highly differentiated tissue, such as liver parenchyma , heart muscle, placenta and in bone marrow. Aneuploidy is more common. Polyploidy occurs in humans in the form of triploidy , with 69 chromosomes (sometimes called 69, XXX), and tetraploidy with 92 chromosomes (sometimes called 92, XXXX). Triploidy, usually due to polyspermy , occurs in about 2–3% of all human pregnancies and ~15% of miscarriages. The vast majority of triploid conceptions end as
5214-430: The pot home to her mother, and now they were freed from their poverty and hunger, and ate sweet porridge as often as they chose. Once upon a time when the girl had gone out, her mother said, "Cook, little pot, cook." And it did cook and she ate until she was satisfied, and then she wanted the pot to stop cooking, but did not know the word. So it went on cooking and the porridge rose over the edge, and still it cooked on until
5293-425: The pot, and, by the laws of Socialist utopia, food is fairly given to everyone. In 1984 Soyuzmultfilm studio released a 20-min. animated film " A Pot of Porridge [ ru ] " ( Russian : Горшочек каши }) dubbed into French as La Marmite de Porridge . In the film a poor girl was awarded with the magic pot for her kindness. A greedy baker Karl Hagenbeck tricks her into giving him the pot and starts selling
5372-486: The potential to revert, similar to the pattern seen for weedy rice. Currently, the earliest archeological evidence for domesticated proso millet comes from the Cishan site in semiarid north east China around 8,000 BCE. Because early varieties of proso millet had such a short lifecycle, as little as 45 days from planting to harvest, they are thought to have made it possible for seminomadic tribes to first adopt agriculture, forming
5451-545: The prevalence of allopolyploidy among crop species. Both bread wheat and triticale are examples of an allopolyploids with six chromosome sets. Cotton , peanut , and quinoa are allotetraploids with multiple origins. In Brassicaceous crops, the Triangle of U describes the relationships between the three common diploid Brassicas ( B. oleracea , B. rapa , and B. nigra ) and three allotetraploids ( B. napus , B. juncea , and B. carinata ) derived from hybridization among
5530-503: The primary C4 carbon shuttle in proso millet is the NAD-ME pathway. Panicum miliaceum is a tetraploid species with a base chromosome number of 18, twice the base chromosome number of diploid species within its genus Panicum . The species appears to be an allotetraploid resulting from a wide hybrid between two different diploid ancestors. One of the two subgenomes within proso millet appears to have come from either P. capillare or
5609-796: The processes of speciation and eco-niche exploitation. The mechanisms leading to novel variation in newly formed allopolyploids may include gene dosage effects (resulting from more numerous copies of genome content), the reunion of divergent gene regulatory hierarchies, chromosomal rearrangements, and epigenetic remodeling, all of which affect gene content and/or expression levels. Many of these rapid changes may contribute to reproductive isolation and speciation. However, seed generated from interploidy crosses , such as between polyploids and their parent species, usually have aberrant endosperm development which impairs their viability, thus contributing to polyploid speciation . Polyploids may also interbreed with diploids and produce polyploid seeds, as observed in
5688-460: The production of aneuploid gametes. Natural or artificial selection for fertility can quickly stabilize meiosis in autopolyploids by restoring bivalent pairing during meiosis. Rapid adaptive evolution of the meiotic machinery, resulting in reduced levels of multivalents (and therefore stable autopolyploid meiosis) has been documented in Arabidopsis arenosa and Arabidopsis lyrata , with specific adaptive alleles of these species shared between only
5767-419: The production of polyploid cells. This process can be useful in plant breeding, especially when attempting to introgress germplasm across ploidal levels. Autopolyploids possess at least three homologous chromosome sets, which can lead to high rates of multivalent pairing during meiosis (particularly in recently formed autopolyploids, also known as neopolyploids) and an associated decrease in fertility due to
5846-569: The proso millet genome, estimated to be around 920 megabase pairs in size, was published in 2019. Weedy forms of proso millet are found throughout central Asia, covering a widespread area from the Caspian Sea east to Xinjiang and Mongolia . These may represent the wild progenitor of proso millet or feral escapes from domesticated production. Indeed, in the United States, weedy proso millet, representing feral escapes from cultivation, are now common, suggesting current proso millet cultivars retain
5925-642: The same number of chromosomes, and the chromosomes are joined in pairs of homologous chromosomes. However, some organisms are polyploid . Polyploidy is especially common in plants. Most eukaryotes have diploid somatic cells , but produce haploid gametes (eggs and sperm) by meiosis . A monoploid has only one set of chromosomes, and the term is usually only applied to cells or organisms that are normally diploid. Males of bees and other Hymenoptera , for example, are monoploid. Unlike animals, plants and multicellular algae have life cycles with two alternating multicellular generations . The gametophyte generation
6004-490: The soil, result in a faster and earlier millet growth. While millet occupies the ground, because of its superficial root system, the soil can replenish its water content for the next crop. Later crops, for example, a winter wheat, can in turn benefit from the millet stubble, which act as snow accumulators. P. miliaceum is commonly classified into five races , miliaceum , patentissimum , contractum , compactum , and ovatum . Due to its C4 photosynthetic system, proso millet
6083-410: The usual sowing machines can be used similarly to how they are used for other crops such as wheat. A distance between the rows of 16 to 25 centimetres (6.3 to 9.8 in) is recommended if the farmer uses an interrow cultivator . The sowing depth should be 1.5 to 2 centimetres (0.59 to 0.79 in) in optimal soil or 3 to 4 centimetres (1.2 to 1.6 in) in dry soil. Rolling of the ground after sowing
6162-412: Was induced in fish by Har Swarup (1956) using a cold-shock treatment of the eggs close to the time of fertilization, which produced triploid embryos that successfully matured. Cold or heat shock has also been shown to result in unreduced amphibian gametes, though this occurs more commonly in eggs than in sperm. John Gurdon (1958) transplanted intact nuclei from somatic cells to produce diploid eggs in
6241-481: Was recorded by Czech folklorist Karel Jaromír Erben under the title "Hrnečku, vař!" ("Cook, Little Pot!") It was used in the 1963 animation Hrnečku, vař! by Czech director Václav Bedřich . In his version, shot in Communist Czechoslovakia , the pot is the center of the conflict between poor peasants and greedy exploiters. In the happy ending the greedy ones are forced to flee by the flood of porridge from
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