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70-449: In the late 1960s, a broad group of concerned citizens saw the need for a federal-interstate coordinating agency to lead the conservation, development, and administration of the Basin's resources that would preserve and enhance its value as a scenic and recreational asset for the people who live in the Basin. The need to coordinate these efforts, along with those of three states and the agencies of

140-554: A catalyst for breaking down the gel. Sometimes pH modifiers are used to break down the crosslink at the end of a hydraulic fracturing job, since many require a pH buffer system to stay viscous. At the end of the job, the well is commonly flushed with water under pressure (sometimes blended with a friction reducing chemical.) Some (but not all) injected fluid is recovered. This fluid is managed by several methods, including underground injection control, treatment, discharge, recycling, and temporary storage in pits or containers. New technology

210-692: A low-permeability zone that sometimes forms at the rock-borehole interface. In such cases the fracturing may extend only a few feet from the borehole. In the Soviet Union , the first hydraulic proppant fracturing was carried out in 1952. Other countries in Europe and Northern Africa subsequently employed hydraulic fracturing techniques including Norway, Poland, Czechoslovakia (before 1989), Yugoslavia (before 1991), Hungary, Austria, France, Italy, Bulgaria, Romania, Turkey, Tunisia, and Algeria. Massive hydraulic fracturing (also known as high-volume hydraulic fracturing)

280-453: A monitoring unit. Associated equipment includes fracturing tanks, one or more units for storage and handling of proppant, high-pressure treating iron , a chemical additive unit (used to accurately monitor chemical addition), fracking hose (low-pressure flexible hoses), and many gauges and meters for flow rate, fluid density, and treating pressure. Chemical additives are typically 0.5% of the total fluid volume. Fracturing equipment operates over

350-734: A patent for an " exploding torpedo ". It was employed in Pennsylvania , New York , Kentucky , and West Virginia using liquid and also, later, solidified nitroglycerin . Later still the same method was applied to water and gas wells. Stimulation of wells with acid, instead of explosive fluids, was introduced in the 1930s. Due to acid etching , fractures would not close completely resulting in further productivity increase. Harold Hamm , Aubrey McClendon , Tom Ward and George P. Mitchell are each considered to have pioneered hydraulic fracturing innovations toward practical applications. The relationship between well performance and treatment pressures

420-564: A propped fracture. Injection of radioactive tracers along with the fracturing fluid is sometimes used to determine the injection profile and location of created fractures. Radiotracers are selected to have the readily detectable radiation, appropriate chemical properties, and a half life and toxicity level that will minimize initial and residual contamination. Radioactive isotopes chemically bonded to glass (sand) and/or resin beads may also be injected to track fractures. For example, plastic pellets coated with 10 GBq of Ag-110mm may be added to

490-528: A range of pressures and injection rates, and can reach up to 100 megapascals (15,000 psi) and 265 litres per second (9.4 cu ft/s; 133 US bbl/min). A distinction can be made between conventional, low-volume hydraulic fracturing, used to stimulate high-permeability reservoirs for a single well, and unconventional, high-volume hydraulic fracturing, used in the completion of tight gas and shale gas wells. High-volume hydraulic fracturing usually requires higher pressures than low-volume fracturing;

560-782: Is a United States government agency created in 1961 by an interstate compact , signed into law by President John F. Kennedy , between four states ( Pennsylvania , Delaware , New Jersey , and New York ). The purpose of the Commission is to bring the Delaware River under collective and balanced control, and to ensure fair usage by the states. To this end, the Commission conducts programs related to water quality protection, water supply allocation and water conservation , regulatory review and permitting, watershed planning, drought management, flood mitigation and loss reduction, and recreational activities (such as fishing ). The DRBC

630-523: Is a technique first applied by Pan American Petroleum in Stephens County, Oklahoma , US in 1968. The definition of massive hydraulic fracturing varies, but generally refers to treatments injecting over 150 short tons, or approximately 300,000 pounds (136 metric tonnes), of proppant. American geologists gradually became aware that there were huge volumes of gas-saturated sandstones with permeability too low (generally less than 0.1 millidarcy ) to recover

