A street sweeper or street cleaner is a person or machine that cleans streets .
83-594: People have worked in cities as " sanitation workers " since sanitation and waste removal became a priority. A street-sweeping person would use a broom and shovel to clean off litter , animal waste and filth that accumulated on streets. Later, water hoses were used to wash the streets. Street sweepers as machines were created in the 19th century to do the job easier. Today, modern street sweepers are mounted on truck bodies and can vacuum debris that accumulates in streets. The need for rubbish to be removed from roads in built-up areas has existed for centuries. Sometimes
166-418: A forebay is often utilized as a deposition area to clarify the water and concentrate the material. Mining, heavy construction and other industries have used passive systems for more than twenty years. These types of systems are low carbon as no external power source is needed, they require little skill to operate, minimal maintenance and are effective at reducing Total Suspended Solids , some heavy metals and
249-492: A comparison showing a savings of $ 2,716.77 from the Elgin motorized sweeper when used rather than a horse-drawn sweeper. Following its introduction and initial sales, Murphy continued improving his sweeper. In 1917, US patents were filed and issues for J. M. Murphy, Street Sweeping machine No. 1,239,293. The goal of simple debris removal did not change until the 1970s, when policymakers began to reflect concern for water quality . In
332-435: A critical public service, essential for our daily lives and the environment. Yet their working conditions expose them to the worst consequences of poor sanitation such as debilitating infections, injuries, social stigma and even death every day. The challenges faced by sanitation workers can be categorized as follows: occupational safety and health , legal and institutional issues, financial insecurity, and social issues. In
415-757: A local educational program is that of the West Michigan Environmental Action Council (WMEAC), which has coined the term Hydrofilth to describe stormwater pollution, as part of its "15 to the River" campaign. (During a rain storm, it may take only 15 minutes for contaminated runoff in Grand Rapids, Michigan to reach the Grand River .) Its outreach activities include a rain barrel distribution program and materials for homeowners on installing rain gardens . Other public education campaigns highlight
498-445: A local law in a town or city ordered the owner or occupier of each address to clean the length of that road that passed his address. Sometimes when much traffic was horse-drawn vehicles or ridden horses, there were street cleaners who selectively removed horse droppings because of their value as fertilizer on nearby rural areas. By the 1840s, Manchester , England, had become known as the first industrial city. Manchester had one of
581-482: A precursor to the vacuum truck now used to pump out septage from septic tanks . The municipal emptying of pail toilets continued in Australia into the second half of the twentieth century; these were known as dunnies and the workers were dunnymen. Examples by country: Improving the working conditions of sanitation workers is also important for reaching at least four of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of
664-465: A recent municipal stormwater treatment study, an advanced sedimentation technology was used passively in large diameter stormwater mains upstream of SWMF's to remove an average of 90% of TSS and phosphorus during a near 50 year rain event turning a management facility into a passive treatment facility. Chemical treatment of stormwater to remove pollutants can be accomplished without large scale infrastructure improvements. Passive treatment technologies use
747-572: A scraper to remove snow or ice. Brooks was granted a U.S. patent for the invention in 1896. Most of the more than 300 street sweeper patents issued in the United States before 1900, including the one in Brooks' patent, had no engine on board. The wheels on the cart turned gears or chains which drove the brush and belt. John M. Murphy called at the offices of American Tower and Tank Company in Elgin, Illinois , in
830-576: A substantial portion of the stormwater pollutant load . Street sweeping can be an effective measure in reducing pollutants in stormwater runoff . The Environmental Protection Agency considers street sweeping a best practice in protecting water quality. Street sweepers are capable of collecting small particles of debris. Many street sweepers produced today are PM10 and PM2.5 certified, meaning that they are capable of collecting and holding particulate matter sized less than 10μm and even down to 2.5μm. Despite advancements in street sweeping technology,
913-483: A sweeper was achieved which Murphy was satisfied performed all of the sweeping functions in the manner he had envisioned – one which partners James and Daniel M. Todd and Charles A. Whiting were willing to risk a reputation gained from 30 years' manufacturing experience. In the fall of 1913, the city of Boise, Idaho , purchased the first Elgin Sweeper, following a demonstration. Boise Street Commissioner, Thomas Finegan, made
