Start-1 is a Russian satellite launch vehicle based on the RT-2PM Topol , a Soviet intercontinental ballistic missile developed by Moscow Institute of Thermal Technology .
66-641: The Start-1 launch vehicle derives its name from the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START I) between the United States and the Soviet Union . The START I treaty called for both sides to limit their nuclear arsenals to 6,000 nuclear warheads atop a total of 1,600 ICBMs , SLBMs , and bombers . This led to a lot of surplus ICBMs on both sides, including the Soviet Topol. After the collapse of
132-567: A domino effect known as Kessler syndrome . NASA's Orbital Debris Program tracks over 25,000 objects larger than 10 cm diameter in LEO, while the estimated number between 1 and 10 cm is 500,000, and the number of particles bigger than 1 mm exceeds 100 million. The particles travel at speeds up to 7.8 km/s (28,000 km/h; 17,500 mph), so even a small impact can severely damage a spacecraft. [REDACTED] This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of
198-404: A semi-major axis of 8,413 km (5,228 mi). For circular orbits, this in turn corresponds to an altitude of 2,042 km (1,269 mi) above the mean radius of Earth, which is consistent with some of the upper altitude limits in some LEO definitions. The LEO region is defined by some sources as a region in space that LEO orbits occupy. Some highly elliptical orbits may pass through
264-736: A 13,000-pound (5,900 kg) steel blade dropped from a crane. The guillotine sliced four times on each plane, which severed the wings and left the fuselage in three pieces. The dissected B-52s remained in place for three months so that Russian satellites could confirm that the bombers had been destroyed, and they were then sold for scrap. After the collapse of the Soviet Union , treaty obligations were passed to twelve Soviet successor states. Of those, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan each eliminated its one nuclear-related sites, and on-site inspections were discontinued. Inspections continued in Belarus, Kazakhstan,
330-453: A collision risk to the many LEO satellites. No human spaceflights other than the lunar missions of the Apollo program (1968-1972) and the 2024 Polaris Dawn have taken place beyond LEO. All space stations to date have operated geocentric within LEO. A wide variety of sources define LEO in terms of altitude . The altitude of an object in an elliptic orbit can vary significantly along
396-467: A commencement address at his alma mater, Eureka College , on 9 May 1982, and presented by Reagan in Geneva on 29 June 1982. He proposed a dramatic reduction in strategic forces in two phases, which he referred to as SALT III. The first phase would reduce overall warhead counts on any missile type to 5,000, with an additional limit of 2,500 on ICBMs . Additionally, a total of 850 ICBMs would be allowed, with
462-522: A limit of 110 "heavy throw" missiles like the SS-18 and additional limitations on the total "throw weight" of the missiles. The second phase introduced similar limits on heavy bombers and their warheads, as well as other strategic systems. The US then had a commanding lead in strategic bombers. The aging B-52 force was a credible strategic threat but was equipped with only AGM-86 cruise missiles beginning in 1982 because of Soviet air defense improvements in
528-528: A protocol containing additional rights and obligations regarding the treaty provisions, and technical annexes. The limits were based on rigorous analysis conducted by Department of Defense planners in support of the 2010 Nuclear Posture Review. These aggregate limits consist of 1,550 nuclear warheads, which include warheads on deployed intercontinental ballistic missiles ( ICBM ), warheads on deployed submarine-launched ballistic missiles ( SLBM ), and even any deployed heavy bomber equipped for nuclear armaments. That
594-629: A reasonable plan of action towards the goal of disarmament. Negotiations for START I began in May 1982, but continued negotiation of the START process was delayed several times because US agreement terms were considered nonnegotiable by pre-Gorbachev Soviet rulers. Reagan's introduction of the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) program in 1983 was viewed as a threat by the Soviets, who withdrew from setting
660-534: A satellite into a LEO, and a satellite there needs less powerful amplifiers for successful transmission, LEO is used for many communication applications, such as the Iridium phone system . Some communication satellites use much higher geostationary orbits and move at the same angular velocity as the Earth as to appear stationary above one location on the planet. Unlike geosynchronous satellites , satellites in low orbit have
726-441: A small field of view and can only observe and communicate with a fraction of the Earth at a given time. This means that a large network (or constellation ) of satellites is required to provide continuous coverage. Satellites at lower altitudes of orbit are in the atmosphere and suffer from rapid orbital decay , requiring either periodic re-boosting to maintain stable orbits, or the launching of replacements for those that re-enter
