125-473: The Sunshine Skyway Bridge , officially referred to as the Bob Graham Sunshine Skyway Bridge , is a pair of long beam bridges with a central tall cable-stayed bridge . It spans Lower Tampa Bay to connect Pinellas County ( St. Petersburg, Florida ) to Manatee County ( Terra Ceia, Florida ). The current Sunshine Skyway opened in 1987 and is the second bridge of that name on the site. It
250-458: A Greyhound bus plummeted 150 ft (46 m) into Tampa Bay, resulting in 35 deaths. A few drivers, including former Major League Baseball player Granny Hamner , were able to stop their vehicles before reaching the gap, and as seen in many photographs of the aftermath, a Buick Skylark driven by local car dealer Richard Hornbuckle skidded to a halt just two feet from the chasm. In the water below, several small official and private boats and
375-459: A wood plank , or a stone slab (see clapper bridge ) laid across a stream. Bridges designed for modern infrastructure will usually be constructed of steel or reinforced concrete , or a combination of both. The concrete elements may be reinforced or prestressed . Such modern bridges include girder , plate girder , and box girder bridges, all types of beam bridges. Types of construction could include having many beams side by side with
500-450: A 100% surtax on after-tax incomes over $ 25,000 (equal to roughly $ 440,192 today). However, Roosevelt did manage to impose this cap on executive pay in corporations with government contracts. Congress also enlarged the tax base by lowering the minimum income to pay taxes, and by reducing personal exemptions and deductions. By 1944 nearly every employed person was paying federal income taxes (compared to 10% in 1940). Many controls were put on
625-515: A bi-national labor agreement between Mexico and the U.S., started in 1942. Some 290,000 braceros ("strong arms", in Spanish) were recruited and contracted to work in the agriculture fields. Half went to Texas, and 20% to the Pacific Northwest. Between 1942 and 1946 some 425,000 Italian and German prisoners of war were used as farm laborers, loggers, and cannery workers. In Michigan, for example,
750-403: A classification and a book of rationing stamps, people had to appear before a local rationing board. Each person in a household received a ration book, including babies and children. When purchasing gasoline, a driver had to present a gas card along with a ration book and cash. Ration stamps were valid only for a set period to forestall hoarding. All forms of automobile racing were banned, including
875-435: A deck across the top of them, to a main beam either side supporting a deck between them. The main beams could be I-beams , trusses , or box girders . They could be half-through , or braced across the top to create a through bridge . Because no moments are transferred, thrust (as from an arch bridge ) cannot be accommodated, leading to innovative designs, such as lenticular trusses and bow string arches , which contain
1000-475: A just war and about 90% served, although there were some conscientious objectors. The Mennonites and Brethren continued their pacifism, but the federal government was much less hostile than in the previous war. These churches helped their young men to both become conscientious objectors and to provide valuable service to the nation. Goshen College set up a training program for unpaid Civilian Public Service jobs. Although young women pacifists were not eligible for
1125-542: A leading Protestant layman and a leading adviser to top-level Republicans. The churches promoted strong support for European relief programs, especially through the United Nations. The major churches showed much less pacifism than in 1914. The pacifist churches such as the Quakers and Mennonites were small but maintained their opposition to military service, though many young members, such as Richard Nixon voluntarily joined
1250-542: A novel entertainment of women playing baseball well while wearing short, feminine uniform skirts. Players as young as fifteen were recruited from white farm families and urban industrial teams. Fans supported the League to the extent that it continued well past the conclusion of the war, lasting through 1953. Labor shortages were felt in agriculture, even though most farmers were given an exemption and few were drafted. Large numbers volunteered or moved to cities for factory jobs. At
1375-635: A permit from the US War Department to build a bridge, but efforts were put on hold due to the Great Depression . In 1929, the Florida Legislature gave the Bee Line Ferry a 50-year franchise to operate a service between Pinellas and Manatee Counties. The service gradually expanded during the 1930s, and by the end of the decade, Bee Line operated four boats which departed every 30 minutes in
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#17328447893871500-448: A plaque displayed at the rest area at the south end of the bridge. In November 2017, work began on installing decorative lighting to the skyway's columns, main spans, and sloped spans. The $ 15.6 million lighting project provides a visual aesthetic while also enhancing safety and security by providing more light to the underside of the bridge from dusk to dawn. Over 1,800 light-emitting diodes were installed along 1.7 miles (2.7 km) of
1625-427: A rate of $ 1.75 cash or $ 1.16 with the state's SunPass system. The original Sunshine Skyway was a two-lane beam bridge with a central truss bridge built directly to the west of the current structure. It was completed in 1954, and a second two-lane span opened in 1971. The original bridge was the site of two major maritime disasters in 1980, the second of which resulted in its partial destruction. The first incident
1750-539: A record high of 18 suicides in 2018. In 2006, a feature film, Loren Cass , was released, which depicted a suicide jump off the Sunshine Skyway. Two years later, Sean Michael Davis of Rhino Productions was inspired by his haunting experience witnessing a woman get out of her car and immediately jump off the bridge before anyone could intervene to create a not-for-profit film titled Skyway Down . His objectives were to deter other potential jumpers by "'punch[ing] them in
1875-404: A sudden squall , causing the catastrophic failure of over 1,200 ft (370 m) of the span. Several vehicles were at the top of the bridge when almost a quarter-mile of roadway fell away beneath them while others drove off the edge, either because the drivers did not notice the collapse in the driving rain or could not stop quickly enough in the wet conditions. In all, six cars, a truck, and
2000-482: A support pier near the center of the bridge during a sudden squall , resulting in the catastrophic failure of the southbound roadway and the deaths of 35 people when several vehicles, including a Greyhound bus, plunged into Tampa Bay. Traffic was diverted onto the surviving two-lane span for several years until the replacement Skyway Bridge was completed, at which time the old bridge was partially demolished and converted into two long fishing piers . The channel beneath