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#1732859052675996-801: A wide range of biological and chemical agents. Additionally, they may be at risk of injury from heavy labor, poor and prolonged postures and positions and confined spaces , as well as psychosocial stress . These risks are exacerbated under conditions of poverty, illness, poor nutrition, poor housing, child labor , migration, drug and alcohol abuse, discrimination, social stigma and societal neglect. In many developing countries , sanitation workers are "more vulnerable due to unregulated or unenforced environmental and labor protections, and lack of occupational health and safety ". Sanitation work can be grouped into formal employment and informal employment. Sanitation workers face many challenges. These relate to occupational safety and health (diseases related to contact with
1079-437: Is Leptospirosis , spread through contact with rat urine . The safety of sanitation workers is influenced by: Design and construction of the toilet or other piece of sanitation infrastructure, pressure by the customer or by the employer, as well as materials and equipment available to do the job. It is difficult to estimate the burden of disease for sanitation workers. A systematic literature review with 65 studies showed
1162-492: Is irrigation , water runs off and ultimately makes its way to a river , lake , or the ocean . While there is some attenuation of these pollutants before entering receiving waters, polluted runoff results in large enough quantities of pollutants to impair receiving waters. In addition to the pollutants carried in stormwater runoff , urban runoff is being recognized as a cause of pollution in its own right. In natural catchments ( watersheds ) surface runoff entering waterways
1245-559: Is water that originates from precipitation ( storm ), including heavy rain and meltwater from hail and snow . Stormwater can soak into the soil ( infiltrate ) and become groundwater , be stored on depressed land surface in ponds and puddles , evaporate back into the atmosphere, or contribute to surface runoff . Most runoff is conveyed directly as surface water to nearby streams , rivers or other large water bodies ( wetlands , lakes and oceans ) without treatment. In natural landscapes, such as forests, soil absorbs much of
1328-611: Is "Pourakarmikas" which includes manual scavengers, sewer workers, sanitation workers. Sanitation workers in India are "overwhelmingly Dalits , and are in fact from ‘scavenging castes ’". Programs like Swachh Bharat exist to reduce caste-based discrimination in India, but so far have proven to be ineffective due to increased deaths of sanitation workers. An estimate in 2018 put the number of "sanitation workers" in India at 5 million (with 2 million working in high-risk conditions), and 50% of them being women. Typically, women are involved in
1411-681: Is "stigmatized, lowly, and invalid" despite the importance of the work that they do. Bangladesh has sanitation workers in formal arrangement as well as informal arrangement (called "sweepers"). There are an estimated 5 to 6 million sweepers in Bangladesh. They use only basic tools, often without PPE. The informal “sweepers” in Bangladesh face financial and job insecurities, discrimination, and stigmatization . Many live in segregated "sweeper colonies", which are often slum -like. They tend to be dalits (low-caste Hindus) and Christian and Muslim Bengalis. The permanent workers have more secure positions than
1494-402: Is a relatively rare event, occurring only a few times each year and generally after larger storms. Before development occurred, most rainfall soaked into the ground and contributed to groundwater recharge or was recycled into the atmosphere by vegetation through evapotranspiration . Modern drainage systems, which collect runoff from impervious surfaces (e.g., roofs and roads), ensure that water
1577-724: Is an expensive long-term investment that is difficult to replace when the underlying circumstances change. As a result, the system will perform worse or malfunction more frequently over time. This is precisely what is occurring in the region surrounding Europe and the Baltic Sea, where the quickening pace of climate change is stressing the systems, the advancement of urbanization, and stricter regulations. Rethinking stormwater management techniques and investing in infrastructure are essential to adapting to these rapidly changing circumstances. Stormwater runoff has been an issue since humans began living in concentrated villages or urban settings. During
1660-600: Is carried out by public sanitation workers, whereas pit emptying is contracted out to the private sector. In the municipality of eThekwini (which includes Durban , the third largest city in South Africa), there are "approximately 100 pit emptiers on any given day through 15 private contractors, plus 800 municipal sanitation workers". In Zambia, organizations such as the SNV Netherlands Development Organisation under their WASH SDG Programme and
