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69-414: The Swedish Space Corporation , SSC, also registered as Svenska rymdaktiebolaget, is a Swedish space services company. SSC operations consist of launches of sounding rockets and stratospheric balloons, tests of future generation rocket engines and new rocket fuels, operation and maintenance of space and aviation systems, as well as satellite communications through the use of SSC ground stations deployed around

138-504: A lasing medium consisting of metal rods. Many such rods would be placed around a warhead, each aimed at a different ICBM, thus destroying many ICBMs in a single attack. It would cost much less for the US to build another Excalibur than the Soviets would need to build enough new ICBMs to counter it. The idea was first based on satellites, but when it was pointed out that these could be attacked in space,

207-432: A 1986 speech, Senator Joe Biden claimed “'Star Wars' represents a fundamental assault on the concepts, alliances and arms-control agreements that have buttressed American security for several decades, and the president’s continued adherence to it constitutes one of the most reckless and irresponsible acts in the history of modern statecraft.” Through declassified intelligence material, the wider implications and effects of

276-509: A decade. Instead of attempting to protect against thousands of incoming missiles, GPALS sought to provide protection from up to two hundred nuclear missiles. GPALS was tasked to protect the United States from attacks coming from all different parts of the world. In 1993, the Clinton administration further shifted the focus to ground-based interceptor missiles and theater-scale systems, forming

345-600: A full-fledged "Strategic Defense Initiative for our time, the SDI II" though it is unclear what this had to do with SDA. The US Army considered the issue of ballistic missile defense (BMD) after World War II . Studies suggested that attacking a V-2 rocket would be difficult because the flight time was so short that it would leave little time to forward information through command and control networks to missile batteries. Bell Labs pointed out that although longer-range missiles flew much faster, their longer flight times would ease

414-537: A high-powered orbital chemical laser attack ICBMs, the Space Based Laser (SBL). New developments under Project Excalibur by Teller's "O-Group" at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) suggested that a single X-ray laser could shoot down dozens of missiles with a single shot. The groups began to meet in order to prepare their plans for the incoming president. The group met with Reagan several times during 1981 and 1982, apparently with little effect, while

483-426: A review of the various concepts. They put together an all-star panel including many of the inventors of the laser, including a Nobel laureate . Their initial report was presented in 1986, but was released to the public (in redacted form) in early 1987. The report considered all of the systems then under development and concluded none of them were anywhere near ready for deployment. Specifically, they noted that all of

552-523: A satellite that successfully test-fired its cannon in orbit. In 1979, Teller contributed to a Hoover Institution publication where he claimed that the US would be facing an emboldened USSR due to their work on civil defense . Two years later at a conference in Italy, he made the same claims about their ambitions, now emboldened by new space-based weapons. According to popular opinion, shared by author Frances FitzGerald , no evidence validated that such research

621-501: A short period and the warheads did not rise high enough for them to be easily tracked by a satellite above them. GPALS thus added a mobile ground-based missile and more low-orbit satellites known as Brilliant Eyes to feed the Pebbles. GPALS was approved by President George H.W. Bush in 1991. The system would cut the proposed costs of the SDI system from $ 53 billion to $ 41 billion over

690-399: A small, Virginia-based think tank called High Frontier to continue research on the missile shield. The Heritage Foundation provided High Frontier with research space, and Graham published a 1982 report entitled, "High Frontier: A New National Strategy" that examined in greater detail how the system would function. Since the late 1970s, another group had been pushing for the development of

759-1226: Is expected to take place in 2024. SSC operations in Sweden are located in Solna , Kiruna and Ågesta. The company also has operations in Australia, Chile, the Netherlands, Thailand, Germany, the United States and the United Kingdom. SSC has roughly 630 employees and an MSEK 1,263 turnover in 2022. SSC has more than fifty years of experience in helping space agencies, companies, commercial actors and research institutes gain access to space. The company designs, develops and tests various types of space systems, rocket systems , subsystems and experimental equipment for research, in space or near-space environments. Common areas of application are microgravity experiments, atmospheric research and testing and validation of space-related systems. SSC has specialist competence in satellite communications , rocket and balloon systems, launching of rockets and balloons, and provides consulting services for satellite operators. SSC has one of