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#1732856135501792-549: A stable low Earth orbit is about 7.8 km/s (4.8 mi/s), which translates to 28,000 km/h (17,000 mph). However, this depends on the exact altitude of the orbit. Calculated for a circular orbit of 200 km (120 mi) the orbital velocity is 7.79 km/s (4.84 mi/s), but for a higher 1,500 km (930 mi) orbit the velocity is reduced to 7.12 km/s (4.42 mi/s). The launch vehicle's delta-v needed to achieve low Earth orbit starts around 9.4 km/s (5.8 mi/s). The pull of gravity in LEO
858-433: A subset of LEO. These orbits, with low orbital inclination , allow rapid revisit times over low-latitude locations on Earth. Prograde equatorial LEOs also have lower delta-v launch requirements because they take advantage of the Earth's rotation. Other useful LEO orbits including polar orbits and Sun-synchronous orbits have a higher inclinations to the equator and provide coverage for higher latitudes on Earth. Some of
924-471: A time. It includes a standard withdrawal clause like most other arms control agreements. Subsequent treaties have superseded the treaty. Low Earth orbit A low Earth orbit ( LEO ) is an orbit around Earth with a period of 128 minutes or less (making at least 11.25 orbits per day) and an eccentricity less than 0.25. Most of the artificial objects in outer space are in LEO, peaking in number at an altitude around 800 km (500 mi), while
990-512: A timetable for further negotiations. In January 1985, however, US Secretary of State George Shultz and Soviet Foreign Minister Andrei Gromyko discussed a formula for a three-part negotiation strategy that included intermediate-range forces, strategic defense, and missile defense. During the Reykjavík Summit between Reagan and Gorbachev in October 1986, negotiations towards the implementation of
1056-457: A total of 1,600 intercontinental ballistic missiles ( ICBMs ) and bombers. START negotiated the largest and most complex arms control treaty in history, and its final implementation in late 2001 resulted in the removal of about 80% of all strategic nuclear weapons then in existence. Proposed by US President Ronald Reagan , it was renamed START I after negotiations began on START II . The treaty expired on 5 December 2009. On 8 April 2010,
1122-414: Is 74% fewer than the limit set in the 1991 Treaty and 30% fewer than the limit of the 2002 Treaty of Moscow . Both parties will also be limited to 800 deployed and non-deployed ICBM launchers, SLBM launchers, and heavy bombers equipped with nuclear armaments. There is also a separate limit of 700 deployed ICBMs, deployed SLBMs, and deployed heavy bombers equipped for nuclear armaments, which is less than half
1188-667: Is derived from the RT-2PM Topol ICBM. The first three stages of the Topol missile are used as the first three stages of the Start-1 rocket and are essentially unmodified for their new purpose. A fourth stage, specially developed by the Moscow Institute of Thermal Technology , and the payload shroud take the place of the nuclear warhead and are the main differences between the Topol ICBM and
1254-472: Is mobile, allowing for the Start-1 to potentially launch from anywhere. The Start-1 launches from an unmodified Topol Transporter-Erector-Launcher (TEL). The TEL is a massive fourteen-wheeled vehicle, six of which pivot for steering. The launch vehicle is transported and launched inside a mobile Transport and Launch Carrier (TLC) carried by the TEL. The TLC consists of an air-tight composite cylinder that protects
1320-496: Is only slightly less than on the Earth's surface. This is because the distance to LEO from the Earth's surface is much less than the Earth's radius. However, an object in orbit is in a permanent free fall around Earth, because in orbit the gravitational force and the centrifugal force balance each other out. As a result, spacecraft in orbit continue to stay in orbit, and people inside or outside such craft continuously experience weightlessness . Objects in LEO orbit Earth between
1386-509: Is open to a Russian proposal to use radar in Azerbaijan rather than Eastern Europe for the proposed missile system. The George W. Bush administration insisted that the Eastern Europe defense system was intended as a deterrent for Iran , but Russia feared that it could be used against itself. The flexibility by both sides to make compromises now will lead to a new phase of arms reduction in
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#17328561355011452-619: The Israel Institute of Technology ; EKA, a Russian dummy test satellite; and UNAMSAT A, an amateur radio satellite built by the Autonomous University of Mexico . The rocket, however, failed not too long after liftoff, dumping debris and its payload into the Sea of Okhotsk . Little information has come forth from the Russian government as to what caused the rocket to fail, or even whether or not
1518-537: The US Senate Foreign Relations Committee (SFRC), and the Institute for Defense Analyses (IDA). The CBO estimates assumed that the full-implementation cost would consist of a one-time cost of $ 410 to 1,830 million and that the continuing annual costs would be $ 100 to 390 million. The SFRC had estimates of $ 200 to 1,000 million for one-time costs and that total inspection costs over the 15 years of