1743-458: Is carried out unsafely can include: "headaches, dizziness, fever, fatigue, asthma, gastroenteritis , cholera , typhoid , hepatitis, polio, cryptosporidiosis, schistosomiasis, eye and skin burn and other skin irritation, musculoskeletal disorders (including back pain), puncture wounds and cuts, blunt force". Sanitation workers are at an increased risk of becoming ill from waterborne diseases . One specific disease that concerns workers in sewers
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#17328590526751826-553: Is classified as nonpoint source pollution under the CWA. It is not included in the CWA definition of "point source" and therefore not subject to NPDES permit requirements. The 1987 CWA amendments established a non-regulatory program at EPA for nonpoint source pollution management consisting of research and demonstration projects. Related programs, such as the Environmental Quality Incentives Program are conducted by
1909-500: Is common for many low grade jobs. Workers are also vulnerable to extortion in many countries. In developing countries, low-grade, unskilled sanitation workers often face social stigma and discrimination. This is especially true when sanitation is linked to a caste -based structure, such as in India and Bangladesh. This stigma can result in intergenerational discrimination, where children of sanitation workers often struggle to escape
1992-587: Is due to polluted runoff, generally in urbanized watersheds (in other US watersheds, agricultural pollution is a major source). To address the nationwide problem of stormwater pollution, Congress broadened the CWA definition of "point source" in 1987 to include industrial stormwater discharges and Municipal Separate Storm Sewer Systems ("MS4"). These facilities are required to obtain NPDES permits. In 2017, about 855 large municipal systems (serving populations of 100,000 or more), and 6,695 small systems are regulated by
2075-763: Is efficiently moved to waterways through pipe networks, meaning that even small storms result in increased waterway flows. In addition to delivering higher pollutants from the urban catchment, increased stormwater flow can lead to stream erosion , encourage weed invasion, and alter natural flow regimes. Native species often rely on such flow regimes for spawning, juvenile development, and migration. Stormwater runoff from roadways has been observed to contain many metals including zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), nickel (Ni), lead (Pb), chromium (Cr), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), vanadium (V), cobalt (Co), and aluminum (Al) (Sansalone and Buchberger, 1997; Westerlund and Viklander, 2006) and other constituents. In some areas, especially along
2158-596: Is important to safeguard the dignity and health of sanitation workers. A report by World Bank , International Labour Organization , WaterAid and WHO from 2019 defines "sanitation workers" to include toilet cleaners and caretakers in domestic, public , and institutional settings; those who empty pits from pit latrines and vaults of septic tanks and other fecal sludge handlers; those who clean sewers and manholes; and those who work at sewage treatment plants and fecal sludge treatment plants and disposal sites. Another definition is: "The moment an individual’s waste
2241-422: Is no surface warning that an opening has grown so large it will suddenly collapse catastrophically. Therefore, land use planning for new development needs to avoid karst areas. Ultimately taxpayers end up paying the costs for poor land use decisions. Managing the quantity and quality of stormwater is termed, "Stormwater Management." The term Best Management Practice (BMP) or stormwater control measure (SCM)
2324-409: Is often polluted by materials that are handled or stored on the sites, and the facilities are subject to regulations to control the discharges. Stormwater Management Facilities (SWMF's) are generally designed using Stokes' law to allow rudimentary treatment through the settling particulate matter larger than 40 micron in size and to impound water to reduce downstream flooding. However, regulation on
2407-401: Is often used to refer to both structural or engineered control devices and systems (e.g. retention ponds ) to treat or store polluted stormwater, as well as operational or procedural practices (e.g. street sweeping). Stormwater management includes both technical and institutional aspects. Integrated water management (IWM) of stormwater has the potential to address many of the issues affecting
2490-464: Is one that balances the desired results (controlling runoff and pollution) with the associated costs (loss of usable land for land-based systems versus capital cost of manufactured solution). Green (vegetated) roofs are also another low-cost solution. IWM as a movement can be regarded as being in its infancy and brings together elements of drainage science, ecology and a realization that traditional drainage solutions transfer problems further downstream to