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828-494: Is run by Ariane Group on behalf of the European Space Agency (ESA). The facility will also be used for test launches of the next generation of sounding rockets. Future European rocket technology is also tested at the base's test beds. There, various space actors develop reusable, more sustainable and cost-effective rocket technology. The number of satellites in near-Earth space is expected to reach nearly 10,000 within

897-729: The Ballistic Missile Defense Organization (BMDO) and closing BMDO was renamed by the George W. Bush administration as the Missile Defense Agency and focused on limited National Missile Defense . The Extended Range Interceptor (ERINT) program was part of SDI's Theater Missile Defense Program and was an extension of the Flexible Lightweight Agile Guided Experiment (FLAGE), which included developing hit-to-kill technology and demonstrating

966-465: The Brilliant Pebbles concept. This was essentially the combination of the sensors on the garage satellites and the tracking stations. Advancements in sensors and microprocessors allowed this to be packaged in a small missile nose cone. Subsequent studies suggested that this approach would be cheaper, easier to launch and more resistant to counterattack, and in 1990 Brilliant Pebbles was selected as

1035-488: The Global Positioning System (GPS) as a satellite-based infrastructure developed by the U.S. Department of Defense provides the globally available signal for navigation for civilian users and additional encrypted services of U.S. and allied military forces. The European Union (EU) decided to provide an alternative to GPS by building " Galileo " as an independent European satellite navigation system. Space diplomacy

1104-483: The International Space Station . Space debris risk mitigation is major concern, due to the fact that collision with space debris can destroy vehicles and other space assets. Policy making can be performed on a different scales on a national level and on an international level, to establish international cooperation that will coordinate the activities of all nations to avoid collision, space debris , and

1173-581: The Marshall Islands . For each test a Minuteman missile was launched from Vandenberg Air Force Base in California carrying a single mock re-entry vehicle targeted for Kwajalein lagoon more than 4,000 miles (6,400 km) away. After test failures with the first three flight tests because of guidance and sensor problems, the DOD reported that the fourth and final test on June 10, 1984, was successful, intercepting

1242-527: The Soviet Union began in 1964–1965. Though classified at the time, a detailed study on a Soviet space-based laser system began no later than 1976 with the Polyus , a 1 MW Carbon dioxide laser -based orbital weapons platform prototype. Development was also started on the anti-satellite Kaskad in-orbit missile platform. A revolver cannon ( Rikhter R-23 ) was mounted on the 1974 Soviet Salyut 3 space station,

1311-698: The US Department of Defense to oversee development. Advanced weapon concepts, including lasers, particle-beam weapons , and ground and space-based missile systems were studied, along with sensor, command and control , and computer systems needed to control a system consisting of hundreds of combat centers and satellites spanning the globe. The US held a significant advantage in advanced missile defense systems through decades of extensive research and testing. Several concepts, technologies and insights obtained were transferred to subsequent programs. Under SDIO's Innovative Sciences and Technology Office, investment

1380-575: The 1980s the US Army began studies about the feasibility of kinetic hit-to-kill vehicles, i.e. interceptors that would destroy incoming ballistic missiles by colliding with them. The Homing Overlay Experiment (HOE) was the first such system tested by the Army, and the first successful hit-to-kill intercept of a mock ballistic missile warhead outside the Earth's atmosphere. HOE used a kinetic kill vehicle (KKV). The KKV

1449-601: The DOD never disclosed to Congress the enhancements made to the target vessel. HOE technology was later expanded into the Exoatmospheric Reentry-vehicle Interception System program. Developed by Lockheed as part of the ground-based interceptor portion of SDI, the Exoatmospheric Reentry-vehicle Interceptor Subsystem (ERIS) began in 1985, with at least two tests occurring in the early 1990s. This system

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1518-668: The Earth's poles. The strategic location of Esrange Space Center, above the Arctic Circle , allows for regular contact with satellites as they pass within range several times a day. Esrange is today one of the world's most used satellite stations. Through the company's subsidiaries LSE in Germany and Aurora Technology in the Netherlands, SSC offers consulting services in satellite control. A third subsidiary, GlobalTrust in Great Britain, offers analysis of satellite data. Esrange Space Center,

1587-514: The European Space Agency (ESA). Satellite operation services and satellite consulting services are performed on behalf of satellite owners, satellite operators and space agencies worldwide. Tests of space and flight systems are conducted for both Swedish and foreign companies as well as the armed forces. Rymdbolaget was established by the Swedish government in 1972 to be the executive body for

