42-501: The State Committee on the State of Emergency (Russian: Госуда́рственный комите́т по чрезвыча́йному положе́нию , romanized : Gosudárstvenny komitét po chrezvycháynomu polozhéniyu , IPA: [ɡəsʊˈdarstvʲɪn(ː)ɨj kəmʲɪˈtʲet pə tɕrʲɪzvɨˈtɕæjnəmʊ pəlɐˈʐɛnʲɪjʊ] ), abbreviated as GKChP (Russian: ГКЧП ) and nicknamed the Gang of Eight , was a self-proclaimed political body in
84-581: A Red Army officer who was killed in action during World War II . He graduated from the Law School of the Moscow State University in 1953, while also being a member of the Communist Youth League (Komsomol). During his years in law school, he befriended Mikhail Gorbachev , who was also studying there at the time, becoming an early political ally of the future leader. He went on to earn
126-442: A native Russian keyboard layout ( JCUKEN ). In the latter case, they would type using a system of transliteration fitted for their keyboard layout , such as for English QWERTY keyboards, and then use an automated tool to convert the text into Cyrillic. There are a number of distinct and competing standards for the romanization of Russian Cyrillic , with none of them having received much popularity, and, in reality, transliteration
168-611: A Latin alphabet for the Russian language was discussed in 1929–30 during the campaign of latinisation of the languages of the USSR , when a special commission was created to propose a latinisation system for Russian. The letters of the Latin script are named in Russian as following (and are borrowed from French and/or German ): Anatoly Lukyanov Anatoly Ivanovich Lukyanov ( Russian : Анатолий Иванович Лукьянов , 7 May 1930 – 9 January 2019)
210-828: A post-graduate degree in Constitutional Law and a PhD in Public Law . From 1956 to 1961 Lukyanov worked as a legal adviser at the Legal Commission of the Soviet Council of Ministers . He later was an adviser on legislation-drafting at the Supreme Soviet and worked on constitutional law issues at the Central Committee. He also served as a constitutional adviser to the governments of the Polish People's Republic and
252-577: Is often carried out without any consistent standards. Scientific transliteration, also known as the International Scholarly System , is a system that has been used in linguistics since the 19th century. It is based on the Czech alphabet and formed the basis of the GOST and ISO systems. OST 8483 was the first Soviet standard on romanization of Russian, introduced on 16 October 1935. Developed by
294-689: Is the main system of the Oxford University Press, and a variation was used by the British Library to catalogue publications acquired up to 1975. The Library of Congress system (ALA-LC) is used for newer acquisitions. The BGN/PCGN system is relatively intuitive for Anglophones to read and pronounce. In many publications, a simplified form of the system is used to render English versions of Russian names, typically converting ë to yo , simplifying -iy and -yy endings to -y , and omitting apostrophes for ъ and ь . It can be rendered using only
336-645: The Hungarian People's Republic . All the while he benefited from being constantly based in Moscow, at the center of government. In 1975-77 he worked on drafting the 1977 Soviet Constitution , which replaced the 1936 Soviet Constitution . From 1977 till 1983 he was Chief of the Secretariat of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union . He was also a leading member of the powerful Central Auditing Commission . Lukyanov
378-554: The Russian language (the transliteration of Russian text from the Cyrillic script into the Latin script ), aside from its primary use for including Russian names and words in text written in a Latin alphabet, is also essential for computer users to input Russian text who either do not have a keyboard or word processor set up for inputting Cyrillic, or else are not capable of typing rapidly using
420-609: The Soviet Union that existed from 19 to 21 August 1991. It included a group of eight high-level Soviet officials within the Soviet government , the Communist Party , and the KGB , who attempted a coup d'état against Mikhail Gorbachev on 19 August 1991. The coup ultimately failed, with the provisional government collapsing by 22 August 1991 and several of the conspirators being prosecuted by
462-533: The State Duma issued an amnesty to the defense, and on 1 March 1994, the case was closed with all ten defendants accepting amnesty . Varennikov requested amnesty on the condition that Mikhail Gorbachev would be the next to be prosecuted, as he accused Gorbachev of creating the recent political disorder. The court rejected his petition, and upon Varennikov sending his request to the Prosecutor General's office, it