700-426: Is called waterless fracturing . When propane is used it is turned into vapor by the high pressure and high temperature. The propane vapor and natural gas both return to the surface and can be collected, making it easier to reuse and/or resale. None of the chemicals used will return to the surface. Only the propane used will return from what was used in the process. The proppant is a granular material that prevents

770-466: Is continually developing to better handle waste water and improve re-usability. Measurements of the pressure and rate during the growth of a hydraulic fracture, with knowledge of fluid properties and proppant being injected into the well, provides the most common and simplest method of monitoring a hydraulic fracture treatment. This data along with knowledge of the underground geology can be used to model information such as length, width and conductivity of

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840-414: Is improved by sensors placed in multiple azimuths from the monitored borehole. In a downhole array location, accuracy of events is improved by being close to the monitored borehole (high signal-to-noise ratio). Monitoring of microseismic events induced by reservoir stimulation has become a key aspect in evaluation of hydraulic fractures, and their optimization. The main goal of hydraulic fracture monitoring

910-410: Is particularly significant in "tensile" ( Mode 1 ) fractures which require the walls of the fracture to move against this pressure. Fracturing occurs when effective stress is overcome by the pressure of fluids within the rock. The minimum principal stress becomes tensile and exceeds the tensile strength of the material. Fractures formed in this way are generally oriented in a plane perpendicular to

980-504: Is particularly useful in shale formations which do not have sufficient permeability to produce economically with a vertical well. Such wells, when drilled onshore, are now usually hydraulically fractured in a number of stages, especially in North America. The type of wellbore completion is used to determine how many times a formation is fractured, and at what locations along the horizontal section. In North America, shale reservoirs such as

1050-502: Is permeable enough to allow the flow of gas, oil, salt water and hydraulic fracturing fluids to the well. During the process, fracturing fluid leakoff (loss of fracturing fluid from the fracture channel into the surrounding permeable rock) occurs. If not controlled, it can exceed 70% of the injected volume. This may result in formation matrix damage, adverse formation fluid interaction, and altered fracture geometry, thereby decreasing efficiency. The location of one or more fractures along

1120-575: Is referred to as "seismic pumping". Minor intrusions in the upper part of the crust , such as dikes, propagate in the form of fluid-filled cracks. In such cases, the fluid is magma . In sedimentary rocks with a significant water content, fluid at fracture tip will be steam. Fracturing as a method to stimulate shallow, hard rock oil wells dates back to the 1860s. Dynamite or nitroglycerin detonations were used to increase oil and natural gas production from petroleum bearing formations. On 24 April 1865, US Civil War veteran Col. Edward A. L. Roberts received

1190-576: Is silica sand, though proppants of uniform size and shape, such as a ceramic proppant, are believed to be more effective. The fracturing fluid varies depending on fracturing type desired, and the conditions of specific wells being fractured, and water characteristics. The fluid can be gel, foam, or slickwater-based. Fluid choices are tradeoffs: more viscous fluids, such as gels, are better at keeping proppant in suspension; while less-viscous and lower-friction fluids, such as slickwater, allow fluid to be pumped at higher rates, to create fractures farther out from

1260-494: Is sometimes used to estimate the size and orientation of induced fractures. Microseismic activity is measured by placing an array of geophones in a nearby wellbore. By mapping the location of any small seismic events associated with the growing fracture, the approximate geometry of the fracture is inferred. Tiltmeter arrays deployed on the surface or down a well provide another technology for monitoring strain Microseismic mapping

1330-645: Is the member from New York. Secretary Patrick McDonnell is the member from the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. Major General Jeffrey L. Milhorn also serves as the United States Member of the Delaware River Basin Commission under the authority of Pub. L. 110–114. The commission's appointed members do periodically change. Here is the most current member list. The purpose of the SRBC is to manage

