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59-631: The river's name referred to its clear water and was derived from svítat , which meant "[be] clear" in Old Czech . The river is first documented in 1125 in Chronica Boemorum . The Svitava originates in the territory of Svitavy in the Svitavy Uplands at an elevation of 472 m (1,549 ft) and flows to Brno , where it enters the Svratka River at an elevation of 191 m (627 ft). It

118-612: A far more complicated set of declensions, where the suffixes (or prefixes, or infixes ) change depending on the gender of the noun , the quantity of the noun , and other possible factors. This complexity and the possible lengthening of words is one of the disadvantages of inflected languages. Notably, many of these languages lack articles . There may also be irregular nouns where the declensions are unique for each word (like irregular verbs with conjugation ). In inflected languages, other parts of speech such as numerals , demonstratives , adjectives, and articles are also declined. It

177-532: A more complex example, the sentence: becomes nonsensical in English if the words are rearranged (because there are no cases): But if English were a highly inflected language, like Latin or some Slavic languages such as Croatian , both sentences could mean the same thing. They would both contain five nouns in five different cases: mum – vocative (hey!), dog – nominative (who?), boy – genitive (of whom?), cat – accusative (whom?), street – locative (where?);

236-555: Is Dissertatio apologetica pro lingua Slavonica praecipue Bohemica ("The defence of the Slavic language, of Czech in particular"), written in Latin by Bohuslav Balbín . The period from the 1780s to the 1840s. The abolition of serfdom in 1781 (by Joseph II ) caused migration of country inhabitants to towns. It enabled the implementation of the ideas of the Czech national awakeners for the renewal of

295-458: Is 98.4 km (61.1 mi) long. Its drainage basin has an area of 1,149.4 km (443.8 sq mi). The longest tributaries of the Svitava are: The river valley is densely populated and there are many relatively notable settlements on the river. Apart from the city of Brno, the most significant towns on the river are Blansko and Svitavy , named after the river. The river flows through

354-508: Is agreed that Ancient Greeks had a "vague" idea of the forms of a noun in their language. A fragment of Anacreon seems to confirm this idea. Nevertheless, it cannot be concluded that the Ancient Greeks actually knew what the cases were. The Stoics developed many basic notions that today are the rudiments of linguistics . The idea of grammatical cases is also traced back to the Stoics, but it

413-446: Is expressed by aorist , imperfect , perfect and pluperfect . The future tense is not fixed yet; the present tense is often used instead. The contrast of perfective and imperfective aspects is not fully developed yet, there are also biaspectual and no-aspectual verbs. The Proto-Slavic supine was used after verbs of motion, but it was replaced by the infinitive . However, the contemporary infinitive ending -t formally continues

472-619: Is never regarded as declined in Modern English, although formally, the words that and possibly she correspond to forms of the predecessor of the ( sē m., þæt n., sēo f.) as it was declined in Old English. Just as verbs in Latin are conjugated to indicate grammatical information, Latin nouns and adjectives that modify them are declined to signal their roles in sentences. There are five important cases for Latin nouns: nominative , genitive , dative , accusative , and ablative . Since

531-819: Is not declined in Modern English. There are isolated situations where certain nouns may be modified to reflect gender, though not in a systematic fashion. Loan words from other languages, particularly Latin and the Romance languages, often preserve their gender-specific forms in English, e.g. alumnus (masculine singular) and alumna (feminine singular). Similarly, names borrowed from other languages show comparable distinctions: Andrew and Andrea , Paul and Paula , etc. Additionally, suffixes such as -ess , -ette , and -er are sometimes applied to create overtly gendered versions of nouns, with marking for feminine being much more common than marking for masculine. Many nouns can actually function as members of two genders or even all three, and

590-567: Is not still unified, digraphs are used predominantly in various forms. After the invention of book-printing, the so-called Brethren orthography stabilized in printed documents. The Bible of Kralice (1579–1593), the first complete Czech translation of the Bible from the original languages by the Unity of the Brethren , became the pattern of the literary Czech language. The orthography was predominantly diacritic;

649-631: Is often restricted to specific contexts, depending on the dialect or the speaker. It is most typically used to refer to a single person of unknown gender (e.g. "someone left their jacket behind") or a hypothetical person where gender is insignificant (e.g. "If someone wants to, then they should"). Its use has expanded in recent years due to increasing social recognition of persons who do not identify themselves as male or female (see gender-nonbinary ). The singular they still uses plural verb forms, reflecting its origins. Some English adjectives and adverbs are declined for degree of comparison . The unmarked form