1656-737: The Minuteman RV with a closing speed of about 3.8 mi/s (6.1 km/s) at an altitude of more than 100 mi (160 km). Although the fourth test was described as a success, the New York Times in August 1993 reported that the HOE4 test was rigged to increase the likelihood of success. At the urging of Senator David Pryor , the General Accounting Office investigated the claims and concluded that though steps were taken to make it easier for

1725-538: The Soviet ICBMs upon launch. This boost phase intercept rendered MIRV impotent; a successful attack would destroy all of the warheads. Unfortunately, the operational cost of such a system was so large that the US Air Force rejected the concepts. Development was cancelled in 1963. During this period, the entire topic of BMD became increasingly controversial. Early deployment plans were met with little interest, but by

1794-470: The Soviets spent on offense. The addition of MIRV in the late 1960s further moved the balance in favor of offensive systems. This massively skewed cost-exchange ratio prompted observers to propose that an arms race was inevitable. President Dwight D. Eisenhower asked ARPA to consider alternative concepts. Their Project Defender studied many approaches before concentrating on Project BAMBI . BAMBI used satellites carrying interceptors that would attack

1863-447: The Soviets were devoting serious thought to both explosive and non-explosive nuclear power sources for lasers. On March 23, 1983, Reagan announced SDI in a nationally televised speech, stating "I call upon the scientific community in this country, those who gave us nuclear weapons, to turn their great talents to the cause of mankind and world peace, to give us the means of rendering these nuclear weapons impotent and obsolete." In 1984,

1932-521: The State Delegation for Space operations, now under the name of Swedish National Space Agency (SNSA). The company was formed in 1972 by Esrange Space Center and Rymdtekniska Gruppen in Solna, Stockholm. During the period 1966–1972, Esrange was an ESA owned facility but in 1972 the ownership passed into Swedish ownership in connection with the formation of Rymdbolaget. Today, SSC has no official duties, and

2001-630: The Strategic Defense Initiative Organization (SDIO) was established to oversee the program, which was headed by Lt. General James Alan Abrahamson USAF, a past Director of the Space Shuttle program . In addition to original Heritage ideas, other concepts were considered. Notable among these were particle-beam weapons , updated versions of nuclear shaped charges , and various plasma weapons . SDIO invested in computer systems, component miniaturization, and sensors. Initially,

2070-568: The agency the Ballistic Missile Defense Organization (BMDO). In 2019, elements, specifically the observation portions, of the program re-emerged with President Trump's signing of the National Defense Authorization Act . The program is managed by the Space Development Agency (SDA) as part of the new National Defense Space Architecture (NDSA). CIA Director Mike Pompeo called for additional funding to achieve

2139-410: The base, Spaceport Esrange, was inaugurated on 13 January 2023 by H.M. King Carl XVI Gustaf , Swedish Prime Minister Ulf Kristersson and European Commission President Ursula von der Leyen . Spaceport Esrange is the first facility on EU mainland with the ability to launch satellites into orbit. The facility will also be used for Europe’s program for the development of reusable rockets, Themis , which

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2208-615: The baseline model for SDS Phase 1. While SDIO pursued SDS, the Warsaw Pact was rapidly disintegrating, culminating in the destruction of the Berlin Wall in 1989. One of the many reports on SDS considered these events and suggested that a massive defense against a Soviet launch would become unnecessary. However, short and medium range missile technology would likely proliferate as the Soviet Union disintegrated and sold off its hardware. One of

2277-505: The buildup of new offensive weaponry like the B-1 Lancer and MX missile continued. However, in early 1983, the Joint Chiefs of Staff met with the president and outlined the reasons why they might consider shifting some of the funding from the offensive side to new defensive systems. According to a 1983 US Interagency Intelligence Assessment, good evidence indicated that in the late 1960s

2346-429: The city or its surrounding areas. The A-35 was the only Soviet ABM system allowed under the 1972 Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty . In development since the 1960s and in operation from 1971 until the 1990s, it featured the nuclear-tipped A350 exoatmospheric interceptor missile. George Shultz , Reagan's secretary of state , suggested that a 1967 lecture by physicist Edward Teller was an important precursor to SDI. In