1400-399: Is to completely characterize the induced fracture structure, and distribution of conductivity within a formation. Geomechanical analysis, such as understanding a formations material properties, in-situ conditions, and geometries, helps monitoring by providing a better definition of the environment in which the fracture network propagates. The next task is to know the location of proppant within

1470-539: Is uncertain, and there is some evidence that leakage may cancel out any greenhouse gas emissions benefit of natural gas relative to other fossil fuels . Increases in seismic activity following hydraulic fracturing along dormant or previously unknown faults are sometimes caused by the deep-injection disposal of hydraulic fracturing flowback (a byproduct of hydraulically fractured wells), and produced formation brine (a byproduct of both fractured and non-fractured oil and gas wells). For these reasons, hydraulic fracturing

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1540-399: Is under international scrutiny, restricted in some countries, and banned altogether in others. The European Union is drafting regulations that would permit the controlled application of hydraulic fracturing. Fracturing rocks at great depth frequently become suppressed by pressure due to the weight of the overlying rock strata and the cementation of the formation. This suppression process

1610-566: Is very similar geophysically to seismology . In earthquake seismology, seismometers scattered on or near the surface of the earth record S-waves and P-waves that are released during an earthquake event. This allows for motion along the fault plane to be estimated and its location in the Earth's subsurface mapped. Hydraulic fracturing, an increase in formation stress proportional to the net fracturing pressure, as well as an increase in pore pressure due to leakoff. Tensile stresses are generated ahead of

1680-502: The Bakken formation in North Dakota. In contrast, a vertical well only accesses the thickness of the rock layer, typically 50–300 feet (15–91 m). Horizontal drilling reduces surface disruptions as fewer wells are required to access the same volume of rock. Drilling often plugs up the pore spaces at the wellbore wall, reducing permeability at and near the wellbore. This reduces flow into

1750-597: The Barnett Shale of north Texas. In 1998, the new technique proved to be successful when the first 90 days gas production from the well called S.H. Griffin No. 3 exceeded production of any of the company's previous wells. This new completion technique made gas extraction widely economical in the Barnett Shale , and was later applied to other shales, including the Eagle Ford and Bakken Shale . George P. Mitchell has been called

1820-651: The Chesapeake Bay ), and protection of water quality . Commission staff develops and implements the programs as directed by the commissioners and as found in Commission's comprehensive plan. The six priority management areas of the Comprehensive Plan are listed below, along with desired results. Sustainable Water Development: To regulate and plan for water resources development in a manner that maintains economic viability, protects instream users, and ensures ecological diversity; and meets immediate and future needs of

1890-513: The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), hydraulic fracturing is a process to stimulate a natural gas, oil, or geothermal well to maximize extraction. The EPA defines the broader process to include acquisition of source water, well construction, well stimulation, and waste disposal. A hydraulic fracture is formed by pumping fracturing fluid into a wellbore at a rate sufficient to increase pressure at

1960-614: The "father of fracking" because of his role in applying it in shales. The first horizontal well in the Barnett Shale was drilled in 1991, but was not widely done in the Barnett until it was demonstrated that gas could be economically extracted from vertical wells in the Barnett. As of 2013, massive hydraulic fracturing is being applied on a commercial scale to shales in the United States, Canada, and China. Several additional countries are planning to use hydraulic fracturing . According to

2030-604: The Big Sandy gas field of eastern Kentucky and southern West Virginia started hydraulically fracturing the Ohio Shale and Cleveland Shale , using relatively small fracs. The frac jobs generally increased production, especially from lower-yielding wells. In 1976, the United States government started the Eastern Gas Shales Project , which included numerous public-private hydraulic fracturing demonstration projects. During

2100-415: The Commission attracted protests by approving the extraction of water for use in fracking , an activity whose opponents claim causes earthquakes, creates ground-water pollution and contributes to global warming . This water extraction involved the sale of a mobile home park by the owner to Aqua America who had gotten permission from the commission to withdraw up to 3 million gallons of water per day from