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708-500: Is sometimes used in various shapes. Its function is to denote pauses. The changes of ’u > i ( kl’úč > klíč 'key') and ’o > ě ( koňóm > koniem '(to) horses') took place. The so-called main historical depalatalization , initiated in the 13th century, was finished. Palatalized (softened) consonants either merged with their hard counterparts or became palatal (ď, ť, ň). The depalatalization did not temporarily concern hard and soft l , which merged to one middle l later at

767-402: Is still not completely clear what the Stoics exactly meant with their notion of cases. In Modern English , the system of declensions is so simple compared to some other languages that the term declension is rarely used. Most nouns in English have distinct singular and plural forms. Nouns and most noun phrases can form a possessive construction. Plurality is most commonly shown by

826-417: Is subjective, and the objective whom (although it is increasingly common to use who for both). The one situation where gender is still clearly part of the English language is in the pronouns for the third person singular. Consider the following: The distinguishing of neuter for persons and non-persons is peculiar to English. This has existed since the 14th century. However, the use of singular they

885-623: Is the positive form, such as quick . Comparative forms are formed with the ending -er ( quicker ), while superlative forms are formed with -est ( quickest ). Some are uncomparable; the remainder are usually periphrastic constructions with more ( more beautiful ) and most ( most modestly ). See degree of comparison for more. Adjectives are not declined for case in Modern English (though they were in Old English), nor number nor gender. The demonstrative determiners this and that are declined for number, as these and those . The article

944-590: Is the Letovice Reservoir with an area of 98 ha (240 acres), built on the Křetínka. Two fishponds are built on the upper course of the Svitava. There are a large number of mills and hydroelectric power stations on the river. The Svitava is suitable for river tourism . The river is navigable all year round, but there are many weirs on it. The most popular section for paddlers is between Letovice and Blansko. Old Czech The Czech language developed at

1003-441: Is the changing of the form of a word , generally to express its syntactic function in the sentence, by way of some inflection . Declensions may apply to nouns , pronouns , adjectives , adverbs , and determiners to indicate number (e.g. singular, dual, plural), case (e.g. nominative , accusative , genitive , dative ), gender (e.g. masculine, neuter, feminine), and a number of other grammatical categories . Meanwhile,

1062-488: The ending -s (or -es ), whereas possession is always shown by the en clitic -'s or, for plural forms ending in s , by just an apostrophe. Consider, for example, the forms of the noun girl . Most speakers pronounce all forms other than the singular plain form ( girl ) exactly the same. By contrast, a few irregular nouns (like man /men) are slightly more complex in their forms. In this example, all four forms are pronounced distinctly. For nouns, in general, gender

1121-495: The locative , the instrumental form of "down our street" could also be used: Different word orders preserving the original meaning are possible in an inflected language, while modern English relies on word order for meaning, with a little flexibility. This is one of the advantages of an inflected language. The English sentences above, when read without the made-up case suffixes, are confusing. These contrived examples are relatively simple, whereas actual inflected languages have

1180-501: The same word , and thus are not declensions. Pronouns in English have more complex declensions. For example, the first person " I ": Whereas nouns do not distinguish between the subjective (nominative) and objective (oblique) cases, some pronouns do; that is, they decline to reflect their relationship to a verb or preposition , or case . Consider the difference between he (subjective) and him (objective), as in "He saw it" and "It saw him"; similarly, consider who , which

1239-453: The vocative case usually takes the same form as the nominative, it is seldom spelt out in grammar books. Yet another case, the locative , is limited to a small number of words. The usual basic functions of these cases are as follows: The genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative also have important functions to indicate the object of a preposition. Given below is the declension paradigm of Latin puer 'boy' and puella 'girl': From

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1298-425: The 10th century: The disappearance of the odd yers strengthened the phonological contrast of palatalized (softened) and unpalatalized consonants , and resulted in alterations of epenthetic e and ∅ (null- phoneme ). The contrast of the vowel quantity (length) was also strengthened. The depalatalization of consonants preceding e and ä took place later, thus the frequency of occurrence of palatalized consonants

1357-512: The 12th century in Slovak, the 12th to 13th century in Czech and the 14th century in Upper Sorbian. In the nominal declension , the traditional division according to the word-stem ending was progressively replaced by the gender principle (masculine, feminine and neuter) There were also three grammatical numbers : singular, dual and plural. The dual is also applied in verb conjugations. The past

1416-524: The 12th century. Later assibilation of palatalized alveolars ( t’ > c’, d’ > dz’ and r’ > rs’ ) occurred. However, c’ and dz’ disappeared later, but the change of r’ > rs’ > ř became permanent. In the 14th century, Czech began to penetrate various literary styles. Official documents in Czech exist at the end of the century. The digraph orthography is applied. The older digraph orthography : ch = ch; chz = č; cz = c; g = j; rs, rz = ř; s = ž or š; w = v; v = u; zz = s; z = z; ie, ye = ě ;