2125-694: A town of 1,500 people in 1940, became the base of Camp Blanding . By March 1941, 20,000 men were constructing a permanent camp for 60,000 soldiers. Money flowed freely for the war effort, as over $ 4 billion went into military facilities in the South, and another $ 5 billion into defense plants. Major shipyards were built in Virginia, Charleston, and along the Gulf Coast. Huge warplane plants were opened in Dallas-Fort Worth and Georgia. The most secret and expensive operation
2250-468: A transportation department diving team arrived soon after the intense but narrow squall line cleared the vicinity. However, the frantic rescue effort became a recovery operation, as only victims' bodies were found. The only survivor of the fall was Wesley MacIntire, whose Ford Courier pickup truck had bounced off the hull of the Summit Venture and into the water. The truck sank to the shallow bottom of
2375-484: A tunnel crossing lower Tampa Bay running from Pinellas Point to Piney Point, with the tunnel itself being buried 40 ft (12 m) under the bay and going for a length of 1,000 ft (300 m). This proposal did not get past the early planning stages, as construction costs would be high, and unspecified "Tampa officials" argued that construction of any bridge or tunnel would present a navigational hazard. Another proposal soon originated from Louis E. Saupe, head of
2500-503: A war on and to provide activities that would engage the civil spirit of millions of people not otherwise involved in the war effort. In large part, this effort was successful, sometimes almost to a fault, such as the Plains states where many dedicated aircraft spotters took up their posts night after night watching the skies in an area of the country that no enemy aircraft of that time could hope to reach. The United Service Organizations (USO)
2625-399: A week, which sharply curtailed driving for any purpose. Production of most durable goods, like new housing, vacuum cleaners, and kitchen appliances, was banned until the war ended. In industrial areas housing was in short supply as people doubled up and lived in cramped quarters. Prices and wages were controlled. Americans saved a high portion of their incomes, which led to renewed growth after
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#17328447893872750-516: Is also the subject of the song "Skyway Avenue" by We the Kings . The current bridge is also a popular filming location for car commercials. The United States Postal Service featured the bridge in 2012 on a Priority Mail postage stamp. Carl T. Hermann worked on the painting and the digital illustration was created by artist Dan Cosgrove. In 2005, an act of the Florida Legislature officially named
2875-462: The Coast Guard Auxiliary , used civilian boats and crews in similar rescue roles. Towers were built in coastal and border towns, and spotters were trained to recognize enemy aircraft. Blackouts were practiced in every city, even those far from the coast. All exterior lighting had to be extinguished, and black-out curtains placed over windows. The main purpose was to remind people that there was
3000-516: The Deliverance , a 74-foot (23 m) shrimp boat. The bumper sustained minor damage and the bridge was not affected, but the vessel took on water and was towed out of the channel into shallow waters, where it promptly sank. The opening ceremonies proceeded as scheduled. In 1990, the FDOT awarded a bid to Hardaway Company (owner of Controlled Demolition, Inc. ) to demolish all steel and concrete sections of
3125-572: The Indianapolis 500 which was canceled from 1942 to 1945. Sightseeing driving was banned. Personal income was at an all-time high, and more dollars were chasing fewer goods to purchase. This was a recipe for economic disaster that was largely avoided because Americans—persuaded daily by their government to do so—were also saving money at an all-time high rate, mostly in War Bonds but also in private savings accounts and insurance policies. Consumer saving
3250-660: The Oasis class , which has a height of 236 ft (72 m), far exceed the bridge clearance. The former and current bridges have been featured in various forms of media. The original Sunshine Skyway Bridge is featured in Yours Truly, Johnny Dollar and the opening credits to Superboy . The current bridge has provided the setting for several films such as Loren Cass and The Punisher . The bridge also served as plot devices to various novels such as Dennis Lehane 's 1997 novel Sacred and Ben Bova 's 2005 novel Powersat . The bridge
3375-579: The West Coast . Millions of wives followed their husbands to military camps; for many families, especially from farms, the moves were permanent. One 1944 survey of migrants in Portland, Oregon and San Diego found that three quarters wanted to stay after the war. Many new military training bases were established or enlarged, especially in the South . Large numbers of African Americans left the cotton fields and headed for
3500-597: The horizontal forces within the superstructure . Beam bridges are not limited to a single span . Some viaducts such as the Feiyunjiang Bridge in China have multiple simply supported spans supported by piers. This is opposed to viaducts using continuous spans over the piers. Beam bridges are often only used for relatively short distances because, unlike truss bridges, they have no built in supports. The only supports are provided by piers. The farther apart its supports,
3625-434: The war effort in many ways, including a wide range of volunteer efforts and submitting to government-managed rationing and price controls . There was a general feeling of agreement that the sacrifices were for the national good during the war. The labor market changed radically. Peacetime conflicts concerning race and labor took on a special dimension because of the pressure for national unity. The Hollywood film industry
3750-485: The "Ten Percent Club". There were seven major War Loan drives, all of which exceeded their goals. The unemployment problems of the Great Depression largely ended with the mobilization for war. Out of a labor force of 54 million, unemployment fell by half from 7.7 million in spring 1940 (when the first accurate statistics were compiled) to 3.4 million by fall of 1941 and fell by half again to 1.5 million by fall of 1942, hitting an all-time low of 700,000 in fall 1944. There
3875-537: The 1920s and 30s with World War 2 reversing this decline as the number of passenger travel dramatically increased. This gain in railroad travel largely came from soldiers who were travelling. During the war 43 million soldiers were transported at an average of 1 million per month. In 1941 prior to the United States entering the war, 3.4 million passengers were transported both across the Atlantic Ocean and throughout
Sunshine Skyway Bridge - Misplaced Pages Continue
4000-451: The AWVS counted 325,000 women at work and selling an estimated $ 1 billion in war bonds and stamps. At the end of the war, most of the munitions-making jobs ended. Many factories were closed; others retooled for civilian production. In some jobs, women were replaced by returning veterans who did not lose seniority because they were in service. However, the number of women at work in 1946 was 87% of
