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53-471: The academic foundations of the subject began with classic texts initially from the Orient such as Sun Tzu ’s Art of War and went on to gain a European focus with Carl von Clausewitz ’s On War . Like Clausewitz, many academics in this field reject monocausal theories and hypotheses that reduce the study of conflict to one independent variable and one dependent variable. Already in the late eighteenth century,

106-440: A collection of ancient texts written on unusually well-preserved bamboo slips . Among them were The Art of War and Sun Bin 's Military Methods . Although Han dynasty bibliographies noted the latter publication as extant and written by a descendant of Sun, it had previously been lost. The rediscovery of Sun Bin's work is regarded as extremely important by scholars, both because of Sun Bin's relationship to Sun Tzu and because of

159-400: A colourful mathematician named Dietrich Heinrich von Bülow attempted to establish mathematical formulae for the conduct of war. Carl von Clausewitz rejected Bülow’s approach and his popular claim that warfare could be reduced to positivist, teachable principles of war. Instead of formulae, we find Clausewitz stressing, time and again, that the whole purpose of educating the military commander

212-526: A direct relationship between their modern struggles and those of China in Sun Tzu's time. There is a great perceived value in Sun Tzu's teachings and other traditional Chinese writers, which are used regularly in developing the strategies of the Chinese state and its leaders. Universidade Federal Fluminense The Fluminense Federal University ( Portuguese : Universidade Federal Fluminense , UFF , named after

265-599: A larger category; not all patterns of characteristics will be found in all cases. In recent times, the major conflicts of the nineteenth century and the two World Wars have spurred strategic thinkers such as Mahan , Corbett , Giulio Douhet , Liddell Hart and, later, André Beaufre . The Cold War with its danger of degenerating into a nuclear war produced an expansion of the discipline, with authors like Bernard Brodie , Michael Howard , Raymond Aron , Lucien Poirier , Lawrence Freedman , Colin Gray , and many others. The subject

318-455: A metaphor for rhetoric, and that both are philosophically based arts." Combs writes: "Warfare is analogous to persuasion, as a battle for hearts and minds." Combs compares Taoist and Aristotelian rhetoric, notably for the differences in persuasion. Daoist rhetoric in The Art of War warfare strategies is described as "peaceful and passive, favoring silence over speech". This form of communication

371-551: A minister to King Helü of Wu and dated his lifetime to 544–496 BC. Modern scholars accepting his historicity place the extant text of The Art of War in the later Warring States period of 475 to 221 BC, based on its style of composition and its descriptions of warfare. Traditional accounts state that the general's descendant Sun Bin wrote a treatise on military tactics, also titled The Art of War . Since both Sun Wu and Sun Bin were referred to as "Sun Tzu" in classical Chinese texts, some historians believed them identical, prior to

424-510: A small school of disciples, which eventually included Sun Bin. These descendants or students may have revised or expanded upon certain points in the original text. Skeptics who identify issues with the traditionalist view point to possible anachronisms in The Art of War including terms, technology (such as anachronistic crossbows ), philosophical ideas, events, and military techniques that should not have been available to Sun Wu. Additionally, there are no records of professional generals during

477-649: Is parsimonious . Parsimonious behavior, which is highly emphasized in The Art of War as avoiding confrontation and being spiritual in nature, shapes basic principles in Taoism. In Sun Tzu and the Art of Modern Warfare , Mark McNeilly writes that a modern interpretation of Sun and his importance throughout Chinese history is critical in understanding China's push to become a superpower in the twenty-first century. Modern Chinese scholars explicitly rely on historical strategic lessons and The Art of War in developing their theories, seeing

530-411: Is accepted as a masterpiece on strategy and has been frequently cited and referred to by generals and theorists since it was first published, translated, and distributed internationally. There are numerous theories concerning when the text was completed and concerning the identity of the author or authors, but archeological recoveries show The Art of War had taken roughly its current form by at least