1584-514: The Eurasian landmass. Although the Soviets had 1,200 medium and heavy bombers, only 150 of them ( Tupolev Tu-95s and Myasishchev M-4s ) could reach North America (the latter only by in-flight refueling). They also faced difficulty penetrating US airspace, which was smaller and less defended. Having too few bombers available compared to US bomber numbers was evened out by the US forces being required to penetrate
1650-557: The LEO region near their lowest altitude (or perigee ) but are not in a LEO orbit because their highest altitude (or apogee ) exceeds 2,000 km (1,243 mi). Sub-orbital objects can also reach the LEO region but are not in a LEO orbit because they re-enter the atmosphere . The distinction between LEO orbits and the LEO region is especially important for analysis of possible collisions between objects which may not themselves be in LEO but could collide with satellites or debris in LEO orbits. The mean orbital velocity needed to maintain
1716-880: The Russian Federation, and Ukraine. Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine became non-nuclear weapons states under the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons on 1 July 1968 and are committed to it under the 1992 Lisbon Protocol (Protocol to the Treaty Between the United States of America and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics on the Reduction and Limitation of Strategic Offensive Arms). Belarus , Kazakhstan , and Ukraine have disposed of all their nuclear weapons or transferred them to Russia. The US and Russia have reduced
1782-468: The SS-19, Russia reportedly used SS-25 missiles to assemble space-launch vehicles. The issue that the US had was that it did not have accurate numbers and locations of Russian ICBMs with those violations. The dispute was resolved in 1995. START I expired on 5 December 2009, but both sides agreed to keep observing the terms of the treaty until a new agreement was reached. There are proposals to renew and expand
1848-448: The START I Treaty occurred in 1994. It was announced by Arms Control and Disarmament Agency Director John Holum in a congressional testimony that Russia had converted its SS-19 ICBM into a space-launch vehicle without notifying the appropriate parties. Russia justified the incident by claiming it did not have to follow all of START's reporting policies regarding missiles that had been recreated into space-launch vehicles. In addition to
1914-730: The START Program were accelerated and turned towards the reduction of strategic weapons after the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty was signed in December 1987. However, a dramatic nuclear arms race proceeded in the 1980s. It ended in 1991 with nuclear parity preservation with 10,000 strategic warheads on both sides. The verification regimes in arms control treaties contain many tools to hold parties accountable for their actions and violations of their treaty agreements. The START Treaty verification provisions were
1980-474: The Soviet Union, Russia took over responsibility for executing the treaty. The Russian government decided to dispose of some of their ICBMs by using them as launch vehicles, which was an allowed method of disposal under the treaty. Modification of the ICBMs into launch vehicles was carried out by the Moscow Institute of Thermal Technology (MITT), which also designed the Topol missile. On March 25, 1993 (13:15 UTC ),
2046-546: The Soviet Union. That feature of the proposal will almost certainly prompt the Soviets to charge that it is unfair and one-sided. No doubt some American arms-control advocates will agree, accusing the Administration of making the Kremlin an offer it cannot possibly accept—a deceptively equal-looking, deliberately nonnegotiable proposal that is part of what some suspect is the hardliners' secret agenda of sabotaging disarmament so that
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2112-509: The Soviet airspace, which is much larger and more defended. That changed in 1984, when new Tu-95 MS and Tu-160 bombers appeared and were equipped with the first Soviet AS-15 cruise missiles. By limiting the phasing in, it was proposed that the US would be left with a strategic advantage for a time. As Time magazine put it, "Under Reagan's ceilings, the US would have to make considerably less of an adjustment in its strategic forces than would
2178-519: The Start program has been canceled. START I START I ( Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty ) was a bilateral treaty between the United States and the Soviet Union on the reduction and the limitation of strategic offensive arms. The treaty was signed on 31 July 1991 and entered into force on 5 December 1994. The treaty barred its signatories from deploying more than 6,000 nuclear warheads and
2244-551: The Start-1 rocket, simply called Start , was developed in parallel with the Start-1 program. Start differed from Start-1 by using the second stage of the Start-1 twice, giving it a total of five stages. With the extra stage, payload to low Earth orbit was increased to 850 kg. The first (and, so far, only) launch of the Start rocket occurred on 28 March 1995 from LC158 at the Plesetsk Cosmodrome . The Start rocket carried Gurwin, an Israeli amateur radio satellite built by