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#1732848251586504-679: The Supreme Court of the Russian Federation . From 22 to 29 August 1991, former members of the dissolved SCSE and who actively assisted them were arrested , but from June 1992 to January 1993, they were all released on their own recognizance . In April 1993, the trial began. On 23 February 1994, the defendants in the SCSE case were amnestied by the State Duma of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation , despite Yeltsin's objection. One of
546-456: The British Library since 1975. The formal, unambiguous version of the system for bibliographic cataloguing requires some diacritics, two-letter tie characters , and prime marks. The standard is also often adapted as a "simplified" or "modified Library of Congress system" for use in text for a non-specialized audience, omitting the special characters and diacritics, simplifying endings, and modifying iotated initials. British Standard 2979:1958
588-529: The Latin Alphabet is an adoption of ISO 9:1995 . It is the official standard of both Russia and the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). GOST 52535.1-2006 Identification cards. Machine readable travel documents. Part 1. Machine readable passports is an adoption of an ICAO standard for travel documents. It was used in Russian passports for a short period during 2010–2013 ( see below ). The standard
630-653: The National Administration for Geodesy and Cartography at the USSR Council of Ministers , GOST 16876-71 has been in service since 1973. Replaced by GOST 7.79-2000. This standard is an equivalent of GOST 16876-71 and was adopted as an official standard of the COMECON . GOST 7.79-2000 System of Standards on Information, Librarianship, and Publishing–Rules for Transliteration of the Cyrillic Characters Using
672-779: The Prosecutor General of Russia Valentin Stepankov approved the indictment in the GKChP case. It was sent to the Military Collegium of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation. Anatoliy Ukolov, a deputy chairman of the Collegiate, was charged with reviewing the case, and the hearing was scheduled for 26 January 1993. The defendants included the aforementioned seven living members of the group plus Oleg Shenin (1937–2009), Politburo and secretariat member; Anatoly Lukyanov (1930–2019), Chairman of
714-576: The Russian Federation ( 1993 , 1995 and 1999 ). His last political position was as Chairman of the Duma Committee on Constitutional Law. He did not participate in the elections of 2003 and instead became a board member of the company OEG Petroservis. Lukyanov was found dead in his Moscow home on 9 January 2019, at the age of 88, after suffering from an unspecified illness. He was buried at Troyekurovskoye Cemetery in Moscow on 11 January. The Lukyanov Doctrine in Russian academic parlance may bear
756-558: The Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union; and Valentin Varennikov (1923–2009), General of the Army, Deputy Minister of Defense, and Commander of Land Forces. The trials lasted more than ten months, from 14 April 1993 until 1 March 1994. They were open to the public and press; however, foreign press did not participate due to lack of space in the courtroom. A prosecution commission was assigned to
798-785: The amnesty offered by the Russians stating that he was not guilty. He was dismissed from military service by the Presidential Order, and at his discharge, was awarded a ceremonial weapon. He was also awarded an order of honor by the President of Russian Federation . Yazov later worked as a military adviser at the General Staff Academy . He died in 2020 in Moscow, after a prolonged illness. Baklanov spent 18 months in Matrosskaya Tishina, and then accepted amnesty in 1994, stating that he
840-599: The basic letters and punctuation found on English-language keyboards: no diacritics or unusual letters are required, although the interpunct character (·) may be used to avoid ambiguity. This particular standard is part of the BGN/PCGN romanization system which was developed by the United States Board on Geographic Names and by the Permanent Committee on Geographical Names for British Official Use . The portion of
882-472: The case by the Collegiate, consisting of nine people and headed by Denisov, a Deputy Prosecutor General. The defense attorneys, Genri Reznik (Shenin), Genrikh Padva, Yuriy Ivanov (Kryuchkov), and Dmitriy Shteinberg (Varennikov) were hired, but in total, there were seventeen defense attorneys. After various delay tactics staged by the defense, the trial began on 30 November 1993. The main defendants were Yazov, Kryuchkov, Shenin, and Varennikov. On 23 February 1994,