583-638: Is considered one of the main centers of excellence in Brazil, ranked in the 17th (out of 68) national position in the Center for World University Rankings of the best universities and 889th (out of 1000) world position. UFF is among the top 25 universities in Latin America, according to research published by the Webometrics Ranking of World Universities . Besides, UFF has become the sixteenth largest university in

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636-433: Is not to give him a series of answers for the task he will face (the complexities of which cannot be foreseen), but to educate him about different aspects of what will face him so as to let him evaluate the situation for himself, and develop his own strategy. Strategic thinkers on the whole will search for recurrent patterns, which in themselves cannot predict the characteristics of any individual case even if it doubtless fits

689-618: Is taught in Africa, Asia, the Americas, and Europe. In Nigeria, Institute for Peace and Strategic Studies, Nigerian Defence Academy, University of Ibadan, Covenant University and in the Conflict, Peace and Strategic Studies at Afe Babalola University Nigeria and Nassarawa State University Keffi offers Security and Strategic Studies at Masters and Ph.D. Level. In South Africa, the Faculty of Military Science at

742-521: Is very likely Sun Tzu did exist and not only served as a general, but also wrote the core of the book that bears his name. It is argued that there is a disparity between the large-scale wars and sophisticated techniques detailed in the text and the more primitive small-scale battles that many believe predominated in China during the 6th century BC. Against this, Sawyer argues that the teachings of Sun Wu were probably taught to succeeding generations in his family or

795-455: The East Asian context . The meanings of such statements are clearer when interpreted in the context of Taoist thought and practice. Despite its title, The Art of War addresses strategy in a broad fashion, touching upon public administration and planning. The text outlines theories of battle, but also advocates diplomacy and the cultivation of relationships with other nations as essential to

848-647: The Royal Military College in Canada . In Chile , it is taught in the National Academy of Political and Strategic Studies, Ministry of Defense. In the U.S., the subject is taught in many state, private, and military universities, including the University of Missouri , United States Military Academy , United States Air Force Academy , Georgetown University , Johns Hopkins University , Missouri State University ,

901-514: The Russo-Japanese War , was an avid reader of Sun Tzu. Ho Chi Minh translated the work for his Vietnamese officers to study. His general Võ Nguyên Giáp was likewise an avid student and practitioner of Sun Tzu's ideas. Taoist rhetoric is a component incorporated in the Art of War . According to Steven C. Combs in "Sun-zi and the Art of War : The Rhetoric of Parsimony", warfare is "used as

954-634: The Spring and Autumn period ; these are only extant from the Warring States period , so there is doubt as to Sun Tzu's rank and generalship. This caused much confusion as to when The Art of War was actually written. The first traditional view is that it was written in 512 BC by the historical Sun Wu, active in the last years of the Spring and Autumn period ( c.  722 –481 BC). A second view, held by scholars such as Samuel Griffith, places The Art of War during

1007-896: The University of Aberdeen , the University of Exeter , the University of Hull , King's College London , and the University of Leeds (all in the United Kingdom), University of Rome III , Università degli Studi di Milano , University of Turin (all of the three in Italy), the University of Granada (in Spain), the National Defence University (in Finland), the Charles University in Prague , Netherlands Defence College Breda (the Netherlands), and

1060-528: The University of Texas at El Paso , Norwich University , Temple University , the U.S. Army War College , Air University's Air War College , U.S. Naval War College , Marine Corps War College , and the National Defense University . In Asia and the Pacific, it is also taught in several countries. In Bangladesh , it is taught at the national universities, Bangladesh University of Professionals ,

1113-643: The Université Paris 13 Nord SciencesPo (in France), University College Cork (Ireland), University of Warsaw (Poland). In the Americas, it is taught in Chile , Canada , Brazil , Mexico , United States . In Brazil, it is taught at the Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul , Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro , and Universidade Federal Fluminense . In Canada, it is taught in University of Calgary and

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1166-457: The state's demonym ) is a Brazilian public higher education institution located mainly in Niterói and in other cities of Rio de Janeiro state . It was first established on December 18, 1960, with the name of Universidade Federal do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (UFERJ), through an integration of different academic colleges in the city of Niterói. On November 5, 1965, the current name became official. It

