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55-453: The Stymphalian birds are man-eating birds with beaks of bronze , sharp metallic feathers they could launch at their victims, and poisonous dung. These fly against those who come to hunt them, wounding and killing them with their beaks. All armour of bronze or iron that men wear is pierced by the birds; but if they weave a garment of thick cork, the beaks of the Stymphalian birds are caught in

110-593: A Vinča culture site in Pločnik ( Serbia ), and believed to have been smelted from a natural tin-copper ore, stannite . Other early examples date to the late 4th millennium BC in Egypt , Susa (Iran) and some ancient sites in China, Luristan (Iran), Tepe Sialk (Iran), Mundigak (Afghanistan), and Mesopotamia (Iraq). Tin bronze was superior to arsenic bronze in that the alloying process could be more easily controlled, and

165-518: A copper oxide (eventually becoming copper carbonate) layer is formed, the underlying metal is protected from further corrosion . This can be seen on statues from the Hellenistic period. If copper chlorides are formed, a corrosion-mode called " bronze disease " will eventually completely destroy it. Bronze, or bronze-like alloys and mixtures, were used for coins over a longer period. Bronze was especially suitable for use in boat and ship fittings prior to

220-655: A major influence on the development of cultures. In Europe, a major source of tin was the British deposits of ore in Cornwall , which were traded as far as Phoenicia in the eastern Mediterranean . In many parts of the world, large hoards of bronze artifacts are found, suggesting that bronze also represented a store of value and an indicator of social status. In Europe, large hoards of bronze tools, typically socketed axes (illustrated above), are found, which mostly show no signs of wear. With Chinese ritual bronzes , which are documented in

275-499: A radical difference between a word's spelling and pronunciation. Nevertheless, Middle French spelling was overall fairly close to the pronunciation; unlike Modern French, word-final consonants were still pronounced though they were optionally lost when they preceded another consonant that started the next word. The French wars in Italy and the presence of Italians in the French court brought

330-546: A sharper edge longer. Bronze was still used during the Iron Age, and has continued in use for many purposes to the modern day. There are many different bronze alloys, but typically modern bronze is 88% copper and 12% tin. Alpha bronze consists of the alpha solid solution of tin in copper. Alpha bronze alloys of 4–5% tin are used to make coins, springs, turbines and blades. Historical "bronzes" are highly variable in composition, as most metalworkers probably used whatever scrap

385-416: Is a better conductor of heat and electricity than most steels. The cost of copper-base alloys is generally higher than that of steels but lower than that of nickel -base alloys. Bronzes are typically ductile alloys, considerably less brittle than cast iron. Copper and its alloys have a huge variety of uses that reflect their versatile physical, mechanical, and chemical properties . Some common examples are

440-493: Is an alloy consisting primarily of copper , commonly with about 12–12.5% tin and often with the addition of other metals (including aluminium , manganese , nickel , or zinc ) and sometimes non-metals, such as phosphorus , or metalloids , such as arsenic or silicon . These additions produce a range of alloys that may be harder than copper alone, or have other useful properties, such as strength , ductility , or machinability . The archaeological period in which bronze

495-418: Is in modern times. Because historical artworks were often made of brasses (copper and zinc) and bronzes of different metallic compositions, modern museum and scholarly descriptions of older artworks increasingly use the generalized term "copper alloy" instead of the names of individual alloys. This is done (at least in part) to prevent database searches from failing merely because of errors or disagreements in

550-513: Is likely that 'nehoshet' refers to copper and its alloys with tin, now called bronze. In the King James Version, there is no use of the word 'bronze' and 'nehoshet' was translated as 'brass'. Modern translations use 'bronze'. Bronze (nehoshet) was used widely in the Tabernacle for items such as the bronze altar (Exodus Ch.27), bronze laver (Exodus Ch.30), utensils, and mirror (Exodus Ch.38). It

605-408: Is the complete disappearance of the noun declension system, which had been underway for centuries. There was no longer a distinction between nominative and oblique forms of nouns , and plurals became indicated by simply an s . The transformations necessitated an increased reliance on word order in the sentence, which becomes more or less the syntax of Modern but with a continued reliance on

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660-453: Is used to make hammers , mallets , wrenches and other durable tools to be used in explosive atmospheres or in the presence of flammable vapors. Bronze is used to make bronze wool for woodworking applications where steel wool would discolor oak . Phosphor bronze is used for ships' propellers, musical instruments, and electrical contacts. Bearings are often made of bronze for its friction properties. It can be impregnated with oil to make