4125-645: The Bee Line Ferry Company. The service started on March 7, 1927, and originally had two ferries: Fred D. Doty and the City of Wilmington (which was later renamed Pinellas ). The ferry crossed from the end of Bay Vista Park in St. Petersburg and went to Piney Point on the other side of the bay. A physiotherapist from St. Petersburg named Herman Simmonds proposed building a "high-level suspension bridge" in 1926. Sometime during 1927, Simmonds received congressional approval and
4250-537: The CIO did not abandon it. The Mine Workers, by contrast, who did not belong to either the AFL or the CIO for much of the war, threatened numerous strikes including a successful twelve-day strike in 1943. The strikes and threats made mine leader John L. Lewis a much-hated man and led to legislation hostile to unions. All the major unions grew stronger during the war. The government put pressure on employers to recognize unions to avoid
4375-663: The CIO were fully supportive of both the war effort and of the Roosevelt administration. However, the United Mine Workers, who had taken an isolationist stand in the years leading up to the war and had opposed Roosevelt's reelection in 1940, left the CIO in 1942. The major unions supported a wartime no-strike pledge that aimed to eliminate not only major strikes for new contracts but also the innumerable small strikes called by shop stewards and local union leadership to protest particular grievances. In return for labor's no-strike pledge,
4500-584: The Fourth of July, Virginia Seymore of nearby Indian Rocks Beach was announced as the winner for her submission of "Sunshine Skyway". Construction bids began to be accepted in July 1950 and construction started on October 19, 1950 with 544 workers. It was built by the Virginia Bridge Company and another firm that was involved doing engineering work was Parsons, Brinckerhoff, Hall and McDonald . Staging areas for
4625-503: The POWs accounted for more than one-third of the state's agricultural production and food processing in 1944. To help with the need for a larger source of food, the nation looked to school-aged children to help on farms. Schools often had a victory garden in vacant parking lots and on roofs. Children would help on these farms to help with the war effort. The slogan, "Grow your own, can your own", also influenced children to help at home. With
4750-837: The Packinghouse Workers, the UAW, the NMU, and the Transport Workers, undertook serious efforts to suppress hate strikes, to educate their membership, and to support the Roosevelt Administration's tentative efforts to remedy racial discrimination in war industries through the Fair Employment Practices Commission . Those unions contrasted their relatively bold attack on the problem with the AFL. The CIO unions were progressive in dealing with gender discrimination in
4875-541: The Red Cross, the USO, and other agencies. Other women previously employed only in the home, or in traditionally female work, took jobs in factories that directly supported the war effort or filled jobs vacated by men who had entered military service. Enrollment in high schools and colleges plunged as many high school and college students dropped out to take war jobs. Various items, previously discarded, were saved after use for what
5000-613: The Riveter " became the symbol of women laboring in manufacturing. Women worked in defense plants and volunteered for war-related organizations. Women even learned to fix cars and became "conductorettes" for the train. The war effort brought about significant changes in the role of women in society as a whole. During the duration of the war, women had access to job opportunities beyond the traditionally “pink-collar” jobs. These jobs were often previously filled exclusively by men, and were higher paying and typically required more skill. Afterwards, there
5125-646: The State Road Department (SRD) built it. The Florida's State Improvement Commission proceeded to at some point take over the St. Petersburg Port Authority's assets which included $ 520,000 seen with bonded indebtedness. A $ 21,250,000 bond issue was passed by the Improvement Commission and sales started after the Port Authority's assets were acquired. On July 4, 1950, a day-long "Spans Across the Bay" festival
Sunshine Skyway Bridge - Misplaced Pages Continue
5250-523: The Sunshine Skyway Bridge, opened on July 19, 1955. In 1969, a second two-lane span was built beside the original to ease traffic and bring the bridge up to Interstate Highway standards . Opening of the newer span was delayed until 1971 for reinforcing of the south main pier, which had cracked due to insufficient supporting pile depth. It was dedicated on May 19, 1971. Both Governor Reubin Askew and
5375-509: The U.S. and Canada to Britain. By 1943, government-issued ration coupons were required to purchase coffee, sugar, meat, cheese, butter, lard, margarine, canned foods, dried fruits, jam, gasoline, bicycles, fuel oil, clothing, silk or nylon stockings, shoes, and many other items. Some items, like automobiles and home appliances, were no longer made. The rationing system did not apply to used goods like clothes or cars, but they became more expensive since they were not subject to price controls. To get
5500-566: The US Crop Corps accepted teenagers from 14–18 to work in agricultural jobs. However some states did lower their age limit with the youngest being 9. At the program's peak in 1944 there would be 903,794 volunteers which made it larger than the amount in the Women's Land Army, foreign migrant workers and the number of prisoners of war who were laborers. These volunteers were mainly from the cities and urban areas. Volunteers mostly worked for three months in
5625-544: The United States entered World War II, it was a vastly motorized country as about 85% of all passenger travel came from private cars while all other forms of mass transit made up about 14% of passenger travel. Commuting by car would be limited by the ODT through car, tire and gasoline rationing, banning pleasure driving, regulating the movement of commercial vehicles, establishing a national 35 miles per hour (56 km/h) speed limit along with public campaigns and carpooling programs. What
5750-585: The West Coast Bridge and Tunnel Company. This consisted of a series of short causeways running from Maximo Point to Mullet Key on the Pinellas Country side, a tunnel running for less than 1 ⁄ 2 mile (0.80 km) beneath the shipping lane near the mouth of the bay, and another causeway running to Terra Ceia on the Manatee County side. State officials prelimarily approved the project in 1939 and
5875-439: The apex of the bridge and dropped 35 white carnations into the water, one for each person who died in the disaster. At least 316 people have died by suicide by jumping from the bridge or its predecessors into the waters of Tampa Bay. An estimated 48 others have survived. Many other missing persons are suspected of having jumped from the bridge, but their deaths could not be confirmed, as no bodies were recovered. In response to