2310-427: The Start-1 rocket. Additionally, a Post-Boost Propulsion System (PBPS) may be added between the fourth stage and the payload to circularize the orbit of the payload if necessary. The PBPS provides propulsion using a solid-propellant nitrogen gas generator. The gas goes through three pairs of nozzles that can swivel to maneuver the payload. The Start-1 rocket is unique amongst launch vehicles in that its launch platform
2376-560: The Start-1 was conducted on April 25, 2006, with the launch of the Israeli EROS B Earth observation satellite. The launch received more coverage than usual because of the tensions between Israel and Iran at the time. While the Eros B satellite is commercial, its primary customer is the Israeli government, which could use it to spy on Iranian military and nuclear facilities. After EROS B launch
2442-402: The US and Russia in the two years since Obama had taken office. On 4 May 2009, the US and Russia began renegotiating START and counting nuclear warheads and their delivery vehicles in making a new agreement. While setting aside problematic issues between the two countries, both sides agreed to make further cuts in the number of warheads deployed to around 1,000 to 1,500 each. The US said that it
2508-508: The US can get on with the business of rearmament." However, Time pointed out, "The Soviets' monstrous ICBMs have given them a nearly 3-to-1 advantage over the US in 'throw weight'—the cumulative power to 'throw' megatons of death and destruction at the other nation." Three institutes ran studies in regards to the estimated costs that the US government would have to pay to implement START I: the Congressional Budget Office (CBO),
2574-506: The US, which had deployed intermediate-range missiles in Europe. In January 1985, US Secretary of State George Shultz and Soviet Foreign Minister Andrey Gromyko negotiated a three-part plan, including strategic weapons, intermediate missiles, and missile defense. It received a lot of attention at the Reykjavik Summit between Ronald Reagan and Mikhail Gorbachev and ultimately led to
2640-433: The atmosphere. The effects of adding such quantities of vaporized metals to Earth's stratosphere are potentially of concern but currently unknown. The LEO environment is becoming congested with space debris because of the frequency of object launches. This has caused growing concern in recent years, since collisions at orbital velocities can be dangerous or deadly. Collisions can produce additional space debris, creating
2706-539: The capacity of delivery vehicles to 1,600 each, with no more than 6,000 warheads. A report by the US State Department , "Adherence to and Compliance With Arms Control, Nonproliferation and Disarmament Agreements and Commitments," was released on 28 July 2010 and stated that Russia was not in full compliance with the treaty when it expired on 5 December 2009. The report did not specifically identify Russia's compliance issues. One incident concerning Russia violating
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2772-424: The corresponding strategic nuclear delivery vehicle limit imposed in the previous treaty. Although the new restrictions have been set, the new treaty does not contain any limitations regarding the testing, developing, or deploying current or planned US missile defense programs and low-range conventional strike capabilities. The duration of the new treaty is ten years and can be extended for no more than five years at
2838-417: The cost of the implementation of the treaty about twenty times over. The other risk associated with START was the failure of compliance on the side of Russia. The US Senate Defence Committee expressed concerns that Russia could covertly produce missiles, produce false numbers regarding the numbers of warheads, and monitor cruise missiles. The Joint Chiefs of Staff assessment of those situations determined
2904-439: The cost of the program for the US. After the treaty's implementation, the former Soviet Union's stock of nuclear weapons fell from 12,000 to 3,500. The US would also save money since it would not have to be concerned with the upkeep and innovations of its nuclear forces. The CBO estimated that would amount to a total saving of $ 46 billion in the first five years of the treaty and around $ 130 billion until 2010, which would pay for
2970-455: The denser part of the atmosphere and below the inner Van Allen radiation belt . They encounter atmospheric drag from gases in the thermosphere (approximately 80–600 km above the surface) or exosphere (approximately 600 km or 400 mi and higher), depending on orbit height. Satellites in orbits that reach altitudes below 300 km (190 mi) decay quickly due to atmospheric drag. Equatorial low Earth orbits ( ELEO ) are
3036-575: The early 1980s. The US had begun to introduce the new B-1B Lancer quasi-stealth bomber as well and was secretly developing the Advanced Technology Bomber (ATB) project, which would eventually result in the B-2 Spirit stealth bomber. The Soviet force was of little threat to the US, on the other hand, as it was tasked almost entirely with attacking US convoys in the Atlantic and land targets on
3102-495: The farthest in LEO, before medium Earth orbit (MEO), have an altitude of 2,000 kilometers, about one-third of the radius of Earth and near the beginning of the inner Van Allen radiation belt . The term LEO region is used for the area of space below an altitude of 2,000 km (1,200 mi) (about one-third of Earth's radius). Objects in orbits that pass through this zone, even if they have an apogee further out or are sub-orbital , are carefully tracked since they present