2573-566: Is outsourced to another, it becomes sanitation work." Since there are various definitions of sanitation , it is not surprising that there are various definitions of "sanitation worker". In the United States, the term "sanitation worker" tends to be used exclusively for municipal solid waste collectors : people who collect solid waste and take it to a transfer station, landfill, or incinerator. People who work with excreta management are usually known as environmental engineers or environmental specialists. The importance of sanitation workers in
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2656-418: Is shown in the table below. Sanitation workers work in different types of employment situations. They are either government-employed workers, workers of private service providers or informal workers . Sanitation workers who are employed by the government usually have comparatively good infrastructure, tools and personal protective equipment (PPE), and face only moderate health and safety risks. For example,
2739-423: Is the primary cause of basement and sewer backups. Although the number of casualties from urban flooding is usually limited, the economic, social and environmental consequences can be considerable: in addition to direct damage to property and infrastructure ( highways , utilities and services), chronically wet houses are linked to an increase in respiratory problems and other illnesses. Sewer backups are often from
2822-870: Is to build strong unions and associations to protect worker rights . Motivated staff are needed to keep cities clean and functioning. Concerns like fair wages , medical and maternity benefits (for women staff), safety equipment, respect and security of employment must be addressed. Overall, a "positive perception of sanitation workers in government as well as civil society" would be helpful. To reduce this risk and protect against illness, measures have been proposed for occupational health: Basic hygiene practices for workers ( handwashing etc.); sanitation workers should be provided with proper personal protective equipment (PPE) and be trained on how to use it (i.e. goggles, face mask, overalls, gloves, boots); vaccinations (e.g. tetanus , polio , typhoid fever , hepatitis A and hepatitis B vaccinations. Technology must match
2905-464: Is to incorporate land-based solutions to reduce stormwater runoff through the use of retention ponds, bioswales , infiltration trenches, sustainable pavements (such as permeable paving ), and others noted above. LID can also be achieved by utilizing engineered, manufactured products to achieve similar, or potentially better, results as land-based systems (underground storage tanks, stormwater treatment systems, biofilters , etc.). The proper LID solution
2988-526: The Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) in the U.S. Department of Agriculture . Education is a key component of stormwater management. A number of agencies and organizations have launched campaigns to teach the public about stormwater pollution, and how they can contribute to solving it. Thousands of local governments in the U.S. have developed education programs as required by their NPDES stormwater permits. One example of
3071-525: The United States , or Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD) in Australia , IWM has the potential to improve runoff quality, reduce the risk and impact of flooding and deliver an additional water resource to augment potable supply. The development of the modern city often results in increased demands for water supply due to population growth, while at the same time altered runoff predicted by climate change has
3154-418: The effluent from SWMF's is becoming more stringent. Impact of the nutrient, Phosphorus either dissolved from (fertilizers) or bound to sediment particles from construction or agriculture runoff, causes algae and toxic cyanobacteria (aka Blue-green algae ) blooms in receiving lakes. Cyanotoxin is of particular concern as many drinking water treatment plants can not effectively remove this health hazard. In
3237-428: The CWA in 1972. Pollutant loadings from these sources are tightly controlled through the issuance of National Pollution Discharge Elimination System ( NPDES ) permits. However, despite these controls, thousands of water bodies in the U.S. remain classified as "impaired," meaning that they contain pollutants at levels higher than is considered safe by EPA for the intended beneficial uses of the water. Much of this impairment
3320-585: The Lusaka Water and Sanitation Company (LWSC) under a project known as the Lusaka Sanitation Programme (LSP) supported by international organizations including the German Corporation for International Cooperation GmbH , have been working on projects to "legalize and make sanitation workers more visible and create the recognition and respect that they so rightfully deserve." Lusaka is one of
3403-510: The State of Maryland requires erosion and sediment controls on construction sites of 5,000 sq ft (460 m ) or more. It is not uncommon for state agencies to revise their requirements and impose them upon counties and cities; daily fines ranging as high as $ 25,000 can be imposed for failure to modify their local stormwater permitting for construction sites, for instance. Agricultural runoff (except for concentrated animal feeding operations, or " CAFO ")