6000-441: The bay, but MacIntire managed to escape and swim to the surface, where he was quickly pulled to safety aboard the freighter. He sued the company that owned the ship and won a $ 175,000 settlement in 1984 ($ 513,000 today). John Lerro, the veteran harbor pilot who was steering the ship at the time of the accident, was cleared of wrongdoing by both a state grand jury and a Coast Guard investigation. The investigations concluded that
6125-488: The bridge for any nonemergency, including sightseeing, is prohibited. Traffic on the bridge is monitored by the Florida Highway Patrol , and a bicyclist, pedestrian, or stopped vehicle results in a police dispatch. A major problem with the Sunshine Skyway Bridge is corrosion of the steel in the precast concrete segmental columns on the high-level approaches. Because the segments are hollow, workers were able to enter
6250-432: The bridge superstructure in 2003 and 2004 to reinforce the corroded sections of the bridge, ensuring its future safety. Another problem arose around 2005–06 when several news bureaus reported paint discolorations on the bridge's cables. These paint splotches and patches were a result of touch-ups that were performed sometime in 1998, but began to show through as a result of using newer, environmentally safe paint. The change in
6375-592: The bridge, which cycle through animated routines. The lighting project was completed in October 2019 and funded by FDOT through collected toll fees. On January 11, 1987, the Skyway Bridge opened up to 10,000 runners, joggers, and walkers before the bridge was opened to motor-vehicle traffic the following week. Runners participated in four races that ran simultaneously across the bridge, with two races going southbound and two races directed northbound. Publicity and posters for
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#17328447893876500-530: The bridge. Both firms released a report in November 1945 about the bridge. Freeman Horton of Bail, Horton and Associates proposed Snead Island as its southern terminus and 10th Street in Palmetto as the thoroughfare. Bail, Horton, and Associates was awarded the contract but as it was unable to get $ 10 million in revenue bonds , the state government halted the project sometime during the late 1940s. The design competition
6625-552: The cities. Housing was increasingly difficult to find in industrial centers, as there was no new non-military construction. During the war, the Office of Defense Transportation (ODT) would be created to help regulate transportation. During the war people would reduce travelling for personal reasons. Those that drove cars would do less and carpool. People would end up walking and bicycling more often while bus and rail usages would increase to levels that were never seen until that point. When
6750-451: The concrete material was used to create an artificial reef near the southbound approach of the old bridge, which was converted into a long pier for newly created Skyway Fishing Pier State Park . Unused approaches to the original spans were demolished in 2008. Wesley MacIntire, the only motorist survivor of the collapse, was the last person to drive over the intact original span before it was demolished. Accompanied by his wife, he stopped at
6875-663: The construction of the bridge were established at both crossing sites. An entire concrete factory was established near Piney Point while prefabricated concrete parts were delivered via barge from a site in Tampa where they were made. 4,100,000 cubic yards (3,100,000 m) of material was dredged as part of building the causeways for the bridge. To physically build the bridge, 12,104,000 lb (5,490 t) of structural steel, 8,536,700 lb (3,872 t) of rebar and 115,980 cubic yards (88,670 m) of concrete were used. The original two-lane bridge opened to traffic on September 6, 1954. At
7000-460: The counter to self-service. With new shorter women clerks replacing taller men, some stores lowered shelves to 5 feet 8 inches (1.73 m). Before the war, most groceries, dry cleaners, drugstores, and department stores offered home delivery service. The labor shortage and gasoline and tire rationing caused most retailers to stop delivery. They found that requiring customers to buy their products in person increased sales. Women also joined
7125-539: The current bridge the Bob Graham Sunshine Skyway Bridge, after the former governor of Florida and then- U.S. Senator who presided over its design and most of its construction. He reportedly was inspired to suggest the current design by a visit to France, where he saw a similar cable-stayed bridge, the Brotonne Bridge . The original bridge was dedicated to state engineer William E. Dean, as noted on
7250-434: The day the original bridge opened, it was toll free from 11 a.m. to 11 p.m. A reported 15,086 cars crossed the bridge starting at 11:40 a.m. when opening ceremonies ended and 11 p.m. when the toll-free time ended. The bridge's central span was 22,373 ft (6,819 m) long with a 864 ft (263 m) opening for a ship channel. It consisted of 32 concrete piers set every 135 ft (41 m) with
7375-428: The draft took second jobs. In the figure below an overview of the development of the United States labor force, the armed forces and unemployment during the war years. One contentious issue involved the drafting of fathers, which was avoided as much as possible. The drafting of 18-year-olds was desired by the military but vetoed by public opinion. Racial minorities were drafted at the same rate as Whites and were paid
7500-581: The draft, the size of the army, and the need for deferments. The system worked through local draft boards comprising community leaders who were given quotas and then decided how to fill them. There was very little draft resistance. The nation went from a surplus manpower pool with high unemployment and relief in 1940 to a severe manpower shortage by 1943. The industry realized that the Army urgently desired production of essential war materials and foodstuffs more than soldiers. (Large numbers of soldiers were not used until
7625-586: The draft, they volunteered for unpaid Civilian Public Service jobs to demonstrate their patriotism; many worked in mental hospitals. The Jehovah's Witness denomination, however, refused to participate in any forms of service, and thousands of its young men refused to register and went to prison. As part of the 1940 Selective Service and Training Act, the Civilian Public Service would be formed for conscientious objectors to do work considered to be of "national importance". What type of work varied based on
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#17328447893877750-572: The economy. The most important was price controls, imposed on most products and monitored by the Office of Price Administration . Wages were also controlled. Corporations dealt with numerous agencies, especially the War Production Board (WPB), and the War and Navy departments, which had the purchasing power and priorities that largely reshaped and expanded industrial production. In 1942 a rationing system