2170-594: The Susquehanna at that site. Aqua America then evicted the occupants so as to build a pumping station on the site, attracting further protests from the residents of the site and their supporters. The sale of the property, not the Commission approval, triggered the eviction due to a local ordinance about operating the mobile home park in a floodplain. [1] Delaware River Basin Commission The Delaware River Basin Commission (DRBC)

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2240-507: The U.S. Such treatment is generally necessary to achieve adequate flow rates in shale gas , tight gas , tight oil , and coal seam gas wells. Some hydraulic fractures can form naturally in certain veins or dikes . Drilling and hydraulic fracturing have made the United States a major crude oil exporter as of 2019, but leakage of methane , a potent greenhouse gas , has dramatically increased. Increased oil and gas production from

2310-581: The aid of thickening agents ) into a wellbore to create cracks in the deep rock formations through which natural gas , petroleum , and brine will flow more freely. When the hydraulic pressure is removed from the well, small grains of hydraulic fracturing proppants (either sand or aluminium oxide ) hold the fractures open. Hydraulic fracturing began as an experiment in 1947, and the first commercially successful application followed in 1949. As of 2012, 2.5 million "frac jobs" had been performed worldwide on oil and gas wells, over one million of those within

2380-802: The benefits of energy independence . Opponents of fracking argue that these are outweighed by the environmental impacts , which include groundwater and surface water contamination, noise and air pollution , the triggering of earthquakes , and the resulting hazards to public health and the environment. Research has found adverse health effects in populations living near hydraulic fracturing sites, including confirmation of chemical, physical, and psychosocial hazards such as pregnancy and birth outcomes, migraine headaches, chronic rhinosinusitis , severe fatigue, asthma exacerbations and psychological stress. Adherence to regulation and safety procedures are required to avoid further negative impacts. The scale of methane leakage associated with hydraulic fracturing

2450-695: The borehole from the surrounding rock formation, and partially seals off the borehole from the surrounding rock. Low-volume hydraulic fracturing can be used to restore permeability. The main purposes of fracturing fluid are to extend fractures, add lubrication, change gel strength, and to carry proppant into the formation. There are two methods of transporting proppant in the fluid – high-rate and high- viscosity . High-viscosity fracturing tends to cause large dominant fractures, while high-rate (slickwater) fracturing causes small spread-out micro-fractures. Water-soluble gelling agents (such as guar gum ) increase viscosity and efficiently deliver proppant into

2520-462: The casing. Using the fiber optics, temperatures can be measured every foot along the well – even while the wells are being fracked and pumped. By monitoring the temperature of the well, engineers can determine how much hydraulic fracturing fluid different parts of the well use as well as how much natural gas or oil they collect, during hydraulic fracturing operation and when the well is producing. For more advanced applications, microseismic monitoring

2590-436: The cause and extent of impairment to Basin waterways. Planning & Operations – Planning and Operations provides technical support to the other programs and is tasked with assessing the nature and quantity of water use in the Basin. The Planning and Operations team also leads coordination efforts to help ensure that Basin agencies and residents are prepared to withstand and react to flooding and drought conditions. In 2012

2660-494: The commission's regulatory program, the Compliance Program works to ensure that water related projects have the appropriate approvals and operate within the constraints of those approvals. Site inspections, quarterly reporting requirements, and an extensive project database are some of the essential tools used by the program. Monitoring & Protection - Monitoring and Protection scientists collect data to better understand

2730-461: The commission, its member jurisdictions and others; to promote the planning and management of the basin's water resources in the most efficient manner possible; to inform the public on the commission's water management responsibilities; and to enhance the public's access to Commission information and in commenting on Commission activities. The Commission completes much of its work through four program areas . These programs include: Project Review –