2415-605: The company is 100 percent owned by the Swedish state. Since the turn of the millennium, the company has expanded and now has operations in Australia, Chile, the Netherlands, Thailand, Germany, the US and the UK. For instance, in 2000, SSC acquired Universal Space Network , USN, a company founded by space pioneer and astronaut Charles "Pete" Conrad , Jr. He was the third human to walk the Moon. The acquirement of USN, nowadays known as SSC Space US, marks

2484-447: The concept moved to a "pop-up" concept, with the device launched from a submarine off the northern Soviet coast. However, on March 26, 1983, the first test (known as the Cabra event ), was performed in an underground shaft and resulted in marginally positive readings possibly caused by a faulty detector. Since a nuclear explosion was used as the power source, the detector was destroyed during

2553-400: The core ideas behind Global Protection Against Limited Strikes (GPALS) was that the Soviet Union would not always be the aggressor and the United States would not always be the target. Instead of a heavy defense aimed at ICBMs, this report suggested realigning GPALS deployment. Against novel threats the Brilliant Pebbles would have limited utility, largely because the missiles fired for only

2622-511: The experiment, and the results therefore could not be confirmed. Technical criticism based upon unclassified calculations suggested that the X-ray laser would be of at best marginal use. Critics often cite the X-ray laser system as SDI's primary focus, with its apparent failure warranting opposition to the program. Space traffic management Space traffic includes launch vehicles , as well as orbiting objects such as satellites of all sizes and

2691-522: The fall of 1979, at Reagan's request, Lieutenant General Daniel O. Graham , the former head of the DIA , briefed Reagan on an updated BAMBI he called High Frontier, a missile shield composed of multi-layered ground- and space-based weapons that could track, intercept, and destroy ballistic missiles, theoretically enabled by emerging technologies. It was designed to replace the MAD doctrine. In September 1981, Graham formed

2760-605: The guidance accuracy of a small, agile, radar-homing vehicle. FLAGE scored a direct hit against a MGM-52 Lance missile in flight, at White Sands Missile Range in 1987. ERINT was a prototype missile similar to the FLAGE, but it used a new solid-propellant rocket motor that allowed it to fly faster and higher than FLAGE. ERINT was later chosen as the MIM-104 Patriot (Patriot Advanced Capability-3, PAC-3) missile. Given concerns about previous programs' nuclear-tipped interceptors, in

2829-451: The interceptor to find its target (including some of those alleged by the New York Times ), the available data indicated that the interceptor had been successfully guided by its onboard infrared sensors in the collision, and not by an onboard radar guidance system as alleged. Per the GAO report, the net effect of the DOD enhancements increased the infrared signature of the target vessel by 110% over

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2898-559: The late 1960s, public meetings on the Sentinel system were met by thousands of angry protesters. After thirty years of effort, only one such system was built; a single base of the original Safeguard system became operational in April 1975, but was closed in February 1976. A Soviet military A-35 anti-ballistic missile system was deployed around Moscow to intercept enemy ballistic missiles targeting

2967-501: The lecture, Teller talked about the idea of defending against nuclear missiles using nuclear weapons , principally the W65 and W71 , with the latter an enhanced thermal/X-ray device used on the Spartan missile in 1975. Held at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL), the 1967 lecture was attended by Reagan shortly after he became governor of California. Development of laser weapons in

3036-557: The loss of space assets and services. The United Nations bureau most concerned with space traffic management is the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA). In 2007 the resolution A/RES/62/101 about the Recommendations on enhancing the practice of States and international intergovernmental organizations in registering space objects was released by United Nations. Furthermore resources and reference Material

3105-452: The next few years. In that same area of space, large amounts of space debris are also in orbit. It is estimated to be more than 130 million objects, some as small as a millimeter, traveling at high speed around the Earth. The increasing number of objects in orbit around the Earth increases the risk of collisions. SSC's is therefore expanding its initiative in the area of Space Situational Awareness (SSA), which aims to detect, predict and assess

3174-514: The operation, maintenance, and development of test systems at the Vidsel test site. All of these businesses have today been divested. Space Surveillance and Tracking System The Strategic Defense Initiative ( SDI ), derisively nicknamed the Star Wars program , was a proposed missile defense system intended to protect the United States from attack by ballistic nuclear missiles . The program