1219-788: The National Defense University, and the military academies. In Australia, it is taught in the Australian National University . In New Zealand, it is taught at Victoria University of Wellington . In Singapore, the S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies in Singapore . In Malaysia, University of Malaya . In India , Deen Dyal Upadhyay Gorakhpur University, Savitribai Phule Pune University , University of Allahabad , National Defence Academy , School of International Relations and Strategic Studies SIRSS, University of Mumbai, Rashtriya Raksha university. In Pakistan ,

1272-677: The University of Stellenbosch provides a number of courses in strategic studies from the undergraduate to PhD level. The Faculty of Military Science, co-located at the South African Military Academy in Saldanha, is also involved in the teaching of the discipline at the South African Defence and War Colleges. In Europe, the subject is taught at the University of St Andrews , the University of Reading , Aberystwyth University ,

1325-646: The battlefield that his theories were effective (for example, at the Battle of Boju ), that he had a successful military career, and that he wrote The Art of War based on his tested expertise. However, the Zuozhuan , a historical text written centuries earlier than the Shiji , provides a much more detailed account of the Battle of Boju, but does not mention Sun Tzu at all. Around the 12th century AD, some Chinese scholars began to doubt

1378-532: The book invaluable in ending the time of the Warring States . In the twentieth century, Mao Zedong partially credited his 1949 victory over Chiang Kai-shek and the Kuomintang to The Art of War . The work strongly influenced writings about warfare in Mao's Little Red Book , which further influenced communist insurgencies around the world. The Art of War was introduced into Nara Japan in c.  AD 760 and

1431-610: The book quickly became popular among Japanese military generals. Through its later influence on the Sengoku period "Great Unifiers" of Japan, Oda Nobunaga , Toyotomi Hideyoshi , and Tokugawa Ieyasu , it significantly affected the unification of Japan in the early modern era. After the Meiji Restoration , it remained popular among the Imperial Japanese armed forces . Admiral Tōgō Heihachirō , who led Japan's forces to victory in

1484-445: The book was required reading to pass the tests for imperial appointment to military positions. Sun Tzu's The Art of War uses language that may be unusual in a Western text on warfare and strategy. For example, the eleventh chapter states that a leader must be "serene and inscrutable" and capable of comprehending "unfathomable plans". The text contains many similar remarks that have long confused Western readers lacking an awareness of

1537-642: The city of Niterói. Some schools and institutes are located outside campuses, such as the Along with teaching facilities, UFF is also in charge for the Antônio Pedro University Hospital, Veterinary Hospital, Geraldo Reis University School (Elementary and High School), UFF Arts Center (a cultural complex with art and photographies galleries, cinema, theater, string quartet and choirs and symphonic orchestra), University Pharmacy, Accessibility and Inclusion Office, University Restaurant (low-cost meals for all

1590-427: The company commanders. When Sun Tzu first ordered the concubines to face right, they giggled. In response, Sun Tzu said that the general, in this case himself, was responsible for ensuring that soldiers understood the commands given to them. Then, he reiterated the command, and again the concubines giggled. Sun Tzu then ordered the execution of the king's two favored concubines, to the king's protests. He explained that if

1643-442: The country, the sixth largest public university and the third largest federal university in the country. The university's Cinema and Audiovisual major is also a reference in Brazil. Created in 1968, by filmmaker Nelson Pereira dos Santos, the course is an official cultural heritage of the city of Niterói. UFF was established in 1960, with the name Universidade Federal do Estado do Rio de Janeiro ( UFERJ ). The university began with

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1696-450: The early Han period. Because it is impossible to prove definitively when the Art of War was completed before this date, the differing theories concerning the work's author or authors and date of completion are unlikely to be completely resolved. Some modern scholars believe that it contains not only the thoughts of its original author but also commentary and clarifications from later military theorists, such as Li Quan and Du Mu . Of