2800-439: The created fractures from closing after the fracturing treatment. Types of proppant include silica sand , resin-coated sand, bauxite , and man-made ceramics. The choice of proppant depends on the type of permeability or grain strength needed. In some formations, where the pressure is great enough to crush grains of natural silica sand, higher-strength proppants such as bauxite or ceramics may be used. The most commonly used proppant

2870-468: The decade-long fracking boom has led to lower prices for consumers, with near-record lows of the share of household income going to energy expenditures. Hydraulic fracturing is highly controversial. Its proponents highlight the economic benefits of more extensively accessible hydrocarbons (such as petroleum and natural gas ), the benefits of replacing coal with natural gas , which burns more cleanly and emits less carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), and

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2940-542: The ex-officio U.S. member. As of 2021 the commission chair is Delaware Governor John Carney and the Federal Representative is Brigadier General Thomas J. Tickner. Hydraulic fracturing Hydraulic fracturing is a well stimulation technique involving the fracturing of formations in bedrock by a pressurized liquid. The process involves the high-pressure injection of "fracking fluid" (primarily water, containing sand or other proppants suspended with

3010-589: The federal government, led to the drafting of the Susquehanna River Basin Compact , which was signed into law on December 24, 1970. The Compact, as adopted by the Congress of the United States, and the legislatures of New York State, Pennsylvania, and Maryland, provides the mechanism to guide water resource management of the Susquehanna River Basin. State membership on the Commission includes

3080-471: The first two commercial hydraulic fracturing treatments in Stephens County, Oklahoma , and Archer County, Texas . Since then, hydraulic fracturing has been used to stimulate approximately one million oil and gas wells in various geologic regimes with good success. In contrast with large-scale hydraulic fracturing used in low-permeability formations, small hydraulic fracturing treatments are commonly used in high-permeability formations to remedy "skin damage",

3150-402: The following: The most common chemical used for hydraulic fracturing in the United States in 2005–2009 was methanol , while some other most widely used chemicals were isopropyl alcohol , 2-butoxyethanol , and ethylene glycol . Typical fluid types are: For slickwater fluids the use of sweeps is common. Sweeps are temporary reductions in the proppant concentration, which help ensure that

3220-473: The formation process of mineral vein systems is particularly evident in "crack-seal" veins, where the vein material is part of a series of discrete fracturing events, and extra vein material is deposited on each occasion. One example of long-term repeated natural fracturing is in the effects of seismic activity. Stress levels rise and fall episodically, and earthquakes can cause large volumes of connate water to be expelled from fluid-filled fractures. This process

3290-425: The formation. Fluid is typically a slurry of water, proppant, and chemical additives . Additionally, gels, foams, and compressed gases, including nitrogen , carbon dioxide and air can be injected. Typically, 90% of the fluid is water and 9.5% is sand with chemical additives accounting to about 0.5%. However, fracturing fluids have been developed using liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and propane. This process

3360-432: The fracture and the distribution of fracture conductivity. This can be monitored using multiple types of techniques to finally develop a reservoir model than accurately predicts well performance. Since the early 2000s, advances in drilling and completion technology have made horizontal wellbores much more economical. Horizontal wellbores allow far greater exposure to a formation than conventional vertical wellbores. This

3430-469: The fracture's tip, generating large amounts of shear stress . The increases in pore water pressure and in formation stress combine and affect weaknesses near the hydraulic fracture, like natural fractures, joints, and bedding planes. Different methods have different location errors and advantages. Accuracy of microseismic event mapping is dependent on the signal-to-noise ratio and the distribution of sensors. Accuracy of events located by seismic inversion

3500-803: The gas economically. Starting in 1973, massive hydraulic fracturing was used in thousands of gas wells in the San Juan Basin , Denver Basin , the Piceance Basin , and the Green River Basin , and in other hard rock formations of the western US. Other tight sandstone wells in the US made economically viable by massive hydraulic fracturing were in the Clinton-Medina Sandstone (Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York), and Cotton Valley Sandstone (Texas and Louisiana). Massive hydraulic fracturing quickly spread in