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#1732848251586924-513: The coup; Pugo himself died from two gunshots to the head on 22 August 1991. His death was ruled a suicide . However, by January 1993, all of the arrested GKChP members had been released from custody pending trial. On 23 February 1994, the State Duma declared amnesty for all GKChP members and their accomplices, along with the participants of the October 1993 crisis . The 1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt , occurring between 19 and 21 August 1991,
966-460: The defendants, General V.I. Varennikov, refused to accept the amnesty and his trial continued, which he ultimately won. Diplomatic support came from several countries, such as Afghanistan , China , Cuba , Iraq , Laos , Libya , North Korea , Palestine Liberation Organization , Vietnam , Socialist Republic of Serbia , and Socialist Republic of Montenegro . The eight members were: All but Pugo were arrested and tried with treason following
1008-492: The introduction of a dedicated Latin alphabet for writing the Russian language. Such an alphabet would not necessarily bind closely to the traditional Cyrillic orthography. The transition from Cyrillic to Latin has been proposed several times throughout history (especially during the Soviet era), but was never conducted on a large scale, except for informal romanizations in the computer era. The most serious possibility of adoption of
1050-473: The new system and the old one, citizens who wanted to retain the old version of a name's transliteration, especially one that had been in the old pre-2010 passport, could apply to the local migration office before they acquired a new passport. The standard was abandoned in 2013. In 2013, Order No. 320 of the Federal Migration Service of Russia came into force. It states that all personal names in
1092-502: The passports must be transliterated by using the ICAO system , which is published in Doc 9303 " Machine Readable Travel Documents, Part 3 ". The system differs from the GOST R 52535.1-2006 system in two things: ц is transliterated into ts (as in pre-2010 systems), ъ is transliterated into ie (a novelty). In a second sense, the romanization or Latinization of Russian may also indicate
1134-409: The prosecution of the SCSE, blamed the occurrence of the 1991 coup attempt on Gorbachev, implying that the leader should not have taken a vacation at the time. However, in an interview with Komsomol Pravda, Ukolov also mentioned how the members of GKChP chose not to follow the letter of law , but rather to take the situation into their own hands. Romanization of Russian The romanization of
1176-494: The system pertaining to the Russian language was adopted by BGN in 1944 and by PCGN in 1947. In Soviet international passports , transliteration was based on French rules but without diacritics and so all names were transliterated in a French-style system . In 1997, with the introduction of new Russian passports , a diacritic-free English-oriented system was established by the Russian Ministry of Internal Affairs , but
1218-447: The system was also abandoned in 2010. In 2006, GOST R 52535.1-2006 was adopted, which defines technical requirements and standards for Russian international passports and introduces its own system of transliteration. In 2010, the Federal Migration Service of Russia approved Order No. 26, stating that all personal names in the passports issued after 2010 must be transliterated using GOST R 52535.1-2006. Because of some differences between
1260-657: The use of diacritics) that faithfully represents the original and allows for reverse transliteration for Cyrillic text in any contemporary language. The UNGEGN , a Working Group of the United Nations , in 1987 recommended a romanization system for geographical names, which was based on the 1983 version of GOST 16876-71 . It may be found in some international cartographic products. American Library Association and Library of Congress (ALA-LC) romanization tables for Slavic alphabets are used in North American libraries and in
1302-555: Was a Russian Communist politician who was the Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR between 15 March 1990 and 4 September 1991. One of the founders of the Communist Party of the Russian Federation (CPRF) in 1993, he was described by its leader Gennady Zyuganov as having been the Deng Xiaoping of the party. He published books of poetry under his own name and under the pseudonyms Osenev (Осенев) and Dneprov (Днепров). Lukyanov