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3486-463: The U.S. coast, polluted runoff from roads and highways may be the largest source of water pollution . For example, about 75 percent of the toxic chemicals getting to Seattle , Washington's Puget Sound are carried by stormwater that runs off paved roads and driveways, rooftops, yards, and other developed land. Industrial stormwater is runoff from precipitation that lands on industrial sites (e.g. manufacturing facilities, mines, airports). This runoff
3569-635: The United Nations. The working conditions of sanitation workers relate to "end poverty in all its forms everywhere" ( SDG 1 ) ; "ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages" ( SDG 3 ); "ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all" ( SDG 6 ); and "decent work and economic growth" ( SDG 8 ). During the Covid-19 pandemic , sanitation workers in some countries have been designated as essential workers or even corona warriors to underscore their importance in
3652-457: The United States, the lag time in which street sweepers responded can be pinpointed to the Runoff Report of 1998. As older street sweepers were only effective in removing large particles of road debris , small particles of debris remained behind in large quantities. The remaining debris was not seen as an aesthetic issue because rain would wash them away. Today, small particles are known to carry
3735-460: The case of India, the work of sanitation workers (especially those without formal employment contracts) has been described as: Drudgery, dangerous, dirty and dehumanizing. The five hidden dangers for people working as sanitation workers include health hazards, discrimination, psychological problems, low wages and lack of social security coverage. Occupational safety and health issues for sanitation workers include: diseases related to contact with
3818-623: The containment process since it requires fewer technical skills and a lower degree of technology, resulting in employment as school toilet and drain cleaners. In India the term manual scavengers is used historically for a subsection of sanitation workers. The official definition in Indian law is "manually cleaning, carrying, disposing of, or otherwise handling, human excreta in an insanitary latrine or in an open drain or pit". The practice has officially been banned since 1993 but still continues. Stormwater Stormwater , also written storm water ,
3901-470: The current literature on sanitation workers focuses on the conditions in developing countries. Those workers who maintain and empty on-site sanitation systems (e.g. pit latrines , septic tanks ) contribute to functional fecal sludge management systems. Without sanitation workers, the Sustainable Development Goal 6 , Target 6.2 ("safely managed sanitation for all") cannot be achieved. It
3984-477: The definition of sanitation workers encompasses a vast line of services, the number of sanitation workers globally is difficult to estimate because they often have multiple jobs or are categorized with other sectors (e.g., solid waste and healthcare facility management). Also, sanitation workers in developing countries are often informally employed which makes it difficult to determine how many there are. Estimates at country level include: Sanitation workers provide
4067-617: The detriment of the environment and water resources. In the United States , the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is charged with regulating stormwater pursuant to the Clean Water Act (CWA). The goal of the CWA is to restore all " Waters of the United States " to their "fishable" and "swimmable" conditions. Point source discharges, which originate mostly from municipal wastewater ( sewage ) and industrial wastewater discharges, have been regulated since enactment of
4150-559: The energy of water flowing by gravity through ditches, canals, culverts, pipes or other constructed conveyances to enable treatment. Self dosing products, such as Gel Flocculants , are placed in the flowing water where sediment particles, colloids and flow energy combine to release the required dosage, thereby creating heavy flocs which can then be easily filtered or settled. Natural woven fibers like jute are often used in ditch bottoms to act as filtration media. Silt retention mats can also be placed in situ to capture floccules. Sedimentation in
4233-495: The equipment or technology at any step of the sanitation chain. This is the definition used in the narrower sense within the WASH sector. More broadly speaking, sanitation workers may also be involved in cleaning streets , parks , public spaces , sewers , storm water drains , and public toilets . Another definition is: "The moment an individual’s waste is outsourced to another, it becomes sanitation work." Some organizations use
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#17328590526754316-549: The excreta; injuries related to the physical effort of extracting and transporting the waste, including falls from height ; injuries related to cuts from non-fecal waste (e.g. glass or needles) disposed of down the toilet. There are also the general dangers of working in confined spaces , including lack of oxygen. Many sanitation workers in developing countries work without any form of personal protective equipment (PPE) and no or minimal formal training. Physical and medical conditions directly associated with sanitation work that