3243-512: The program focused on large-scale systems designed to defeat a massive Soviet offensive strike. For this mission, SDIO concentrated almost entirely on "high tech" solutions like lasers. Graham's proposal was repeatedly rejected by members of the Heritage group as well as within SDIO; when asked about it in 1985, Abrahamson suggested that the concept was underdeveloped and was not considered. By 1986, many of

3312-550: The program revealed that due to the potential neutralization of its arsenal and resulting loss of a balancing power factor, SDI was a cause of grave concern for the Soviet Union and its successor state Russia. Following the Cold War when nuclear arsenals were shrinking, political support for SDI collapsed. SDI ended in 1993, when the Clinton Administration redirected the efforts towards theatre ballistic missiles and renamed

3381-549: The promising ideas were failing. Teller's X-ray laser, run under Project Excalibur , failed several key tests in 1986 and was targeted to the anti-satellite role. The particle beam concept was demonstrated to basically not work, as was the case with several other concepts. Only the Space-Based Laser seemed to have any hope of developing in the short term, but it was growing in size due to its fuel consumption. The American Physical Society (APS) had been asked by SDIO to provide

3450-461: The realistic missile signature initially proposed for the HOE program, but nonetheless the GAO concluded the enhancements to the target vessel were reasonable given the objectives of the program and the geopolitical consequences of its failure. Further, the report concluded that the DOD's subsequent statements before Congress about the HOE program "fairly characterize[d]" the success of HOE4, but confirmed that

3519-504: The risks of spacecraft launches and re-entry. The SSC has started a program whose task is to track and catalog the objects in orbit around the Earth – so-called Space Traffic Management (STM) – a communication system to avoid potential collisions during launch and for satellites in orbit in the future. SSC's largest customers in space systems development and launch services are the Swedish National Space Agency (SNSA) and

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3588-473: The safety, stability, and sustainability of operations in the space environment. Bringing objects into outer space and provide a specific service for earth observation, communication or any other scientific, commercial or military application is not only about technical and domain specific problem solving. Space Diplomacy is involved if specific international negotiations are involved to represent national interests in an international Space Traffic Management. E.g

3657-533: The starting point in which SSC began establishing a global ground station network which today is one of the biggest civilian networks in the world. The acquisition is also reflected in today's growth into the lunar market. Over the years, SSC has also designed and built satellites, developed airborne ocean surveillance systems used by coastguard organizations worldwide, as well as assisted the Swedish Defence Materiel Administration , FMV, with

3726-492: The systems could be deployed as an anti-missile system until the next century. Faced with this report and accompanying negative press, SDIO changed direction. Beginning in late 1986, Abrahamson proposed that SDI would be based on the system he had previously dismissed, a version of High Frontier now named the "Strategic Defense System, Phase I Architecture". The name implied that the concept would be replaced by more advanced systems in future phases. Strategic Defense System (SDS)

3795-514: The systems had to improve their energy output by at least 100 times, and in some cases by as much as a million. In other cases, like Excalibur, they dismissed the concept entirely. Their summary stated simply: We estimate that all existing candidates for directed energy weapons (DEWs) require two or more orders of magnitude, (powers of 10) improvements in power output and beam quality before they may be seriously considered for application in ballistic missile defense systems. They concluded that none of

3864-689: The timing issue and their high altitudes would ease long-range radar detection. This led to a series of projects including Nike Zeus , Nike-X , Sentinel and ultimately the Safeguard Program , all aimed at developing a system to defend against attacks by Soviet ICBMs. The programs proliferated because of the changing threat; the Soviets claimed to be producing missiles "like sausages", and ever-more missiles would be needed to defend against their fleet. Low-cost countermeasures such as radar decoys required additional interceptors. An early estimate suggested $ 20 spent on defense would be required for every $ 1

3933-531: The world's largest and most active civilian networks of ground stations that communicate with various types of satellites. SSC's worldwide network of ground stations uses the group's own as well as contracted satellite stations around the world. SSC has its own ground stations in Sweden, US, Canada, Chile, Thailand and Australia. The company also has partnering ground stations in Germany, Italy, Spain, South Africa, Antarctica, India and Japan. Most scientific satellites, as well as many Earth observation satellites, orbit

