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43-453: Sukkalmah was a Sumerian title first attested in the Pre-Sargonic texts from Girsu , where it seems to have had the meaning of "prime minister" or "grand vizier." The title was well-attested under the powerful Ur III state, where it remained associated with Girsu and nearby Lagash. The Sukkalmahs of Lagash held effective control over the entire ma-da or buffer zone to the north and east of

86-463: A (c. 800 BC) destruction layer of Hasanlu , in northwest Iran . The mosaic glass beakers are thought to have been heirlooms, possibly for ritual use the find spot being a temple. The panes of glass used to create these images were very brightly colored, and closer analysis has revealed that they were bright green, blue, white, and red-orange. A Kassite text found at Dur-Kurigalzu mentions glass given to artisans for palace decoration and similar glass

129-718: A few documents, and some technical terms related to horses and chariotry. What is known is that their language was not related to either the Indo-European language group, nor to Semitic or other Afro-Asiatic languages, and is most likely to have been a language isolate , although some linguists have proposed a link to the Hurro-Urartian languages of the Armenian highlands and Northern Mesopotamia . It has been suggested that several Kassite leaders bore Indo-European names, and they might have had an Indo-European elite similar to

172-665: A fragment of a historical epic). Many of those tablets have not yet been published, including hundreds held in the Ottoman Museum in Istanbul. About 100 Kassite tablets were found at Dur-Kurigalzu. A few inscribed building materials of Kurigalzu I were found at Kish. Several tablets dated to the reign of Agum III were found at the Dilmun site of Qal'at al-Bahrain . In total, about 12,000 Kassite period documents have been recovered, of which only around 10% have been published. There are also

215-666: A number of building inscriptions, all but one written in Sumerian unlike the Akkadian typically used by the Kassites. A number of seals have also been found. Kudurrus , stone stele used to record land grants and related documents, provide another source for Kassite history. This practice continued for several centuries after the end of the Kassite Dynasty. Often situated on the surface, many were found early and made their way to museums around

258-516: A number of palaces and also temples to many Babylonia gods including Enlil, Ninlil, and Ninurta. The Kassites also extended their power into the Persian Gulf, including at Qal'at al-Bahrain . Being in close proximity the Assyrians and Kassites often came into political and military conflict over the next few centuries. For a time in the early reign of Tukulti-Ninurta I Assyria gained ascendancy, until

301-619: A political and military power in Mesopotamia. The fall of the First Sealand dynasty in 1460 BC created a power vacuum which the Kassites filled. After the destruction of the Mittani by the Hittites in the early 14th century BC Assyria rose in power creating a three way power structure in the region between the Kassites, Hittites, and Assyrians with Elam exerting influence from the east and Egypt from

344-610: A woman, with copper bracelets coated in gold and a fragment of a stone lion carved dish with a partial Sumerian inscription. In 1879 the site was visited by Hormuzd Rassam . Excavations continued under Abbé Henri de Genouillac in 1929–1931 and under André Parrot in 1931–1933. It was at Girsu that the fragments of the Stele of the Vultures were found. The site has suffered from poor excavation standards and also from illegal excavations. About 50,000 cuneiform tablets have been recovered from

387-528: Is ambiguous. They are thought to originate from the Zagros Mountains . Kassites were first reported in Babylonia in the 18th century BC, especially around the area of Sippar . The 9th year name of king Samsu-iluna (1749–1712 BC) of Babylon , the son of Hammurabi mentions them ie. ("Year in which Samsu-iluna the king (defeated) the totality of the strength of the army / the troops of the Kassites"). As

430-436: Is regarded as a Language Isolate and is not accepted to be Semitic or Indo-European . The Kassite religion is also poorly known. The names of some Kassite deities are known. The chief gods, titular gods of the kings, were Shuqamuna and Shumaliya which are distinct from Sumerian, Semitic and Indo-European gods. As was typical in the region, there was some cross pollination with other religions. After Babylon came within

473-711: The Early Dynastic period (2900-2335 BC). At the time of Gudea , during the Second Dynasty of Lagash, Girsu became the capital of the Lagash kingdom and continued to be its religious center after political power had shifted to the city of Lagash. During the Ur III period , Girsu was a major administrative center for the empire. After the fall of Ur , Girsu declined in importance, but remained inhabited until c.  200 BC . A 4th century BC bilingual Greek/ Aramaic inscription