4399-621: The excreta; injuries; the dangers of working in confined spaces , legal and institutional issues, as well as social and financial challenges. One of the main issues is the social stigma attached to sanitation work. Sanitation workers are at an increased risk of becoming ill from waterborne diseases. To reduce this risk and protect against illness, such as diarrhea , safety measures should be put in place for workers and employers. The working conditions, legal status, social aspects etc. are vastly different for sanitation workers in developing countries versus those in high income countries . Much of
4482-503: The fall of 1911. He had a plan of a motor-driven pickup street sweeper. The American Tower and Tank Company had been formed in 1903 by Charles A. Whiting and James Todd. They called in a recently acquired silent partner, Daniel M. Todd, and it was decided to hire Murphy and begin the development of his idea. That started what has become the Elgin Sweeper Company. After two years of trial, development, experimentation, and research,
4565-548: The fastest-growing cities in Africa and the majority of the population live in informal, peri-urban settlements. Various organizations in Lusaka attempt to make sanitation workers more visible and create more recognition and respect for them. They also aim to design projects and processes that improve their working environment and conditions, and help to provide the required investments to support their enterprises. Pit latrine emptiers empty
4648-593: The fight against COVID-19. They often had higher workloads than before. They might have had a higher risk of infection due to "the presence of the viruses in fecal sludge and sewage". However, as of 2022 there was "little if any evidence to date of actual transmission of the SARS-CoV-2 virus via waste". In South Africa, sanitation work is mostly formalized. The different types of sanitation work are carried out via different arrangements in South Africa: sewer maintenance
4731-399: The following: "There was an increased risk of adverse health across a range of outcomes. This is especially true in the case of hepatitis A infections [...]". The review also showed "an increase in adverse gastrointestinal and respiratory conditions associated with sanitation work". A few studies found some "adverse musculoskeletal and mental/social impacts". With regards to mortality, there
4814-410: The ground, and more runoff is generated than in undeveloped conditions. Additionally, passages such as ditches and storm sewers quickly transport runoff away from commercial and residential areas into nearby water bodies. This greatly increases the volume of water in waterways and the discharge of those waterways, leading to erosion and flooding. Because the water is flushed out of the watershed during
4897-452: The health of waterways and water supply challenges facing the modern urban city. IWM is often associated with green infrastructure when considered in the design process. Professionals in their respective fields, such as urban planners , architects , landscape architects , interior designers , and engineers , often consider integrated water management as a foundation of the design process. Also known as low impact development (LID) in
4980-446: The importance of green infrastructure in slowing down and treating stormwater runoff. DuPage County Stormwater Management launched the "Love Blue. Live Green." outreach campaign on social media sites to educate the public on green infrastructure and some other best management practices for stormwater runoff. Articles, websites, pictures, videos and other media are spread to the public through this campaign. Stormwater infrastructure
5063-416: The increased stormwater from impervious surfaces such as roofs, parking lots, and streets to runoff into. Instead, the stormwater enters the subsurface drainage system by moving down through the ground. When the subsurface water flow becomes great enough to transport soil and rock fragments, the karst openings grow rapidly. Where karst openings are roofed by supportive ( competent ) limestone, there frequently
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#17328590526755146-497: The informal labour sector and are commonly referred to as "informal sanitation workers". They have weak legal protection results from working informally and do not follow occupational health and safety standards. Informal workers provide "manual emptying services to households, particularly where inaccessible to trucks and to the most vulnerable households". They are not registered or legally recognized, and often work without any protection, facing discrimination and stigma. While