715-541: Is used to make the tone rings of many professional model banjos . The tone ring is a heavy (usually 3 lb; 1.4 kg) folded or arched metal ring attached to a thick wood rim, over which a skin, or most often, a plastic membrane (or head) is stretched – it is the bell bronze that gives the banjo a crisp powerful lower register and clear bell-like treble register. Bronze has also been used in coins; most "copper" coins are actually bronze, with about 4 percent tin and 1 percent zinc. As with coins, bronze has been used in

770-547: The Etruscans were making bronze mirrors in the sixth century BC, and Greek and Roman mirrors followed the same pattern. Although other materials such as speculum metal had come into use, and Western glass mirrors had largely taken over, bronze mirrors were still being made in Japan and elsewhere in the eighteenth century, and are still made on a small scale in Kerala , India. Bronze is

825-555: The Golden Age , when men lived among the gods; the Silver age , where youth lasted a hundred years; and the Bronze Age , the era of heroes. It was first adopted for a sports event at the 1904 Summer Olympics . At the 1896 event, silver was awarded to winners and bronze to runners-up, while at 1900 other prizes were given rather than medals. Bronze is the normal material for the related form of

880-743: The Kingdom of Benin ; in Europe, Grecian bronzes typically of figures from Greek mythology ; in east Asia , Chinese ritual bronzes of the Shang and Zhou dynasty —more often ceremonial vessels but including some figurine examples. Bronze continues into modern times as one of the materials of choice for monumental statuary. Tiffany Glass Studios, made famous by Louis C. Tiffany commonly referred to his product as favrile glass or " Tiffany glass ," and used bronze in their artisan work for his Tiffany lamps . The largest and most ornate bronze fountain known to be cast in

935-539: The plaquette , normally a rectangular work of art with a scene in relief , for a collectors' market. Bronze is also associated with eighth wedding anniversaries. There are over 125 references to bronze ('nehoshet'), which appears to be the Hebrew word used for copper and any of its alloys. However, the Old Testament era Hebrews are not thought to have had the capability to manufacture zinc (needed to make brass) and so it

990-676: The 12th-century Romanesque Baptismal font at St Bartholomew's Church, Liège is sometimes described as bronze and sometimes as brass . In the Bronze Age, two forms of bronze were commonly used: "classic bronze", about 10% tin, was used in casting; and "mild bronze", about 6% tin, was hammered from ingots to make sheets. Bladed weapons were mostly cast from classic bronze, while helmets and armor were hammered from mild bronze. Modern commercial bronze (90% copper and 10% zinc) and architectural bronze (57% copper, 3% lead , 40% zinc) are more properly regarded as brass alloys because they contain zinc as

1045-599: The Americas ( cacao , hamac , maïs ). The influence of the Anglo-Norman language on English had left words of French and Norman origin in England. Some words of Romance origin now found their way back into French as doublets through war and trade. Also, the meaning and usage of many words from Old French transformed. Spelling and punctuation were extremely variable. The introduction of printing in 1470 highlighted

1100-506: The French into contact with Italian humanism . Many words dealing with the military ( alarme , cavalier , espion , infanterie , camp , canon , soldat ) and artistic (especially architectural: arcade , architrave , balcon , corridor ; also literary: sonnet ) practices were borrowed from Italian. Those tendencies would continue through Classical French . There were also some borrowings from Spanish ( casque ) and German ( reître ) and from

1155-452: The barrel. It is still widely used today for springs, bearings, bushings, automobile transmission pilot bearings, and similar fittings, and is particularly common in the bearings of small electric motors . Phosphor bronze is particularly suited to precision-grade bearings and springs. It is also used in guitar and piano strings. Unlike steel, bronze struck against a hard surface will not generate sparks, so it (along with beryllium copper )

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1210-586: The battle of David and Goliath in I Samuel 17:5-6;38 (also see II Chron. 12:10). Middle French Middle French ( French : moyen français ) is a historical division of the French language that covers the period from the mid-14th to the early 17th centuries. It is a period of transition during which: It is the first version of French that is largely intelligible to Modern French, contrary to Old French . The most important change found in Middle French

1265-572: The continued unification of French, the suppression of certain forms, and the prescription of rules, leading to Classical French. Middle French is the language found in the writings of Charles, Duke of Orléans , François Villon , Clément Marot , François Rabelais , Michel de Montaigne , Pierre de Ronsard , and the poets of La Pléiade . The affirmation and glorification of French finds its greatest manifestation in La Défense et illustration de la langue française ( The Defense and Illustration of