7875-531: The enemies abroad, and victory against racism on the home front. However, there was little religious protest against the incarceration of Japanese on the West Coast or against segregation of Blacks in the services. The intense moral outrage regarding the Holocaust largely appeared after the war ended, especially after 1960. Many church leaders supported studies of postwar peace proposals, typified by John Foster Dulles ,
8000-540: The enormous increase in overtime for blue-collar wage workers (at time and a half pay), incomes in working-class households shot up, while the salaried middle class lost ground. The experience of bargaining on a national basis, while restraining local unions from striking, also tended to accelerate the trend toward bureaucracy within the larger CIO unions. Some, such as the Steelworkers, had always been centralized organizations in which authority for major decisions resided at
8125-407: The entire center of the southbound span to collapse at 7:38 a.m. Soon after the disaster, the undamaged northbound span was converted back to a two-lane, two-way bridge while the state of Florida considered proposals for a replacement. Ideas included the construction of a tunnel (which was deemed impractical due to Florida's high water table ) and a simple reconstruction of the broken section of
8250-442: The exception of the ship channel and the bridge went upwards at a 5% grade. Two lanes were used for it with no passing allowed. The original maximum speed limit was 45 mph (72 km/h) and the minimum was 35 mph (56 km/h). The lack of illumination made the bridge dark at night. The bridge was not easily accessible, however, and drivers often had to take detours to reach it. U.S. Route 19 's final segment, which ended at
8375-460: The face value of a war bond and received the full face value back after a set number of years. This shifted their consumption from the war to postwar and allowed over 40% of GDP to go to military spending, with moderate inflation. Americans were challenged to put "at least 10% of every paycheck into Bonds". Compliance was very high, with entire factories of workers earning a special "Minuteman" flag to fly over their plant if over 90% workers belonged to
8500-591: The face' with interviews with survivors and family members", to give them "hope and to try to de-glorify the romanticism of the bridge", in part by informing those who have "mulled a leap to know about the bloody, battered aftermath." In 2020, the FDOT installed the Skyway Vertical Net, a vertical fence designed to deter suicide attempts. The fencing was placed atop the bridge's waist-high concrete barriers, creating an overall "wall" almost 11 ft (3.4 m) tall which runs for about 1.5 miles (2.4 km) along
8625-514: The first duty of civilians recruited for the local civilian defense to ensure that lights were either off or thick curtains drawn over all windows at night . State Guards were reformed for internal security duties to replace the National Guardsmen who were federalized and sent overseas. The Civil Air Patrol was established, which enrolled civilian spotters in air reconnaissance, search-and-rescue, and transport. Its Coast Guard counterpart,
8750-454: The franchise from Bee Lee and resumed ferry service, albeit on a smaller scale until the end of the war. Regular ferry service would continue until the Sunshine Skyway Bridge opened a decade later. During the same period, there were several preliminary proposals to build a tunnel or a series of bridges across the mouth of Tampa Bay. In 1929, a bill was introduced in the Florida legislature to build
8875-409: The freighter had left the channel, but the forward momentum of the 20,000-ton ship along with strong winds from astern pushed the bow into support beams to the right of the shipping lane. While the main support pier nearest to the channel withstood the strike with only minor damage, a secondary support pier just to the south was not designed to withstand such an impact and failed catastrophically, causing
9000-509: The government came from Jeannette Rankin 's opposition to the war. Rankin voted against the war particularly because she saw women and peace to be 'inseparable', and even actively encouraged women to do more to prevent the war in America. Civilian support for the war was widespread, with isolated cases of draft resistance. The F.B.I. was already tracking elements that were suspected of loyalty to Germany, Japan, or Italy, and many were arrested in
9125-401: The government offered arbitration to determine the wages and other terms of new contracts. Those procedures produced modest wage increases during the first few years of the war but not enough to keep up with inflation, particularly when combined with the slowness of the arbitration machinery. Even though the complaints from union members about the no-strike pledge became louder and more bitter,
9250-455: The high number of suicide attempts from the bridge, Florida installed six crisis hotline phones along the center span in 1999, and began 24-hour patrols. As of 2003, the call center at the Crisis Center of Tampa Bay received 18 calls from potential jumpers, all of whom survived, according to a 2003 St. Petersburg Times report. However, the bridge saw an average of one jump per month, reaching
9375-470: The highest portions of the bridge. The fence is designed to dissuade potential jumpers or at least slow them down long enough that law enforcement officials can reach them. The number of jumpers has been drastically reduced since the project's completion in June 2021, with only five reported over the ensuing 29 months. As on any Florida controlled-access highway , pedestrians and bicycles are prohibited. Stopping on
9500-428: The ideals of peace, justice and humanitarianism, and sometimes criticizing military policies such as the bombing of enemy cities. They sponsored 10,000 military chaplains, and set up special ministries in and around military bases, focused not only on soldiers but their young wives who often followed them. The mainstream Protestant churches supported the " Double V " campaign of the black churches to achieve victory against
9625-405: The inbound freighter had been in the process of maneuvering into the narrow channel under the center of the bridge when a microburst containing sudden torrential rains and 70 mph (110 km/h) winds cut visibility to near zero and temporarily rendered the ship's radar useless. Lerro put the ship's engines into full reverse and ordered the emergency dropping of the anchor when he realized that
9750-586: The invasion of Europe in summer 1944.) In 1940–43 the Army often transferred soldiers to civilian status in the Enlisted Reserve Corps to increase production. Those transferred would return to work in essential industry, although they could be recalled to active duty if the Army needed them. Others were discharged if their civilian work was deemed essential. There were instances of mass releases of men to increase production in various industries. Working men who had been classified 4F or otherwise ineligible for