5229-477: The informal workers, with a guaranteed income and other benefits, such as membership in the government emptiers’ union. “Sanitation workers” can be used as a translation for the Hindi word " safai karamcharis ". This includes " manual scavengers ", but also people who work as street sweepers , are employed to clean open spaces, collect solid waste, and clean open drains and public toilets. Another commonly used term
5312-415: The largest textile industries of that time. As a result, the robust metropolis was said to be England's unhealthiest place to live. In response to this unsanitary environment, Joseph Whitworth invented the mechanical street sweeper. The street sweeper was designed with the primary objective to remove rubbish from streets in order to maintain aesthetic goals and safety. The very first street sweeping machine
5395-505: The mechanical broom type street sweeper accounts for approximately 90 percent of all street sweepers used in the United States today. In 2018, Boschung , a Swiss street sweeper manufacturer, launched the Urban-Sweeper S2.0, the first fully electric street sweeper releasing zero emissions . Sanitation workers A sanitation worker (or sanitary worker ) is a person responsible for cleaning, maintaining, operating, or emptying
5478-475: The needs of the workers. Workers are more likely to wear protective gear if they are given a choice of suitable clothing. In European history the terms " nightsoil collectors" or "nightmen" and gong farmers were used. The current term for the safe collection of human excreta is fecal sludge management . Towns with sanitation systems based on pail closets ( bucket toilets in outhouses ) relied on frequent emptying, performed by workers driving "honeywagons" ,
5561-616: The nutrient phosphorus . Stormwater is a major cause of urban flooding . Urban flooding is the inundation of land or property in a built-up environment caused by stormwater overwhelming the capacity of drainage systems , such as storm sewers . Although triggered by single events such as flash flooding or snow melt , urban flooding is a condition, characterized by its repetitive, costly and systemic impacts on communities. In areas susceptible to urban flooding, backwater valves and other infrastructure may be installed to mitigate losses. Where properties are built with basements , urban flooding
5644-402: The permit system. EPA has authorized 47 states to issue NPDES permits. In addition to implementing the NPDES requirements, many states and local governments have enacted their own stormwater management laws and ordinances, and some have published stormwater treatment design manuals. Some of these state and local requirements have expanded coverage beyond the federal requirements. For example,
5727-560: The pollutants carried in stormwater runoff, urban runoff is being recognized as a cause of pollution in its own right Stormwater is also an important resource as human population and demand for water grow, particularly in arid and drought-prone climates. Stormwater harvesting techniques and purification could potentially make some urban environments self-sustaining in terms of water. With less vegetation and more impervious surfaces ( parking lots , roads , buildings , compacted soil ), developed areas allow less rain to infiltrate into
5810-500: The potential for future problems. In undisturbed areas with natural subsurface ( karst ) drainage, soil and rock fragments choke karst openings thereby being a self-limitation to the growth of openings. The undisturbed karst drainage system becomes balanced with the climate so it can drain the water produced by most storms. However, problems occur when the landscape is altered by urban development. In urban areas with natural subsurface ( karst ) drainage there are no surface streams for
5893-586: The potential to increase the volume of stormwater that can contribute to drainage and flooding problems. IWM offers several techniques, including stormwater harvest (to reduce the amount of water that can cause flooding), infiltration (to restore the natural recharge of groundwater), biofiltration or bioretention (e.g., rain gardens ), to store and treat runoff and release it at a controlled rate to reduce impact on streams and wetland treatments (to store and control runoff rates and provide habitat in urban areas). There are many ways of achieving LID. The most popular
5976-561: The sanitary sewer system, which takes on some storm water as a result of Infiltration/Inflow . An example of urban stormwater creating a sinkhole collapse is the February 25, 2002 Dishman Lane collapse in Bowling Green, Kentucky where a sinkhole suddenly dropped the road under four traveling vehicles. The nine-month repair of the Dishman Lane collapse cost a million dollars but there remains
6059-451: The situation of sanitation workers in developing countries include the reform of policy, legislation and regulation to acknowledge and professionalize the sanitation workforce. Furthermore, operational guidelines to mitigate the occupational risks of all types of sanitation work are required. This includes standard operating procedures, enforcement of laws, personal protective equipment (PPE) for all aspects of sanitation work. A third approach