1320-477: The cork garment, just as the wings of small birds stick in bird-lime. These birds are of the size of a crane, and are like the ibis, but their beaks are more powerful, and not crooked like that of the ibis. These birds were pets of Artemis , the goddess of the hunt; or had been brought up by Ares , the god of war. They migrated to a marsh in Arcadia to escape a pack of wolves . There they bred quickly and swarmed over

1375-406: The countryside, destroying crops, fruit trees, and townspeople. The Stymphalian birds were defeated by Heracles (Hercules) in his sixth labour for Eurystheus . Heracles could not go into the marsh to reach the nests of the birds, as the ground would not support his weight. Athena , noticing the hero's plight, gave Heracles a rattle called krotala , which Hephaestus had made especially for

1430-545: The high electrical conductivity of pure copper, low-friction properties of bearing bronze (bronze that has a high lead content— 6–8%), resonant qualities of bell bronze (20% tin, 80% copper), and resistance to corrosion by seawater of several bronze alloys. The melting point of bronze varies depending on the ratio of the alloy components and is about 950 °C (1,742 °F). Bronze is usually nonmagnetic, but certain alloys containing iron or nickel may have magnetic properties. Typically bronze oxidizes only superficially; once

1485-681: The highest form of sculpture in Ancient Greek art , though survivals are few, as bronze was a valuable material in short supply in the Late Antique and medieval periods. Many of the most famous Greek bronze sculptures are known through Roman copies in marble, which were more likely to survive. In India, bronze sculptures from the Kushana ( Chausa hoard ) and Gupta periods ( Brahma from Mirpur-Khas , Akota Hoard, Sultanganj Buddha ) and later periods ( Hansi Hoard) have been found. Indian Hindu artisans from

1540-479: The inscriptions they carry and from other sources, the case is clear. These were made in enormous quantities for elite burials, and also used by the living for ritual offerings. Though bronze is generally harder than wrought iron , with Vickers hardness of 60–258 vs. 30–80, the Bronze Age gave way to the Iron Age after a serious disruption of the tin trade: the population migrations of around 1200–1100 BC reduced

1595-824: The main alloying ingredient. They are commonly used in architectural applications. Plastic bronze contains a significant quantity of lead, which makes for improved plasticity, and was possibly used by the ancient Greeks in ship construction. Silicon bronze has a composition of Si: 2.80–3.80%, Mn: 0.50–1.30%, Fe: 0.80% max., Zn: 1.50% max., Pb: 0.05% max., Cu: balance. Other bronze alloys include aluminium bronze , phosphor bronze , manganese bronze, bell metal , arsenical bronze , speculum metal , bismuth bronze , and cymbal alloys . Copper-based alloys have lower melting points than steel or iron and are more readily produced from their constituent metals. They are generally about 10 percent denser than steel, although alloys using aluminum or silicon may be slightly less dense. Bronze

1650-458: The manufacture of various types of medals for centuries, and " bronze medals " are known in contemporary times for being awarded for third place in sporting competitions and other events. The term is now often used for third place even when no actual bronze medal is awarded. The usage in part arose from the trio of gold , silver and bronze to represent the first three Ages of Man in Greek mythology:

1705-643: The massive bronze doors to the United States Supreme Court Building in Washington, DC. Before it became possible to produce glass with acceptably flat surfaces, bronze was a standard material for mirrors. Bronze was used for this purpose in many parts of the world, probably based on independent discoveries. Bronze mirrors survive from the Egyptian Middle Kingdom (2040–1750 BC), and China from at least c.  550 BC . In Europe,

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1760-643: The naming of historic copper alloys. The word bronze (1730–1740) is borrowed from Middle French bronze (1511), itself borrowed from Italian bronzo ' bell metal, brass ' (13th century, transcribed in Medieval Latin as bronzium ) from either: The discovery of bronze enabled people to create metal objects that were harder and more durable than previously possible. Bronze tools , weapons , armor , and building materials such as decorative tiles were harder and more durable than their stone and copper (" Chalcolithic ") predecessors. Initially, bronze

1815-469: The need for reform in spelling . One proposed reform came from Jacques Peletier du Mans , who developed a phonetic spelling system and introduced new typographic signs (1550), but his attempt at spelling reform was not followed. The period saw the publication of the first French grammars and of the French-Latin dictionary of Robert Estienne (1539). At the beginning of the 17th century, French would see