1749-463: The enemy should begin only after the enemy has no opportunity to either defend or counterattack. It was used in the wars in the era of the Warring States in ancient China (about 475–221 BC). Those combat combinations had specific names, descriptions and classifications. Sun Tzu's historicity is uncertain. The Han dynasty historian Sima Qian and other traditional Chinese historians placed him as

1802-466: The general's soldiers understood their commands but did not obey, it was the fault of the officers. Sun Tzu also said that, once a general was appointed, it was his duty to carry out his mission, even if the king protested. After both concubines were killed, new officers were chosen to replace them. Afterward, both companies, now well aware of the costs of further frivolity, performed their maneuvers flawlessly. Sima Qian claimed that Sun Tzu later proved on

1855-561: The health of a state. As such, the book has also become popular among political leaders and those in business management . For example, in the 1987 film Wall Street , the protagonist Gordon Gekko frequently cites passages from The Art of War as guiding principles for his aggressive trading techniques. On 10 April 1972, the Yinqueshan Han Tombs were accidentally unearthed by construction workers in Shandong . Scholars uncovered

1908-551: The historical existence of Sun Tzu, primarily on the grounds that he is not mentioned in the historical classic Zuo Zhuan , which mentions most of the notable figures from the Spring and Autumn period. The name "Sun Wu" ( 孫武 ) does not appear in any text prior to the Records of the Grand Historian , and may have been a made-up descriptive cognomen meaning "the fugitive warrior" – the surname "Sun" can be glossed as

1961-514: The inspiration for the creation of the historical figure "Sun Tzu" through a form of euhemerism . The name Sun Wu does appear in later sources such as the Shiji and the Wu Yue Chunqiu , but were written centuries after Sun Tzu's era. The use of the strips in other works, however, such as The Methods of the Sima is considered proof of Sun Tzu's historical priority. According to Ralph Sawyer, it

2014-461: The merger of five existing federal institutions in Niterói, three state institutions and two private colleges, becoming a part of the federal government and being renamed Universidade Federal Fluminense ( Federal Fluminense University ). After a rough start, with a power struggle due to the institutions’ different administrations, the military government ruling at that time imposed a model structure for

2067-410: The middle to late Warring States period ( c.  481 –221 BC). Finally, a third school claims that the slips were published in the last half of the 5th century BC; this is based on how its adherents interpret the bamboo slips discovered at Yinque Shan in 1972. The Art of War is traditionally ascribed to Sun Tzu. It presents a philosophy of war for managing conflicts and winning battles. It

2120-527: The military texts written before the unification of China and Shi Huangdi 's subsequent book burning in the second century BC, six major works have survived. During the much later Song dynasty , these six works were combined with a Tang text into a collection called the Seven Military Classics . As a central part of that compilation, The Art of War formed the foundations of orthodox military theory in early modern China. Illustrating this point,

2173-474: The modern world beyond military strategy and warfare, including espionage, culture, governance, business, and sports. The oldest available sources disagree as to where Sun Tzu was born. The Spring and Autumn Annals and Sima Qian 's later Records of the Grand Historian ( Shiji ) state that Sun Tzu was born in Qi . Both sources also agree that Sun Tzu was born in the late Spring and Autumn period and that he

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2226-448: The rediscovery of Sun Bin's treatise in 1972. Sun Tzu's work has been praised and employed throughout the arc of East Asian military history since its composition, and eventually earned global attention. During the twentieth century, The Art of War grew in popularity and saw practical use in the Western world as well. It remains influential in many contemporary competitive endeavors across

2279-400: The related term "fugitive" ( xùn 遜 ), while "Wu" is the ancient Chinese virtue of "martial, valiant" ( wǔ 武 ), which corresponds to Sun Tzu's role as the hero's doppelgänger in the story of Wu Zixu . The only historical battle attributed to Sun Tzu, the Battle of Boju , has no record of him fighting in that battle. Skeptics cite possible historical inaccuracies and anachronisms in