3570-508: The gas-producing limestone formation at 2,400 feet (730 m). The experiment was not very successful as the deliverability of the well did not change appreciably. The process was further described by J.B. Clark of Stanolind in his paper published in 1948. A patent on this process was issued in 1949 and an exclusive license was granted to the Halliburton Oil Well Cementing Company. On 17 March 1949, Halliburton performed

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3640-473: The governors of the three participating states or their designees. Under Pub. L. 110–114, the federal member is ex officio the Commander, North Atlantic Division, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. The members appoint alternate members to serve in their place. As of August 2018, Major General Jeffrey L. Milhorn is the federal member of the commission. Secretary Ben Grumbles is the member from Maryland and Basil Seggos

3710-496: The higher pressures are needed to push out larger volumes of fluid and proppant that extend farther from the borehole. Horizontal drilling involves wellbores with a terminal drillhole completed as a "lateral" that extends parallel with the rock layer containing the substance to be extracted. For example, laterals extend 1,500 to 5,000 feet (460 to 1,520 m) in the Barnett Shale basin in Texas, and up to 10,000 feet (3,000 m) in

3780-530: The interactions of biological, chemical, and physical traits of streams throughout the Basin. These activities include water quality monitoring/sampling for macroinvertebrates & fish, stormwater, nutrient and sediment loadings, and abandoned mine drainage. Key protection efforts include operation of systems that provide real-time monitoring in sensitive watersheds and in the vicinity of drinking water supplies, establishing Total Maximum Daily Load criteria, assessing risks to drinking water sources, and characterizing

3850-651: The late 1970s to western Canada, Rotliegend and Carboniferous gas-bearing sandstones in Germany, Netherlands (onshore and offshore gas fields), and the United Kingdom in the North Sea . Horizontal oil or gas wells were unusual until the late 1980s. Then, operators in Texas began completing thousands of oil wells by drilling horizontally in the Austin Chalk , and giving massive slickwater hydraulic fracturing treatments to

3920-486: The length of the borehole is strictly controlled by various methods that create or seal holes in the side of the wellbore. Hydraulic fracturing is performed in cased wellbores, and the zones to be fractured are accessed by perforating the casing at those locations. Hydraulic-fracturing equipment used in oil and natural gas fields usually consists of a slurry blender, one or more high-pressure, high-volume fracturing pumps (typically powerful triplex or quintuplex pumps) and

3990-438: The minimum principal stress, and for this reason, hydraulic fractures in wellbores can be used to determine the orientation of stresses. In natural examples, such as dikes or vein-filled fractures, the orientations can be used to infer past states of stress . Most mineral vein systems are a result of repeated natural fracturing during periods of relatively high pore fluid pressure . The effect of high pore fluid pressure on

4060-745: The people of the basin for domestic, municipal, commercial, agricultural and industrial water supply and recreational activities. Water Quality: To support the existing and designated uses of all water bodies by achieving water quality that meets or exceeds standards. Flooding: To prevent loss of life and significantly reduce future damages from floods within the Basin through an integrated system of structural and nonstructural flood damage reduction measures. Ecosystems: To achieve healthy ecosystems that provide groundwater and surface water of sufficient quality and in adequate supply to support abundant and diverse populations of aquatic, riparian, and terrestrial organisms, as well as human use. Chesapeake Bay: To manage

4130-476: The permitting arm of the commission's regulatory program, the Project Review team receives and reviews applications for water withdrawals and consumptive water use, makes recommendations to the commissioners for actions on those applications, and helps to develop key standards guiding how, when and where the commission's policies and regulations are exercised. Compliance and Enforcement – the enforcement arm of

4200-507: The proppant, or sand may be labelled with Ir-192, so that the proppant's progress can be monitored. Radiotracers such as Tc-99m and I-131 are also used to measure flow rates. The Nuclear Regulatory Commission publishes guidelines which list a wide range of radioactive materials in solid, liquid and gaseous forms that may be used as tracers and limit the amount that may be used per injection and per well of each radionuclide. A new technique in well-monitoring involves fiber-optic cables outside