1870-479: The occasion. Heracles shook the krotala (similar to castanets ) on a certain mountain that overhung the lake and thus frightening the birds into the air. Heracles then shot many of them with feathered arrows tipped with poisonous blood from the slain Hydra . In some versions of this story this labour was discounted because of the help of Athena . The rest flew far away, never to plague Arcadia again. Heracles brought some of

1925-567: The period of the Chola empire in Tamil Nadu used bronze to create intricate statues via the lost-wax casting method with ornate detailing depicting the deities of Hinduism . The art form survives to this day, with many silpis, craftsmen, working in the areas of Swamimalai and Chennai . In antiquity other cultures also produced works of high art using bronze. For example: in Africa, the bronze heads of

1980-424: The preferred metal for bells in the form of a high tin bronze alloy known as bell metal , which is typically about 23% tin. Nearly all professional cymbals are made from bronze, which gives a desirable balance of durability and timbre . Several types of bronze are used, commonly B20 bronze , which is roughly 20% tin, 80% copper, with traces of silver, or the tougher B8 bronze made from 8% tin and 92% copper. As

2035-452: The proprietary Oilite and similar material for bearings. Aluminum bronze is hard and wear-resistant, and is used for bearings and machine tool ways. The Doehler Die Casting Co. of Toledo, Ohio were known for the production of Brastil , a high tensile corrosion resistant bronze alloy. The Seagram Building on New York City 's Park Avenue is the "iconic glass box sheathed in bronze, designed by Mies van der Rohe ." The Seagram Building

2090-454: The ready availability of silicon bronze brazing rod, which allows color-matched repair of defects in castings. Aluminum is also used for the structural metal aluminum bronze. Bronze parts are tough and typically used for bearings , clips, electrical connectors and springs . Bronze also has low friction against dissimilar metals, making it important for cannons prior to modern tolerancing , where iron cannonballs would otherwise stick in

2145-674: The resulting alloy was stronger and easier to cast. Also, unlike those of arsenic , metallic tin and the fumes from tin refining are not toxic . Tin became the major non-copper ingredient of bronze in the late 3rd millennium BC. Ores of copper and the far rarer tin are not often found together (exceptions include Cornwall in the United Kingdom, one ancient site in Thailand and one in Iran), so serious bronze work has always involved trade with other regions. Tin sources and trade in ancient times had

2200-471: The shipping of tin around the Mediterranean and from Britain, limiting supplies and raising prices. As the art of working in iron improved, iron became cheaper and improved in quality. As later cultures advanced from hand- wrought iron to machine- forged iron (typically made with trip hammers powered by water), blacksmiths also learned how to make steel . Steel is stronger and harder than bronze and holds

2255-563: The slain birds to Eurystheus as proof of his success. The surviving birds made a new home on the island of Aretias in the Euxine Sea . The Argonauts later encountered them there. According to Mnaseas , they were not birds, but women and daughters of Stymphalus and Ornis, and were killed by Heracles because they did not receive him hospitably. In the temple of the Stymphalian Artemis, however, they were represented as birds, and behind

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2310-513: The south of France, Occitan languages dominated; in east-central France, Franco-Provençal languages were predominant; and in the north of France, Oïl languages other than Francien continued to be spoken. The fascination with classical texts led to numerous borrowings from Latin and Greek . Numerous neologisms based on Latin roots were introduced, and some scholars modified the spelling of French words to bring them into conformity with their Latin roots, sometimes erroneously. That often produced

2365-503: The temple, there were white marble statues of maidens with birds' feet. Chronological listing of the main classical literature sources for the Stymphalian birds (not comprehensive): Regarding the Sophocles source, Jebb says Brunck reads "πτωκάδες" as "πλωάδες" which is an epithet given by Apollonius Rhodius to the Stymphalian birds in Argonautica 2. 1054. Bronze Bronze

2420-469: The tin content in a bell or cymbal rises, the timbre drops. Bronze is also used for the windings of steel and nylon strings of various stringed instruments such as the double bass , piano, harpsichord , and guitar. Bronze strings are commonly reserved on pianoforte for the lower pitch tones, as they possess a superior sustain quality to that of high-tensile steel. Bronzes of various metallurgical properties are widely used in struck idiophones around