9875-567: The location of the camps and what was needed. Overall, about 43,000 conscientious objectors (COs) refused to take up arms. About 6,000 COs went to prison, especially the Jehovah's Witnesses. About 12,000 served in Civilian Public Service (CPS)—but never received any veterans benefits. About 25,000 or more performed noncombatant jobs in the military, and did receive postwar veterans benefits. A rare but notable example of pacifism from within
10000-548: The main span of the Skyway allows access to Port Tampa Bay , Port Tampa , the Port of St. Petersburg , and SeaPort Manatee , making it one of the busiest shipping lanes in the United States. Owing to the 1980 disaster, the current bridge incorporates numerous safety features to protect the structure from ship collisions. In 1924, J.G. "Jim" Foley, a realtor, and his partner Charles R. Carter joined with James E. Bussey, an attorney, to create
10125-413: The mayor of Bradenton, B.T. Arbuckle, attended the second span's dedication. The second span was used for all southbound traffic, while the original span was converted to carry only northbound traffic. The southbound span (opened in 1971) of the original bridge was destroyed on the morning of May 9, 1980, when the 606 ft (185 m) freighter MV Summit Venture collided with a support column during
10250-427: The military. Unlike in 1917–1918, the positions were generally respected by the government, which set up non-combat civilian roles for conscientious objectors . The Church of God had a strong pacifist element reaching a high point in the late 1930s. This small Fundamentalist Protestant denomination regarded World War II as a just war because America was attacked. Likewise, the Quakers generally regarded World War II as
10375-472: The national average. Nevertheless, as George B. Tindall notes, the transformation was, "The demonstration of industrial potential, new habits of mind, and a recognition that industrialization demanded community services." Early in the war, it became apparent that German U-boats were using the backlighting of coastal cities in the Eastern Seaboard and the South to destroy ships exiting harbors. It became
10500-497: The number in 1944, leaving 13% who lost or quit their jobs. Many women working in machinery factories and more were taken out of the workforce. Many of these former factory workers found other work at kitchens, being teachers, etc. The table shows the development of the United States labor force by sex during the war years. Women also took on new roles in sport and entertainment, which opened to them as more and more men were drafted. The All-American Girls Professional Baseball League
10625-534: The number of teenage workers tripled from 870,000 in 1940 to 2.8 million in 1944, while the number of students in public high schools dropped from 6.6 million in 1940 to 5.6 million in 1944, about a million students—and many teachers—took jobs. Policymakers did not want high school students to drop out. Government agencies, parents, school administrations and employers would cooperate in local "Go-to-School Drives" to encourage high school students to stay whether this be part or full-time. The Victory Farm Volunteers under
10750-554: The old bridge, which would not widen the narrow shipping lane. Governor Bob Graham 's idea to build a "signature" cable-stayed bridge with a span that would be 50% wider than that of the old Skyway Bridge won out over other proposals. In addition to a wider shipping lane, the channel would be marked by a 1 ⁄ 4 mi (400 m)-long series of large concrete barriers, and the support piers would be protected by massive concrete " dolphins ". Construction began in January 1983 with
10875-401: The older Sunshine Skyway spans. The scope of the project required that all underwater piles and piers, and surface roadway, girders, and beams, be dismantled. Special care had to be taken in removing underwater bridge elements near the channel, and the central portion of the original bridge had to be removed in one piece to minimize closure of the only approach to the busy Port of Tampa . Most of
11000-419: The paint's composition caused it to fade faster than expected. From 2006 to 2008, FDOT hired a contractor to perform the first full repainting of the bridge since it opened in 1987. The work included repainting the bridge's 42 steel cables one consistent shade of yellow and rehabilitating the lighting system at the summit of the bridge. In 2022–2023, the yellow steel cables were repainted and corrosion protection
11125-425: The pounding of pilings for the foundation, and work on the main piers began the following September. The complicated project was delayed several times by bad weather and various difficulties in construction, and the planned opening was pushed back several times. Finally, the opening ceremony was set for April 30, 1987. However, on April 29 at about 3:30 p.m., the new bridge's protective bumpers were hit head-on by
11250-652: The race referred to it by the humorous title "20,000 Feet Above the Sea", a reference to the 1870 Jules Verne novel Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas . On March 4, 2018, in partnership with the Armed Forces Families Foundation, the Skyway Bridge was closed for the Inaugural Skyway 10K. In contrast to the one-time race in 1987, the Skyway 10K has been held annually since 2018, with the exception of 2021, as it
11375-399: The religious denominations gave some support to the war effort, such as providing chaplains. Typically, church members sent their sons into the military without protest, accepted shortages and rationing as a war necessity, purchased war bonds, working munitions industries, and prayed intensely for safe return and for victory. Church leaders, however, were much more cautious while holding fast to
11500-581: The same time, many agricultural commodities were in greater demand by the military and for the civilian populations of Allies. Production was encouraged and prices and markets were under tight federal control. Between December 1941 and December 1942 it was estimated 1.6 million men & women left agricultural work for military service or to get higher paying jobs in war industries. Civilians were encouraged to create " victory gardens ", farms that were often started in backyards and lots. Children were encouraged to help with these farms, too. The Bracero Program ,
11625-477: The same. The experience of World War I regarding men needed by industry was particularly unsatisfactory—too many skilled mechanics and engineers became privates (there is a possibly apocryphal story of a banker assigned as a baker due to a clerical error, noted by historian Lee Kennett in his book "G.I.") Farmers demanded and were generally given occupational deferments (many volunteered anyway, but those who stayed at home lost postwar veteran's benefits.) Later in
11750-465: The sort of turbulent struggles over union recognition of the 1930s, while unions were generally able to obtain maintenance of membership clauses, a form of union security , through arbitration and negotiation. Employers gave workers new untaxed benefits (such as vacation time, pensions, and health insurance), which increased real incomes even when wage rates were frozen. The wage differential between higher-skilled and less-skilled workers narrowed, and with