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516-480: The Hittite sack of Babylon in 1531 BC, and established a dynasty generally assumed to have been based first in that city, after a hiatus. Later rule shifted to the new city of Dur-Kurigalzu . By the time of Babylon's fall, the Kassites had already been part of the region for a century and a half, acting sometimes with Babylon's interests and sometimes against. There are records of Kassite and Babylonian interactions, in

559-893: The Mitanni . Over the centuries, however, the Kassites were absorbed into the Babylonian population. Eight among the last kings of the Kassite dynasty have Akkadian names. It has also been suggested that the first element in Kudur-Enlil 's name is derived from Elamite but that is disputed. The Kassites produced a substantial amount of pottery. It is found in many Mesopotamia cities including Eridu and Tell Khaiber . Archaeologists divide it into three periods, Early Kassite (before c. 1415 BC), Middle Kassite (c. 1415–1225 BC), and Late Kassite (c. 1225–1155 BC). Many small pottery kilns, generally no bigger than 2 meters in diameter with domed tops, were found in

602-563: The Arrapha district. The Babylonian and Assyrian king lists mention eight or nine early Kassite rulers whose names are not fully known and who precede the following kings. Another Kassite king, Hašmar-galšu, is known from five inscriptions from the Nippur area. Note that the relative order of Kadashman-Turgu and Kadashman-Enlil II have been questioned. The Kassite language has not been classified . The few sources consist of personal names,

645-408: The Babylonian city of Dilbat . Goblets and wavy sided bowls are commonly found in Kassite pottery deposits. Other ceramic goods, such as traps for small animals and vessels commonly thought to be fruit stands were found also. Kassite pottery deposits have been found as far away as Al Khor Island in the Persian Gulf area. Remnants of two Kassite glass beakers were found during the 1964 excavation in

688-464: The Babylonian empire weakened in the following years the Kassites became a part of the landscape, even at times supplying troops for Babylon. The Hittites had carried off the idol of the god Marduk , but the Kassite rulers regained possession, returned Marduk to Babylon, and made him the equal of the Kassite Shuqamuna. Babylon under Kassite rulers, who renamed the city Karanduniash , re-emerged as

731-700: The Elamites under Kidin-Hutran III intervened. This period is marked by a building hiatus at Babylon, similar to the one after the fall of the First Babylonian dynasty . The Elamites of the Shutrukid dynasty conquered Babylonia, carrying away the Statue of Marduk , in the 12th century BC, thus ending the Kassite state. According to the Assyrian Synchronistic Chronicle, which is not considered reliable,

774-749: The Elder Siamun Psusennes II Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt Tefnakht Bakenranef ( Sargonid dynasty ) Tiglath-Pileser Shalmaneser Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon Sennacherib Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II Girsu Girsu ( Sumerian Ĝirsu ; cuneiform ĝir 2 -su 𒄈𒋢𒆠 )

817-425: The Kassite dynasty was overthrown in 1155 BC, the system of provincial administration continued and the country remained united under the succeeding rule, the Second Dynasty of Isin. The origin of the Kassites is uncertain, though a number of theories have been advanced. Several suspected Kassite names are recorded in economic documents from the Ur III period (c. 2112–2004 BC) in southern Babylon , but their origin

860-408: The Kassite period were Larsa , Sippar and Susa . The Kassites were very active at Ur . At the site of Isin , which had been abandoned after the time of Samsu-iluna, major rebuilding work occurred on the religious district including the temple of Gula . The work at Isin was initiated by Kurigalzu I and continued by Kadashman-Enlil I, and after a lapse, by Adad-shuma-usur and Meli-Shipak II. After

903-416: The Kassite sphere of control its city-god, Marduk was absorbed into the Kassite pantheon. Documentation of the Kassite period depends heavily on the scattered and disarticulated tablets from Nippur, where thousands of tablets and fragments have been excavated. They include administrative and legal texts, letters, seal inscriptions, private votive inscriptions, and even a literary text (usually identified as

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946-589: The Neo-Sumerian Sukkalmahs had on Susiana and Elam, and may have also been favored due to similarity between the Sumerian sukkal and the Elamite title sunkir or sukkir meaning "king". The founder of the dynasty was a ruler named Shilhaha, who described himself as "the chosen son of Ebarat", who may have been the same as King Ebarti mentioned as the 9th King of the Shimashki Dynasty . Ebarat appears as

989-455: The Ur III core territory, and thus held authority over Susa. The Sukkalmah Arad-Nanna held the title of shagina or military governor of Pashime on the southern coast of Iran, indicating that the influence of the Neo-Sumerian Sukkalmahs could extend quite deep into Elamite territory. The later adoption of the title Sukkalmah by the Elamites probably reflects the considerable political influence that