1475-424: The Czech language. However, the people's language and literary genres of the previous period were strange to the enlightened intelligentsia. The literary language of the end of the 16th century and of Komenský’s work became the starting point for the new codification of literary Czech. Of the various attempts at codification, Josef Dobrovský ’s grammar was ultimately generally accepted. Purists' attempts to cleanse

1534-473: The German model, the punctuation leaves the pause principle and respects the syntax. The artistic literature often resorted to archaisms and did not respect the natural development of the spoken language. This was due to attempts to reach the prestige literal styles. Literary Czech has not been an exclusive matter of the intellectual classes since the 1840s. Journalism was developing and artistic works got closer to

1593-442: The adjective little would be in the same case as the noun it modifies ( boy ), and the case of the determiner our would agree with the case of the noun it determines ( street ). Using the case suffixes invented for this example, the original sentence would read: And like other inflected languages, the sentence rearranged in the following ways would mean virtually the same thing, but with different expressiveness: Instead of

1652-477: The beginning of Czech humanism . The number of literary language users enlarges. Czech fully penetrates the administration. Around 1406, a reform of the orthography was suggested in De orthographia bohemica , a work attributed to Jan Hus – the so-called diacritic orthography . For recording of soft consonants, digraphs are replaced by a dot above letters. The acute is used to denote the vowel length. The digraph ch and

1711-425: The change in pronunciation. The contrast of animateness in masculine inflection is not still fully set, as it is not yet applied to animals ( vidím pána 'I see a lord'; vidím pes 'I see a dog'). Aorist and imperfect have disappeared from literary styles before the end of the 15th century. The period of the mature literary language from the 16th to the beginning of the 17th century. The orthography in written texts

1770-541: The close of the 1st millennium from common West Slavic . Until the early 20th century, it was known as Bohemian . Among the innovations in common West Slavic is the palatalization of velar ch > š ( vьšь 'all'), while s ( vьsь ) developed in the East and South Slavic dialects. Within West Slavic, Czech and Slovak separated from Polish around the 10th to 12th centuries. Some other changes took place during roughly

1829-458: The differentiation of animate and inanimate masculines was completed ( vidím psa rather than the earlier vidím pes ). The period from the second half of the 17th century to the second third of the 18th century was marked by confiscations and emigration of the Czech intelligentsia after the Battle of White Mountain . The function of the literary language was limited; it left the scientific field first,

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1888-409: The diphthongization of ú > ou (written au , the pronunciation was probably different than today), the monophthongization of ie > í ( miera > míra 'measure') and uo > ú . The diphthong uo was sometimes recorded as o in the form of a ring above the letter u , which resulted in the grapheme ů ( kuoň > kůň ). The ring has been regarded as a diacritic mark denoting the length since

1947-556: The discerning literature later, and the administration finally. Under the rule of Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II , who also reigned as king of Bohemia, the use of Czech was discouraged due to its association with Protestantism, and relegated to a spoken peasant tongue. However, puppeteers continued to use Czech for public marionette shows, and popular legend has it that this preserved the Czech language from extinction at home. Meanwhile, prestigious literary styles were cultivated by Czech expatriates abroad. The zenith and, simultaneously,

2006-415: The dot in soft consonants was replaced by the caron which was used in č, ď, ň, ř, ť, ž . The letter š was mostly written in the final positions in words only, the digraph ʃʃ was written in the middle. The grapheme ě became used in the contemporary way. Vowel length was denoted by the acute accent, except for ů developed from original uo . The long í was doubled ii for technical reasons; later it

2065-531: The end of the florescence of prestigious literary styles are represented by the works of Jan Amos Komenský . The changes in the phonology and the morphology of the literary language ended in the previous period. Only the spoken language continued its development in the country. As a consequence of strong isolation, the differences between dialects were deepened. Especially, the Moravian and Silesian dialects developed divergently from Common Czech. Printed documents used

2124-470: The etymology, si, zi or sy, zy came to be written, cy was replaced by ci . Antiqua was introduced instead of fractura in printing, and it led to the removal of the digraph ʃʃ and its replacement by the letter š . The long í replaced j , and j replaced g ( gegj > její 'hers'). In the 1840s, the double w was replaced by v and ou replaced the traditional au . Thus, the orthography became close to its contemporary appearance. According to