4002-458: The world's most versatile space center and a hub for SSC operations, is located outside Kiruna in northern Sweden, above the Arctic Circle (68°N, 21°E). In addition to the infrastructure that forms the base site, there is also access to a large, unpopulated impact and recovery area covering an area twice the size of Luxembourg (about 5,200 km). The facility has been in operation since 1966 and

4071-454: The world. SSC is also working on developing its Space Surveillance Tracking (SST) and Space Traffic Management (STM) programs with the aim to identify, assess and minimize risks of collisions and disruptions associated with space debris. In January 2023, Spaceport Esrange, a new establishment of Esrange Space Center was inaugurated – the first facility on EU mainland  with the capability of launching satellites. The first satellite launch

4140-400: Was announced in 1983, by President Ronald Reagan . Reagan called for a system that would render nuclear weapons obsolete, and to end the doctrine of mutual assured destruction (MAD), which he described as a " suicide pact ". Elements of the program reemerged in 2019 under the Space Development Agency (SDA). The Strategic Defense Initiative Organization (SDIO) was set up in 1984 within

4209-547: Was carried out. Instead, Teller was promoting his latest weapon, the X-ray laser that was finding only limited funding, his speech in Italy was a new attempt to synthsize a missile gap . In 1979, Reagan visited the NORAD command base, Cheyenne Mountain Complex , where he was introduced to the extensive tracking and detection systems extending throughout the world and into space; however, he

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4278-505: Was equipped with an infrared seeker, guidance electronics and a propulsion system. Once in space, the KKV could extend a folded structure similar to an umbrella skeleton of 13 ft (4 m) diameter to enhance its effective cross section. This device was intended to destroy an ICBM reentry vehicle on collision. Four test launches were conducted in 1983 and 1984 at Kwajalein Missile Range in

4347-426: Was initially part of the European Space Agency (ESA) before becoming a part of SSC as the company was founded in 1972. From Esrange, SSC launches sounding rockets and stratospheric balloons for research in various research disciplines. The base also houses a satellite communications station which forms the hub of SSC's global network of ground stations, with around 30 antennas on site. The newest facility within

4416-513: Was made in basic research at national laboratories, universities, and in industry. These programs have continued to be key sources of funding for research scientists in particle physics , supercomputing/ computation , advanced materials, and other critical science and engineering disciplines. In 1987, the American Physical Society concluded that the technologies were decades away from readiness, and at least another decade of research

4485-667: Was never deployed, but its technology was used in the Terminal High Altitude Area Defense (THAAD) system and the Ground-Based Interceptor currently deployed as part of the Ground-Based Midcourse Defense (GMD) system. An early SDI focus was an X-ray laser powered by nuclear explosions . Nuclear explosions give off a burst of X-rays, which the Excalibur concept intended to focus using

4554-524: Was released for States & Organizations to register space objects provided the initial results of discussions and raise international awareness about an international cooperation for space traffic management. Space traffic management can be regarded as part of international space law . In the United States, President Donald Trump signed Space Policy Directive-3 on 18 June 2018, which defined Space Traffic Management (STM) as "the planning, coordination, and on-orbit synchronization of activities to enhance

4623-615: Was required to know whether such a system was even possible. After the publication of the APS report, SDI's budget was cut. By the late 1980s, the effort had re-focused on the " Brilliant Pebbles " concept using small orbiting missiles, such as a lower cost conventional air-to-air missile . SDI was derisively nicknamed the Star Wars program, and criticized for threatening to destabilize the MAD-approach, and to re-ignite "an offensive arms race ". In

4692-457: Was struck by their comments that while they could track the attack down to the individual targets, they could not stop it. Reagan felt that in the event of an attack, this would place the president in a terrible position, having to choose between immediate counterattack or absorbing the attack while maintaining offensive dominance. Shultz suggested that this feeling of helplessness, coupled with Teller's defensive ideas combined to motivate SDI. In

4761-519: Was the low-earth orbit (LEO) Smart Rocks concept with an added layer of ground-based missiles sited in the US. These missiles were intended to attack warheads that the Smart Rocks missed. In order to track them below the radar horizon , SDS added more LEO satellites that would feed tracking information to both the space-based "garages" as well as the ground-based missiles. Later ground-based systems trace derived from this concept. LLNL then introduced

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