11875-427: The state legislature agreed to fund it. However, the project designed crossed through a portion of Hillsborough County near the mouth of Tampa Bay. Since the county was not mentioned in legislation, the bill was declared unconstitutional and the project stalled. Bail, Horton, and Associates, along with Parsons, Brinckerhoff, Hogan & Macdonald received a contract from the port authority on December 20, 1944, to design
12000-492: The summer and for a fourth if high schools decided to push starting dates back. To join, a volunteer needed the consent of their parent(s)/guardian(s). There were three types of work environments for the volunteers. The most common (80% of volunteers) involved them being transported to a worksite daily via buses or farming trucks and returned home at night. Another program involved where volunteers lived with farming families and worked alongside them with about 1 in 5 doing this. There
12125-423: The time of the bridge's opening it was among the longest bridges on Earth and it was the longest continuous bridge in the United States. Notable participants in opening ceremonies that day were: US senator and former governor Spessard Holland , former governors Charley E. Johns and Fuller Warren along with James Melton and General James Van Fleet . Delegations from ten Florida counties participated that day. On
12250-749: The top. The UAW, by contrast, had always been a more grassroots organization, but it also started to try to rein in its maverick local leadership during these years. The CIO also had to confront deep racial divides in its membership, particularly in the UAW plants in Detroit where white workers sometimes struck to protest the promotion of black workers to production jobs, but also in shipyards in Alabama, mass transit in Philadelphia, and steel plants in Baltimore. The CIO leadership, particularly those in further left unions such as
12375-498: The veterans would get high wages. The war marked a time of dramatic change in the poor, heavily rural South as new industries and military bases were developed by the Federal government, providing badly needed capital and infrastructure in many regions. People from all parts of the US came to the South for military training and work in the region's many bases and new industries. During and after
12500-442: The war millions of hard-scrabble farmers, both white and black, left agriculture for urban jobs. The United States began mobilizing for war in a major way in the spring of 1940. The warm sunny weather of the South proved ideal for building 60 percent of the Army's new training camps and nearly half the new airfields, In all 40 percent of spending on new military installations went to the South. For example, sleepy Starke, Florida ,
12625-403: The war's ever-increasing need for able-bodied men consuming America's labor force in the early 1940s, industry turned to teen-aged boys and girls to fill in as replacements. Consequently, many states had to change their child-labor laws to allow these teenagers to work. The lures of patriotism, adulthood, and money led many youths to drop out of school and take a defense job. Between 1940 and 1944,
12750-588: The war, in light of the tremendous amount of manpower that would be necessary for the invasion of France in 1944, many earlier deferment categories became draft eligible. In the 1930s, pacifism was a very strong force in most of the Protestant churches. Only a minority of religious leaders, typified by Reinhold Niebuhr , paid serious attention to the threats to peace posed by Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, or Imperial Japan. After Pearl Harbor in December 1941, practically all
12875-545: The war. Federal tax policy was highly contentious during the war, with President Franklin D. Roosevelt opposing a conservative coalition in Congress. However, both sides agreed on the need for high taxes (along with heavy borrowing) to pay for the war: top marginal tax rates ranged from 81% to 94% for the duration of the war, and the income level subject to the highest rate was lowered from $ 5,000,000 to $ 200,000. Roosevelt tried unsuccessfully, by executive order 9250, to impose
13000-544: The wartime industry, which now employed many more women workers in nontraditional jobs. Unions that had represented large numbers of women workers before the war, such as the UE (electrical workers) and the Food and Tobacco Workers , had fairly good records of fighting discrimination against women. Most union leaders saw women as temporary wartime replacements for the men in the armed forces. The wages of these women needed to be kept high so that
13125-409: The weaker a beam bridge gets. As a result, beam bridges rarely span more than 250 feet (80 m). This does not mean that beam bridges are not used to cross great distances; it only means that a series of beam bridges must be joined together, creating what is known as a continuous span. United States home front during World War II The United States home front during World War II supported
13250-422: The weeks after the attack on Pearl Harbor . 7,000 German and Italian aliens (who were not U.S. citizens) were moved back from the West Coast , along with some 100,000 of Japanese descent. Some enemy aliens were held without trial during the entire war. The U.S. citizens accused of supporting Germany were given public trials, and often were freed. There was large-scale migration to industrial centers, especially
13375-478: The winter and every 45 minutes in the summer during daylight hours, weather permitting. During its last full year of operation in 1941, Bee Line carried almost 100,000 vehicles and thousands of passengers. However, ferries stopped running in 1942 when many employees were called to serve and the boats were converted to milatry use as part of the World War II war effort . In 1944, the St. Petersburg Port Authority bought
13500-430: The workforce to replace men who had joined the forces, though in fewer numbers. From 1890 to 1990, the percentage of married women in the workforce rose from 5% to 60%. Most of this change in workforce participation was during World War II. Roosevelt stated that the efforts of civilians at home to support the war through personal sacrifice was as critical to winning the war as the efforts of the soldiers themselves. " Rosie
13625-489: Was a growing labor shortage in war centers, with sound trucks going street by street begging for people to apply for war jobs. Greater wartime production created millions of new jobs, while the draft reduced the number of young men available for civilian jobs. So great was the demand for labor that millions of retired people, housewives, and students entered the labor force, lured by patriotism and wages. The shortage of grocery clerks caused retailers to convert from service at