6142-769: The storm event, little infiltrates the soil, replenishes groundwater , or supplies stream baseflow in dry weather. A first flush is the initial runoff of a rainstorm. During this phase, polluted water entering storm drains in areas with high proportions of impervious surfaces is typically more concentrated compared to the remainder of the storm. Consequently, these high concentrations of urban runoff result in high levels of pollutants discharged from storm sewers to surface waters . Daily human activities result in deposition of pollutants on roads , lawns , roofs , farm fields, and other land surfaces. Such pollutants include trash, sediment, nutrients, bacteria, pesticides, metals, and petroleum byproducts. When it rains or there
6225-417: The stormwater. Plants also reduce stormwater by improving infiltration, intercepting precipitation as it falls, and by taking up water through their roots. In developed environments, such as cities , unmanaged stormwater can create two major issues: one related to the volume and timing of runoff ( flooding ) and the other related to potential contaminants the water is carrying ( water pollution ). In addition to
6308-500: The struggle for human rights is seen in the 1968 labor strike of the sanitation workers of Memphis , Tennessee: The Memphis sanitation strike , supported by Martin Luther King Jr. , brought together both waste collectors and sewerage maintenance workers. More commonly, a waste collector , also referred to a bin man, garbage collector, etc. deals with municipal solid waste . The types of work that sanitation workers carry out
6391-611: The tasks of unclogging of the main sewers or operating wastewater treatment plants are usually performed by formal government workers or private companies, whereas the unclogging of household sewer connections is performed by private companies and informal sanitation workers. In many developing countries, informal workers collect human excreta from certain types of toilet (such as bucket toilets and pit latrines ) without mechanical equipment and without personal protective equipment. These workers are "scooping out feces from ‘dry’ latrines and overflowing pits". They are usually working in
6474-401: The term specifically for municipal solid waste collectors , whereas others exclude the workers involved in management of solid waste (rubbish, trash) sector from its definition. Sanitation workers are essential in maintaining safe sanitation services in homes, schools, hospitals, and other settings and protecting public health but face many health risks in doing so, including from exposure to
6557-414: The toilet pits and septic tanks in communities. They enter inspection holes and sewers to fix or unblock them and then transport the fecal waste to treatment plants, while maintaining the sanitation facilities. If septic tanks and pit latrines are not emptied regularly, waste flows into the groundwater, contaminating the environment and surrounding water supplies. The response from society towards pit emptiers
6640-579: The vicious cycle of limited opportunities and sanitation work. There can be implicit or explicit discrimination , which hinders workers’ social inclusion, their opportunities to shift careers, and social mobility. Furthermore, alcoholism and drug addiction to evade the working conditions are common among some sanitation workers in developing countries. Sanitation workers, particularly those in information employment who manually empty septic tanks and pit latrines, are often subjected to social stigma for their work. The main approaches used to improve
6723-711: Was "inconsistent evidence on mortality". Governmental policies and other efforts can work together to mitigate these risks. There are research gaps in characterizing the health risks of sanitation workers in three main areas: "low-income countries, among women and those under informal employment". In many developing countries , sanitation workers often have to work with weak legal protection, missing or weak standard operating procedures , weak law enforcement and few policies protecting their rights and health. Sanitation workers in developing countries are typically poorly and irregularly paid. This applies in particular to those who are employed on temporary or informal terms, as
6806-453: Was patented in 1849 by its inventor, C.S. Bishop. For a long time, street sweepers were just rotating disks covered with wire bristles. These rotating disks served as mechanical brooms that swept the dirt on the streets. The first self-propelled sweeper vehicle patented in the US, driven by a steam engine and intended for cleaning railroad tracks, was patented in 1868, patent No. 79606. Eureka C. Bowne
6889-556: Was the first known woman to get a patent for a street sweeper, in 1879, patent No. 222447. "Her success was great", wrote Matilda Joslyn Gage in The North American Review, volume 136, issue 318, May 1883. In 1896, African-American inventor Charles Brooks improved on then-conventional street sweeping inventions by making the front brushes of different lengths, and by including a mechanism for collection and disposal of debris. The revolving front brushes could also be replaced with
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