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1344-663: Was a secretary of the CPSU Central Committee from January 1987 and a candidate member of the Politburo from September 1988. Lukyanov was elected vice-chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union in March 1989, and chairman the following year. In 1991, Boris Yeltsin and Ivan Silayev accused him of being the leading force behind the Soviet coup attempt of 1991 . Lukyanov was arrested on 29 August 1991, and held for fifteen months on charges of conspiracy. On September 4, he
1386-595: Was acquitted on the argument that he was following the orders of Minister of Defense. Kryuchkov, Yazov, Shenin, and Pavlov were named as the main conspirators. Yazov spent 18 months in Matrosskaya Tishina , a prison in northern Moscow . According to the magazine Vlast No. 41(85) of 14 October 1991, he contacted the President from jail with a recorded video message, in which he repented and called himself "an old fool". Yazov denies ever doing that, and he also accepted
1428-472: Was an attempt by the SCSE to take control of the country from then President of the Soviet Union , Mikhail Gorbachev. The SCSE were hard-line members of the Communist Party ( CPSU ) who were opposed to Gorbachev's reform program and the new union treaty he had negotiated, which dispersed much of the central government's power to the republics. The coup collapsed after only two days, and although Gorbachev
1470-449: Was an early political ally of Mikhail Gorbachev , supporting his efforts in issues such as the fight against corruption and the start of reforms in the economy. However, beginning in 1987–1988, he increasingly sympathized with the party establishment, correctly foreseeing that Gorbachev's policies would lead to the Soviet collapse . Lukyanov was born in Smolensk on 7 May 1930, the son of
1512-453: Was not guilty, and later became the head of the Chasprombank . Pavlov resigned from the bank on 31 August 1995, and six months later the bank was left without license. Afterwards he was an adviser at Promstroybank , today known as Bank VTB . Pavlov died in 2003 after a series of heart attacks and was buried in Moscow. According to Vzglyad , Anatoliy Ukolov, the original person charged with
1554-496: Was not guilty. He later worked as a director of Rosobshchemash . Yanayev spent 18 months in Matrosskaya Tishina. He later became a chairman of the department of national history at the Russian International Academy of Tourism. Pavlov had been taken to a hospital during the coup with the diagnosis of hypertension , but on 29 August 1991, he was transferred to Matrosskaya Tishina. He accepted amnesty stating that he
1596-476: Was rejected again. Ten days after the close, the Presidium of the Supreme Court revived the prosecution , ruling that procedural infringements regarding the amnesty had occurred. The Presidium arranged a new hearing and assigned a new judge, Viktor Aleksandrovich Yaskin . He conducted the case review using revised court procedures. Yaskin offered the defendants amnesty, and all but Varennikov accepted it. Varennikov
1638-519: Was relieved of his post as speaker of the union parliament. Throughout the investigation, Lukyanov denied complicity. Lukyanov was the Chairman of the Central Advisory Council of the Communist Party of the Russian Federation , and the senior adviser to party leader Gennady Zyuganov , since co-founding the party in 1993. Lukyanov was elected as a deputy to the first three State Dumas of
1680-448: Was restored as president, his authority was irreparably damaged and he became less influential outside of Moscow. The event destabilized the Soviet Union and many speculate that it played a role in both the demise of the CPSU and the dissolution of the Soviet Union . After the coup failed, the seven living members of the SCSE were arrested. On December 14, 1992, a year after the attempted coup,
1722-458: Was substituted in 2013 by GOST R ISO/ IEC 7501-1-2013, which does not contain romanization, but directly refers to the ICAO romanization ( see below ). Names on street and road signs in the Soviet Union were romanized according to GOST 10807-78 (tables 17, 18), which was amended by newer Russian GOST R 52290-2004 (tables Г.4, Г.5), the romanizations in both the standards are practically identical. ISO/R 9, established in 1954 and updated in 1968,
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1764-559: Was the adoption of the scientific transliteration by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). It covers Russian and seven other Slavic languages. ISO 9:1995 is the current transliteration standard from ISO. It is based on its predecessor ISO/R 9:1968, which it deprecates; for Russian, the two are the same except in the treatment of five modern letters. ISO 9:1995 is the first language-independent, univocal system of one character for one character equivalents (by
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