13750-593: Was a reversion to traditional gender roles and an expectation for women to become housewives, or at least take on more traditionally female jobs. Alice Throckmorton McLean founded the American Women's Voluntary Services (AWVS) in January 1940, 23 months before the United States entered the war. When Pearl Harbor was bombed, the AWVS had more than 18,000 members who were ready to drive ambulances, fight fires, lead evacuations, operate mobile kitchens, deliver first aid, and perform other emergency services. By war's end
13875-559: Was added to the ship impact system on each side of the channel. A 2014 FDOT study noted that the Skyway's low bridge clearance prevented larger vessels from using the Port Tampa Bay terminals, but made no recommendation about options, as the air draft of most new cruise ships exceeds the bridge's height limit at 180 ft (55 m). As long ago as 2000, cruise ship manufacturers have had to make special modifications for ships destined for Tampa, and newer classes of cruise ships such as
14000-457: Was also camps set up which were not very common as only 4% of all VFV volunteers lived there between 1943 & 1945. The war mobilization changed the relationship of the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) with both employers and the national government. Both the CIO and the larger American Federation of Labor (AFL) grew rapidly in the war years. Nearly all the unions that belonged to
14125-498: Was at Oak Ridge, Tennessee , where unlimited amounts of locally generated electricity were used to prepare uranium for the atom bomb. The number of production workers doubled during the war. Most training centers, factories and shipyards were closed in 1945 and the families that left hardscrabble farms often remained to find jobs in the urban South. The region had finally reached the take off stage into industrial and commercial growth, although its income and wage levels lagged well behind
14250-550: Was begun to guarantee minimum amounts of necessities to everyone (especially poor people) and prevent inflation. Tires were the first item to be rationed in January 1942 because supplies of natural rubber were interrupted. Gasoline rationing proved an even better way to allocate scarce rubber. In June 1942 the Combined Food Board was set up to coordinate the worldwide supply of food to the Allies, with special attention to flows from
14375-433: Was called "recycling" years later. Families were requested to save fat drippings from cooking for use in soap making. Neighborhood "scrap drives" collected scrap copper and brass for use in artillery shells. Milkweed was harvested by children ostensibly for lifejackets. In 1940, Congress passed the first peace-time draft legislation. It was renewed (by one vote) in summer 1941. It involved questions as to who should control
14500-452: Was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic and was to be held virtually instead. Beam bridge Beam bridges are the simplest structural forms for bridge spans supported by an abutment or pier at each end. No moments are transferred throughout the support, hence their structural type is known as simply supported . The simplest beam bridge could be a log (see log bridge ),
14625-423: Was defined as pleasure driving was ambiguous and the policy banning it was unpopular. The newly established speed limit was enforced by state and local level officials. Exemptions were made to the national speed limit for military and emergencies vehicles that were on duties that required speedier travel times. During the war, taxis were also regulated by the ODT. Railroads previously saw a decline in travel during
14750-549: Was designed by the Figg & Muller Engineering Group and built by the American Bridge Company . The bridge is considered the flagship bridge of Florida and serves as a gateway to Tampa Bay. The four-lane bridge carries Interstate 275 and U.S. Route 19 , passing through Pinellas County , Hillsborough County and Manatee County . It is a toll bridge , with a toll assessed on two-axle vehicles traveling in either direction at
14875-551: Was founded in 1941 in response to a request from President Franklin D. Roosevelt to provide morale and recreation services to uniformed military personnel. The USO brought together six civilian agencies: the Salvation Army , YMCA , Young Women's Christian Association , National Catholic Community Service , National Travelers Aid Association , and the National Jewish Welfare Board . Women volunteered to work for
15000-473: Was held in St. Petersburg to celebrate the approval of the long-awaited bridge and to announce its name. The St. Pete Junior Chamber of Commerce and the Florida State Road Department had conducted a nationwide contest to name the structure, with the rules dictating that it should not be named after a specific person or geographic place. Over 20,000 entries were submitted, and at the celebration on
15125-587: Was important for propaganda. Every aspect of life from politics to personal savings changed when put on a wartime footing. This was achieved by tens of millions of workers moving from low to high productivity jobs in industrial centers. Millions of students, retirees, housewives, and unemployed moved into the active labor force. The hours they had to work increased dramatically as the time for leisure activities declined sharply. Gasoline, meat, clothing, and footwear were tightly rationed. Most families were allocated 3 US gallons (11 L; 2.5 imp gal) of gasoline
15250-488: Was on the night of January 28, when the United States Coast Guard cutter Blackthorn collided with the tanker Capricorn in the western approach to the bridge, resulting in the sinking of the cutter with the loss of 23 crew members in the worst peacetime disaster in the history of the U.S. Coast Guard. The second incident came on the morning of May 9, 1980, when the freighter MV Summit Venture collided with
15375-485: Was reactivated again in the early 1950s with Parsons, Brinckerhoff, Hogan & Macdonald getting the contract this time and they ended up serving as the engineers for construction and design. The partner-in-charge for Brinckerhoff was M. N. Quade. The successful attempt for building the bridge came after the Florida State Improvement Commission was approached with a proposal that they finance it while
15500-518: Was strongly encouraged through investment in war bonds that would mature after the war. Most workers had an automatic payroll deduction; children collected savings stamps until they had enough to buy a bond. Bond rallies were held throughout the U.S. with celebrities, usually Hollywood film stars, to enhance the bond advertising effectiveness. Several stars were responsible for personal appearance tours that netted multiple millions of dollars in bond pledges—an astonishing amount in 1943. The public paid ¾ of
15625-537: Was the creation of Chicago Cubs owner Philip Wrigley , who sought alternative ways to expand his baseball franchise as top male players left for military service. In 1943, he created an eight-team league in small industrial cities around the Great Lakes . Night games offered affordable, patriotic entertainment to working Americans who had flocked to wartime jobs in the Midwest hubs of Chicago and Detroit. The league provided
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