2475-439: The unusual and desirable property of expanding slightly just before they set, thus filling the finest details of a mould. Then, as the bronze cools, it shrinks a little, making it easier to separate from the mould. The Assyrian king Sennacherib (704–681 BC) claims to have been the first to cast monumental bronze statues (of up to 30 tonnes) using two-part moulds instead of the lost-wax method . Bronze statues were regarded as

2530-461: The verb in the second position of a sentence, or " verb-second structure ", until the 16th century. Among the elites, Latin was still the language of education, administration, and bureaucracy. That changed in 1539, with the Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts , in which Francis I made French the sole language for legal acts. Regional differences were still extreme throughout the Kingdom of France : in

2585-419: The wide employment of stainless steel owing to its combination of toughness and resistance to salt water corrosion. Bronze is still commonly used in ship propellers and submerged bearings. In the 20th century, silicon was introduced as the primary alloying element, creating an alloy with wide application in industry and the major form used in contemporary statuary . Sculptors may prefer silicon bronze because of

2640-637: The world was by the Roman Bronze Works and General Bronze Corporation in 1952. The material used for the fountain, known as statuary bronze, is a quaternary alloy made of copper, zinc, tin, and lead, and traditionally golden brown in color. This was made for the Andrew W. Mellon Memorial Fountain in Federal Triangle in Washington, DC. Another example of the massive, ornate design projects of bronze, and attributed to General Bronze/Roman Bronze Works were

2695-705: The world, notably bells, singing bowls, gongs , cymbals, and other idiophones from Asia. Examples include Tibetan singing bowls , temple bells of many sizes and shapes, Javanese gamelan , and other bronze musical instruments . The earliest bronze archeological finds in Indonesia date from 1–2 BC, including flat plates probably suspended and struck by a wooden or bone mallet. Ancient bronze drums from Thailand and Vietnam date back 2,000 years. Bronze bells from Thailand and Cambodia date back to 3600 BC. Some companies are now making saxophones from phosphor bronze (3.5 to 10% tin and up to 1% phosphorus content). Bell bronze/B20

2750-520: Was made out of copper and arsenic or from naturally or artificially mixed ores of those metals, forming arsenic bronze . The earliest known arsenic-copper-alloy artifacts come from a Yahya Culture (Period V 3800-3400 BCE) site, at Tal-i-Iblis on the Iranian plateau , and were smelted from native arsenical copper and copper-arsenides, such as algodonite and domeykite . The earliest tin-copper-alloy artifact has been dated to c.  4650 BC , in

2805-468: Was mentioned in the account of Moses holding up a bronze snake on a pole in Numbers Ch.21. In First Kings, it is mentioned that Hiram was very skilled in working with bronze, and he made many furnishings for Solomon's Temple including pillars, capitals, stands, wheels, bowls, and plates, some of which were highly decorative (see I Kings 7:13-47). Bronze was also widely used as battle armor and helmet, as in

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2860-424: Was not only the most expensive building of its time — $ 36 million — but it was the first building in the world with floor-to-ceiling glass walls. Mies van der Rohe achieved the crisp edges that were custom-made with specific detailing by General Bronze and "even the screws that hold in the fixed glass-plate windows were made of brass." Bronze is widely used for casting bronze sculptures . Common bronze alloys have

2915-476: Was on hand; the metal of the 12th-century English Gloucester Candlestick is bronze containing a mixture of copper, zinc, tin, lead, nickel, iron, antimony, arsenic and an unusually large amount of silver – between 22.5% in the base and 5.76% in the pan below the candle. The proportions of this mixture suggest that the candlestick was made from a hoard of old coins. The 13th-century Benin Bronzes are in fact brass, and

2970-587: Was the first time that an entire building was sheathed in bronze. The General Bronze Corporation fabricated 3,200,000 pounds (1,600 tons) of bronze at its plant in Garden City, New York . The Seagram Building is a 38-story, 516-foot bronze-and- topaz -tinted glass building. The building looks like a "squarish 38-story tower clad in a restrained curtain wall of metal and glass." "Bronze was selected because of its color, both before and after aging, its corrosion resistance, and its extrusion properties. In 1958, it

3025-468: Was the hardest metal in widespread use is known as the Bronze Age . The beginning of the Bronze Age in western Eurasia and India is conventionally dated to the mid-4th millennium BC (~3500 BC), and to the early 2nd millennium BC in China; elsewhere it gradually spread across regions. The Bronze Age was followed by the Iron Age starting about 1300 BC and reaching most of Eurasia by about 500 BC, although bronze continued to be much more widely used than it

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