2332-758: The subject is taught in several universities, but predominantly in Quaid-I-Azam University (QAU), National Defence University (NDU), University of Punjab , and Fatima Jinnah Women's University . Islamabad|National Defence University]], and Islamia college university Peshawar in Pakistan. Turkish War Academy has also Strategic Research Institute (SAREN) in which the subject is taught at both masters and doctoral levels. Sun Tzu Sun Tzu ( / s uː n ˈ d z uː , s uː n ˈ s uː / soon DZOO , soon SOO ; traditional Chinese : 孫子 ; simplified Chinese : 孙子 ; pinyin : Sūnzǐ )

2385-450: The text, and that the book was actually a compilation from different authors and military strategists. Attribution of the authorship of The Art of War varies among scholars and has included people and movements including Sun; Chu scholar Wu Zixu ; an anonymous author; a school of theorists in Qi or Wu ; Sun Bin ; and others. Sun Bin appears to have been an actual person who was a genuine authority on military matters, and may have been

2438-669: The university has academic unities in other cities inside the Rio de Janeiro state, being the Federal University present in the highest number of municipalities in the country. UFF is also part of the CEDERJ Consortium, which teaches distance learning undergraduation courses through centers located in the Rio de Janeiro state. There are three major campuses in the city: Gragoatá Campus, Praia Vermelha Campus, and Valonguinho Campus. Additionally, several courses are located off-campuses in

2491-415: The university to its units and departments. Following the country's tradition in other institutions at the time, the main aim of the university was academic training, focusing on resources to qualify citizens for professional development. Research had a more formal role, and extension programs had different functions, with the main aim to offer services to the community. Today, these remain the three pillars of

2544-429: The university. In the 1990s, UFF expanded and began to offer new programs in campuses in different towns in regional areas if Rio de Janeiro state. From these programs, new departments and colleges were established. In the 2000s, these regional units were known as University Centers (Pólos Universitários da UFF). Its headquarters and the major number of UFF unities are located in the city of Niterói . Besides Niterói,

2597-509: The vast expanse of fertile territory in Eastern China. One of the better-known stories about Sun Tzu, taken from Sima Qian, illustrates Sun Tzu's temperament as follows: Before hiring Sun Tzu, the King of Wu tested Sun Tzu's skills by commanding him to train a harem of 180 concubines into soldiers. Sun Tzu divided them into two companies, appointing the two concubines most favored by the king as

2650-573: The work's addition to the body of military thought in Chinese late antiquity. The discovery as a whole significantly expanded the body of surviving Warring States military theory. Sun Bin's treatise is the only known military text surviving from the Warring States period discovered in the twentieth century and bears the closest similarity to The Art of War of all surviving texts. Sun Tzu's Art of War has influenced many notable figures. The Han dynasty historian Sima Qian recounted that China's first historical emperor , Qin 's Shi Huangdi , considered

2703-423: Was Sun Wu ( traditional Chinese : 孫武 ; simplified Chinese : 孙武 ) and he was known outside of his family by his courtesy name Changqing ( Chinese : 長卿 ). The name Sun Tzu —by which he is more popularly known—is an honorific which means "Master Sun ". Sun Tzu mastered the military science of ancient China and created the military doctrine of asymmetrical warfare. According to it, an attack on

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2756-547: Was a Chinese military general , strategist , philosopher , and writer who lived during the Eastern Zhou period (771–256 BC). Sun Tzu is traditionally credited as the author of The Art of War , an influential work of military strategy that has affected both Western and East Asian philosophy and military thought. Sun Tzu is revered in Chinese and East Asian culture as a legendary historical and military figure. His birth name

2809-427: Was active as a general and strategist, serving King Helü of Wu in the sixth century BC, beginning around 512 BC. Sun Tzu's victories then inspired him to write The Art of War . The Art of War was one of the most widely read military treatises in the subsequent Warring States period , a time of constant war among seven ancient Chinese states— Zhao , Qi , Qin , Chu , Han , Wei , and Yan —who fought to control

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