4270-583: The rate of frictional loss, which is relative to the distance from the well. Operators typically try to maintain "fracture width", or slow its decline following treatment, by introducing a proppant into the injected fluid – a material such as grains of sand, ceramic, or other particulate, thus preventing the fractures from closing when injection is stopped and pressure removed. Consideration of proppant strength and prevention of proppant failure becomes more important at greater depths where pressure and stresses on fractures are higher. The propped fracture

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4340-617: The same period, the Gas Research Institute , a gas industry research consortium, received approval for research and funding from the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission . In 1997, Nick Steinsberger, an engineer of Mitchell Energy (now part of Devon Energy ), applied the slickwater fracturing technique, using more water and higher pump pressure than previous fracturing techniques, which was used in East Texas in

4410-480: The target depth (determined by the location of the well casing perforations), to exceed that of the fracture gradient (pressure gradient) of the rock. The fracture gradient is defined as pressure increase per unit of depth relative to density, and is usually measured in pounds per square inch, per foot (psi/ft). The rock cracks, and the fracture fluid permeates the rock extending the crack further, and further, and so on. Fractures are localized as pressure drops off with

4480-597: The water resources of the Susquehanna River under comprehensive planning principles through its own programs and by coordinating the efforts of the three states and the federal government. These program efforts include implementation of structural and non-structural flood mitigation projects, regulation of water withdrawals and consumptive use, allocation of water resources among the member states, restoration and preservation of fisheries and wetlands , protection of future water supply (including availability of flows into

4550-509: The water resources of the Susquehanna River Basin to assist in restoring and maintaining the Chesapeake Bay so it meets or exceeds applicable water quality standards and supports healthy populations of living resources, including oysters, crabs, fish, waterfowl, shore birds, and underwater grasses. Coordination, Cooperation and Public Information: To maximize available human resources and achieve common and complementary management objectives by

4620-408: The well is not overwhelmed with proppant. As the fracturing process proceeds, viscosity-reducing agents such as oxidizers and enzyme breakers are sometimes added to the fracturing fluid to deactivate the gelling agents and encourage flowback. Such oxidizers react with and break down the gel, reducing the fluid's viscosity and ensuring that no proppant is pulled from the formation. An enzyme acts as

4690-455: The wellbore. Important material properties of the fluid include viscosity , pH , various rheological factors , and others. Water is mixed with sand and chemicals to create hydraulic fracturing fluid. Approximately 40,000 gallons of chemicals are used per fracturing. A typical fracture treatment uses between 3 and 12 additive chemicals. Although there may be unconventional fracturing fluids, typical chemical additives can include one or more of

4760-515: The wellbores. Horizontal wells proved much more effective than vertical wells in producing oil from tight chalk; sedimentary beds are usually nearly horizontal, so horizontal wells have much larger contact areas with the target formation. Hydraulic fracturing operations have grown exponentially since the mid-1990s, when technologic advances and increases in the price of natural gas made this technique economically viable. Hydraulic fracturing of shales goes back at least to 1965, when some operators in

4830-490: Was one of the first government agencies in the United States to address the problem of water pollution . The agency predates the establishment of the United States Environmental Protection Agency (1970) and the Clean Water Act (1972). The five members of the commission include the four state governors of the member states and the division engineer, North Atlantic Division, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers , who serves as

4900-575: Was studied by Floyd Farris of Stanolind Oil and Gas Corporation . This study was the basis of the first hydraulic fracturing experiment, conducted in 1947 at the Hugoton gas field in Grant County of southwestern Kansas by Stanolind. For the well treatment, 1,000 US gallons (3,800 L; 830 imp gal) of gelled gasoline (essentially napalm ) and sand from the Arkansas River was injected into

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