2183-469: The gender classes of English nouns are usually determined by their agreement with pronouns, rather than marking on the nouns themselves. There can be other derivations from nouns that are not considered declensions. For example, the proper noun Britain has the associated descriptive adjective British and the demonym Briton . Though these words are clearly related, and are generally considered cognates , they are not specifically treated as forms of

2242-553: The grapheme w are preserved. The interchangeability of the graphemes i and y is cancelled. The suggestion is a work of an individual person, therefore this graphic system was accepted slowly, the digraph orthography was still in use. As a consequence of the loss of palatalization, the pronunciation of y and i merged. This change resulted in the diphthongization of ý > ej in Common Czech (the widespread Bohemian interdialect). There are also some other changes in this period:

2301-487: The graphemes i and y are interchangeable. The vowel length is not usually denoted, doubled letters are used rarely. Obligatory regulations did not exist. This is why the system was not always applied precisely. After 1340, the later digraph orthography was applied: ch = ch; cz = c or č; g = j; rs, rz = ř; s = s or š; ss = s or š; w = v; v = u; z = z or ž , syllable-final y = j ; ie, ye = ě . The graphemes i and y remain interchangeable. The punctuation mark

2360-669: The inflectional change of verbs is called conjugation . Declension occurs in many of the world's languages. It is an important aspect of language families like Quechuan (i.e., languages native to the Andes ), Indo-European (e.g. German , Icelandic , Irish , Lithuanian and Latvian , Slavic , Sanskrit , Latin , Ancient and Modern Greek , Albanian , Romanian , Kurdish , Classical and Modern Armenian ), Bantu (e.g. Swahili , Zulu , Kikuyu ), Semitic (e.g. Modern Standard Arabic ), Finno-Ugric (e.g. Hungarian , Finnish , Estonian ), and Turkic (e.g. Turkish ). Old English

2419-413: The language of germanisms (both real and fictitious) had been occurring by that time. The publication of Josef Jungmann ’s five-part Czech-German Dictionary (1830–1835) contributed to the renewal of Czech vocabulary. Thanks to the enthusiasm of Czech scientists, Czech scientific terminology was created. Step by step, the orthography was liberated from the relics of the Brethren orthography. According to

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2478-499: The letter c representing the k /k/, c /ts/ and č /tʃ/ phonemes. Later during the 13th century, the digraph orthography begins to appear, although not systematically. Combinations of letters ( digraphs ) are used for recording Czech sounds, e.g. rs for ř . Large changes take place in Czech phonology in the 12th and 13th centuries. Front and back variants of vowels are removed, e.g. ’ä > ě ( ie ) and ’a > ě ( v’a̋ce > viece 'more', p’äkný > pěkný 'nice'). In

2537-483: The morphology, these changes deepened the differences between hard and soft noun types ( sedláka 'farmer (gen.)' ↔ oráčě 'ploughman (gen.)'; města 'towns' ↔ mor’ě 'seas'; žena 'woman' ↔ dušě 'soul') as well as verbs ( volati 'to call' ↔ sázěti 'to plant out'). The hard syllabic l changed to lu ( Chlmec > Chlumec, dĺgý > dlúhý 'long'), as opposite to soft l’ . The change of g to [ ɣ ] , and later to [ ɦ ] , had been in progress since

2596-411: The municipal territories of Svitavy, Hradec nad Svitavou , Banín , Březová nad Svitavou , Brněnec , Rozhraní , Stvolová , Skrchov , Letovice , Svitávka , Boskovice , Skalice nad Svitavou , Lhota Rapotina , Doubravice nad Svitavou , Rájec-Jestřebí , Ráječko , Blansko, Olomučany , Adamov , Bílovice nad Svitavou and Brno. There are 583 bodies of water in the basin area. The largest of them

2655-402: The punctuation. However, the comma was used according to pauses in pronunciation, not the syntax. The full stop , the colon , the question mark and the exclamation mark are used. The first grammars are published for typographers' purposes. In the pronunciation, the change of ý > ej was established, but it occurred in lesser prestige style text only. The diphthongization of ú > ou

2714-503: The same orthography as in the previous period. Only the two kinds of l are not differentiated any more. The semicolon occurs as a punctuation mark for better and clear organization of excessive and complicated complex sentences . Digraphs with irregular elements of diacritics are still used in hand-written texts. The first ideas of the National Revival were in so-called defences of the Czech language. The most likely first such work

2773-467: The spoken language, especially in syntax. In 1902, Jan Gebauer published the first Rules of Czech Orthography, which also contained an overview of the morphology. These rules still preferred older forms in doublets. During the 20th century, elements of the spoken language (of Common Czech especially) penetrated literary Czech. The orthography of foreign words was changed to reflect their German pronunciation, especially writing z instead of s and marking