1032-475: The area, respectfully addressed as "Father" by Mesopotamian kings such as Zimrilim of Mari , Shamshi-Adad I of Assyria , and even Hammurabi of Babylon. During his reign alone, Elam interfered extensively with Mesopotamian politics, allowing messengers and envoys to travel far west to Emar and Qatna in Syria. His messenger reached Emar and sent his three servants to King Amut-piʾel II of Qatna (1772-1762 BC), and

1075-515: The beginning of the Gunagi inscriptions, and guessed they were names of Kings, in a manner somewhat similar to Grotefend 's decipherment of Old Persian cuneiform in 1802-1815. Using the small set of letters identified in 1905-1912, the number of symbols in each sequence taken as syllables, and in one instance the repetition of a symbol, Desset was able to identify the only two contemporary historical rulers that matched these conditions: Shilhaha and Ebarat,

1118-547: The context of military employment, during the reigns of Babylonian kings Samsu-iluna (1686 to 1648 BC), Abī-ešuh , and Ammī-ditāna . The origin and classification of the Kassite language , like the Sumerian language and Hurrian language , is uncertain, and, also like the two latter languages, has generated a wide array of speculation over the years, even to the point of linking it to Sanskrit , however like these other languages it

1161-434: The discovery of a 5,000-year-old cultic area filled with more than 300 broken ceremonial ceramic cups, bowls, jars, animal sacrifices, and ritual processions dedicated to Ningirsu . One of the remains was a duck-shaped bronze figurine with eyes made from bark which is thought to be dedicated to Nanshe . An Indus Valley weight was also found. In February 2023, archaeologists from British Museum and Getty Museum revealed

1204-567: The founder of the dynasty according to building inscriptions, but later kings rather seem to refer to Shilhaha in their filiation claims. The names of Ebarat and Shilhaha, the founding members of the Sukkalmah Dynasty, have been found on the Gunagi silver vessels, inscribed in the Linear Elamite script. The Gunagi vessels were discovered relatively recently, in 2004. French archaeologist François Desset identified repetitive sign sequences in

1247-521: The king of Qatna also sent two messengers to Elam.Around 1760 BC, Hammurabi drove out the Elamites, overthrew Rim-Sin of Larsa, and established a Babylonian Empire in Mesopotamia. Thus, Siwe-Palar-Khuppak instead turned his army eastward conquering parts of Iran. The Elamite rulers had become increasingly involved in Mesopotamian politics during the Sukkalmah dynasty . In fact, Rim-Sin of Larsa himself

1290-782: The last Kassite king, Enlil-nadin-ahi , was taken to Susa and imprisoned there in 1155 BC, where he also died. The annals of the Assyrian king Sennacherib detail that on his second, eastern, campaign of 702 BC he campaigned against the land of the Kassites, that being along the Diyala River between the Jebel Hamrin and the Darband-i-Khan. The Kassites took refuge in the mountains but were brought down and resettled, in standard Assyrian practice, in Hardispi and Bit Kubatti, which were made part of

1333-462: The power of the south Mesopotamian states. Siruk-tuh was the king of Elam when Hammurabi first ruled, he and later kings of the Elamite dynasty were referred to as "great king" and "father" by kings in Syria and Mesopotamia and were the only kings that the Mesopotamian Kings considered to be higher in status than themselves. Siwe-Palar-Khuppak , who for some time was the most powerful person in

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1376-528: The remains of the 4,500 year-old Sumerian Lord Palace of the Kings alongside more than 200 cuneiform tablets containing administrative records of Girsu. The E-ninnu temple (Temple of the White Thunderbird), the primary sanctuary of the Sumerian warrior god Ningirsu was also identified during the excavations. In 2023, British Museum experts have suggested the possibility that a Hellenistic shrine at Girsu

1419-1466: The seals into wet clay. ( Shamshi-Adad dynasty 1808–1736 BCE) (Amorites) Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi (Non-dynastic usurpers 1735–1701 BCE) Puzur-Sin Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi ( Adaside dynasty 1700–722 BCE) Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II Second Intermediate Period Sixteenth Dynasty Abydos Dynasty Seventeenth Dynasty (1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon

1462-571: The site. Excavations at Telloh resumed in 2016 as part of a training program for Iraqi archaeologists organized by the British Museum. A foundation tablet and a number of inscribed building cones have been found. In the 5th season, in autumn 2019, work concentrated on the Mound of the Palace where E-ninnu , a temple to Ningirsu, had been found in earlier seasons. In March 2020, archaeologists announced