2832-406: The subject and object. As an example, even though both of the following sentences consist of the same words, the meaning is different: Hypothetically speaking, suppose English were a language with a more complex declension system in which cases were formed by adding the suffixes: The first sentence above could be formed with any of the following word orders and would have the same meaning: As

2891-558: The supine. The earliest written records of Czech date to the 12th to 13th century, in the form of personal names, glosses and short notes. The oldest known complete Czech sentence is a note on the foundation charter of the Litoměřice chapter at the beginning of the 13th century: The earliest texts were written in primitive orthography , which used the letters of the Latin alphabet without any diacritics, resulting in ambiguities, such as in

2950-462: The turn of the 14th and 15th centuries. In this context, the phoneme ě [ʲe] disappeared. The short ě either changed to e or was dissociated to j + e ( pěna [pjena] 'foam') before labial consonants in the pronunciation. The long ě was diphthongized to ie ( chtieti 'to want', čieše 'goblet', piesek 'sand'). At the same time, the long ó was diphthongized to uo ( sól > suol 'salt'). In pronunciation, regressive assimilation of voice

3009-522: The unvoiced labiodental f . Prothetic v- has been added to all words beginning with o- ( voko instead of oko 'eye') in the Bohemian dialects since this period. In morphology, the future tense of imperfective verbs was fixed. The type budu volati 'I will call' became preferred to other types ( chc’u volati 'I want to call', jmám volati 'I have to call', and budu volal 'I will have called'). The contrastive feature of imperfectiveness

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3068-412: The vowel length (e.g. gymnasium > gymnázium 'grammar school'). Social changes after World War II (1945) led to gradual diminishing of differences between dialects. Since the second half of the 20th century, Common Czech elements have also been spreading to regions previously unaffected, as a consequence of the media's influence. Declension In linguistics , declension (verb: to decline )

3127-431: Was also stabilized (but au still remained in graphics). In initial positions, it was used in lesser prestige or specialized styles only. Written mě [mje] starts to be pronounced as [mɲe]. The change of tautosyllabic aj > ej ( daj > dej 'give (2. sg. imperative)', vajce > vejce 'egg') took place, but it was not applied in heterosyllabic aj ( dají 'they will give', vajec 'egg (gen. pl.)'). In morphology,

3186-495: Was also stabilized. The perfectivization function of prefixes and the imperfectivization function of suffixes are applied. As a consequence of this, aorist and imperfect start disappearing little by little and are replaced by the perfect (now called preterite , since it became the only past tense in Czech). The periphrastic passive voice is formed. The period of the 15th century from the beginning of Jan Hus 's preaching activity to

3245-452: Was an inflectional language , but largely abandoned inflectional changes as it evolved into Modern English . Though traditionally classified as synthetic , Modern English has moved towards a mostly analytic language . Unlike English, many languages use suffixes to specify subjects and objects and word cases in general. Inflected languages have a freer word order than modern English, an analytic language in which word order identifies

3304-401: Was cardinal for the later development. The spirantisation of Slavic /g/ to /h/ is an areal feature shared by Ukrainian (and some southern Russian dialects), Belarusian, Slovak, Czech, Sorbian (but not Polish) and minority of Slovene dialects. This innovation appears to have travelled from east to west, and is sometimes attributed to contact with Scytho-Sarmatian . It is approximately dated to

3363-405: Was denoted as ij , and finally as j . Pronounced [j] was recorded as g or y , pronounced [g] was sometimes recorded by the grapheme ǧ . The double w was preserved, the simple v denoted the word-initial u . The diphthong ou was denoted as au . The hard y was always written after c, s, z ( cyzý 'strange'). The complicated syntax, influenced by Latin texts, required some improvement of

3422-402: Was enforced (with the exception of h, ř and v ). The voicedness became the main contrastive feature of consonants after the disappearance of palatalization. The original pronunciation of v was probably bilabial (as preserved in some Eastern-Bohemian dialects in syllable-final positions: diwnej 'peculiar', stowka 'a hundred'), but in the 14th century, the articulation was adapted to

3481-476: Was lowered, but it strengthened the palatalization contrast at the same time. The change of ’ä > ě and ä > a took place at the end of the 12th century. The vowels were front (ä, e, i, ě) and back (a, o, u), and the front ones had their back variants ( allophones ), and vice versa. The consonants were divided into hard (b, p, v, m, t, d, r, l, n, c, z, s, k, g, ch) and soft – palatal or palatalized (t’, d’, ř, l’, n’, c’, s’, z’, č, š, ž, j, ň). This division

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