1505-592: The south. A number of the Amarna Letters are correspondence between the respective rulers (including 14 between the Pharaoh and the Kassite ruler). An International System came into place between these parties connected by widespread trade, treaties, and intermarriage between the ruling classes (especially between the Kassites and Elamites). A typical treaties include the Egyptian–Hittite peace treaty (c.1259 BC) and

1548-481: The treaty between the Kassite ruler Karaindash and the Assyrian ruler Ashur-bel-nisheshu (c. 1410 BC). At the peak of their power the Kassites, under Kurigalzu I in the mid 14h century BC, conquered Elam and sacked the capital of Susa . That ruler initiated significant building efforts in Ur and other southern Mesopotamia cities. The most notable of these efforts was the construction of a new city, Dur-Kurigalzu. It contained

1591-777: The two earliest kings of the Sukkalmah Dynasty. Another set of signs matched the well-known God of the period: Napirisha : The dynasty was roughly contemporary with the Old Assyrian period , and the Old Babylonian period in Mesopotamia . During this time, Susa was under Elamite control, but Akkadian-speaking Mesopotamian states such as Larsa and Isin continually tried to retake the city. Notable Sukkalmah dynasty rulers in Elam during this time include Suruhduh/Siruk-tuh/Sirukdukh (c. 1850), who entered into various military coalitions to contain

1634-410: The world. The ancient city of Nippur was a major focus for the Kassites. Early on, refurbishments were conducted of the various religious and administrative buildings, the first of these datable to Kurigalzu I. Major construction occurred under Kadashman-Enlil, Kudur-Enlil, and Shagarakti-Shuriash, with lesser levels of repair work under Adad-shuma-usur and Meli-Shipak. Other important centers during

1677-576: Was a city of ancient Sumer , situated some 25 km (16 mi) northwest of Lagash , at the site of what is now Tell Telloh in Dhi Qar Governorate , Iraq . As the religious center of the kingdom of Lagash, it contained significant temples to the god Ningirsu ( E-ninnu ) and his wife Bau and hosted multi-day festivals in their honor. Girsu was possibly inhabited in the Ubaid period (5300-4800 BC), but significant levels of activity began in

1720-476: Was found there. The site consists of two main mounds, one rising 50 feet above the plain and the other 56 feet. A number of small mounds dot the site. Telloh was the first Sumerian site to be extensively excavated, at first under the French vice-consul at Basra, Ernest de Sarzec , in eleven campaigns between 1877 and 1900, followed by his successor Gaston Cros from 1903–1909. Finds included an alabaster statue of

1763-570: Was found there. Other similar glass dated 1500 BC was found at Tell al-Rimah . Seals were used widely across the Near Eastern kingdoms during the Kassite rule. They were used to mark official items and ownership. The images created by these seals were unique to each seal, but many shared the same subject matter. Bearded men, religious symbols, horned quadrupeds, and fauna are often shown in these images. The seals were generally made of stone, glass, or clay. The images were made by stamping or rolling

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1806-630: Was founded by Alexander the Great , built atop the ruins of E-ninnu. According to the researchers, recent discoveries suggest that "this site honours Zeus and two divine sons. The sons are Heracles and Alexander." Kassites The Kassites ( / ˈ k æ s aɪ t s / ) were people of the ancient Near East , who controlled Babylonia after the fall of the Old Babylonian Empire c.  1531 BC and until c.  1155 BC ( short chronology ). They gained control of Babylonia after

1849-1761: Was of Elamite descent, notwithstanding his Akkadian name. Kudur-Nahhunte , who plundered the temples of southern Mesopotamia. But Elamite influence in southern Mesopotamia did not last. Little is known about the later part of this dynasty, since sources again become sparse with the Kassite rule of Babylon (from c. 1595). The following list should not be considered complete: King of Shimashki "Twelve kings of Shimashki." King of Anshan and Susa Sukkal of Elam and Shimashki and Susa Shepherd of Inshushinak Prince of Elam Sukkal of Susa Sukkal of Susa Sukkal Sukkal of Susa King of Susa Sukkal Sukkal of Elam and Simashki and Susa ( Shamshi-Adad dynasty 1808–1736 BCE) (Amorites) Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi (Non-dynastic usurpers 1735–1701 BCE) Puzur-Sin Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi ( Adaside dynasty 1700–722 BCE) Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II Second Intermediate Period Sixteenth Dynasty Abydos Dynasty Seventeenth Dynasty (1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon

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