3168-420: The first Start-1 rocket was launched from Plesetsk Cosmodrome with a non-commercial payload. The first commercial launch was conducted almost four years later on March 4, 1997, from Svobodny Cosmodrome with a Russian payload. Since that time all flights of the Start-1 have been conducted from Svobodny. Currently, the Russian company United Start Launch manages the Start-1 program. The most notable flight of
3234-647: The first generation of Starlink satellites used polar orbits which provide coverage everywhere on Earth. Later Starlink constellations orbit at a lower inclination and provide more coverage for populated areas. Higher orbits include medium Earth orbit (MEO), sometimes called intermediate circular orbit (ICO), and further above, geostationary orbit (GEO). Orbits higher than low orbit can lead to early failure of electronic components due to intense radiation and charge accumulation. In 2017, " very low Earth orbits " ( VLEO ) began to be seen in regulatory filings. These orbits, below about 450 km (280 mi), require
3300-470: The future. A "Joint understanding for a follow-on agreement to START-1" was signed by Obama and Medvedev in Moscow on 6 July 2009 to reduce the number of deployed warheads on each side to 1,500–1,675 on 500–1,100 delivery systems. A new treaty was to be signed before START-1 expired in December 2009, with reductions to be achieved within seven years. After many months of negotiations, Obama and Medvedev signed
3366-446: The launch vehicle and payload from variations in temperature and humidity. The TLC lies in the middle of the TEL lengthwise and bisects the driver's cab in two. Before launch, the TEL is moved to the launch pad where it deploys four stabilizing jacks which lift the whole vehicle off the ground. Approximately 90 seconds before the launch, the TLC ejects the protective front nose cone, exposing
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#17328561355013432-445: The most complicated and demanding of any agreement at the time by providing twelve different types of inspection. Data exchanges and declarations between parties became required and included exact quantities, technical characteristics, locations, movements, and the status of all offensive nuclear threats. The national technical means of verification (NTM) provision protected satellites and other information-gathering systems controlled by
3498-426: The orbit. Even for circular orbits , the altitude above ground can vary by as much as 30 km (19 mi) (especially for polar orbits ) due to the oblateness of Earth's spheroid figure and local topography . While definitions based on altitude are inherently ambiguous, most of them fall within the range specified by an orbit period of 128 minutes because, according to Kepler's third law , this corresponds to
3564-430: The project ended due to small size of small satellite market and loss of business to other small launchers. Around 2016 thanks to the increase of the small satellite market and approaching end of life of Topol missiles MITT and RVSN management started to float the idea of resuming launches. In late 2018 MITT secured funding for the resumption. MITT plans to start launching again in early 2022. The Start-1 launch vehicle
3630-401: The rearmament to commence in 2011 with an increased army, naval, and nuclear capabilities. Also, the head of Russia's strategic missile forces, Nikolai Solovtsov, told news agencies that Russia would start deploying its next-generation RS-24 missiles after the 5 December expiry of the START I. Russia hopes to form a new treaty. The increased tensions came despite the warming of relations between
3696-608: The replacement New START Treaty was signed in Prague by US President Barack Obama and Russian President Dmitry Medvedev . Following its ratification by the US Senate and the Federal Assembly of Russia , the treaty went into force on 5 February 2011, extending deep reductions of American and Soviet or Russian strategic nuclear weapons through February 2026. The START proposal was first announced by US President Ronald Reagan in
3762-415: The risk of a significant treaty violation within acceptable limits. Another risk would be the ability of Russia to perform espionage during the inspection of US bases and military facilities. The risk was also determined to be an acceptable factor by the assessment. Considering the potential savings from the implementation of START I and its relatively-low risk factor, Reagan and the US government deemed it
3828-426: The rocket so that it can launch. The TLC then is raised to a vertical position. During the launch sequence, the TEL uses compressed gas to force the rocket out of the TLC. Once the rocket reaches a height of approximately 30 meters (the height of the top of the TLC in the vertical position), the first stage ignites. The time from first-stage ignition to spacecraft separation is approximately 15 minutes. A version of
3894-654: The signing of the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty in December 1987. Talk of a comprehensive strategic arms reduction continued, and the START Treaty was officially signed by US President George H. W. Bush and Soviet General Secretary Gorbachev on 31 July 1991. There were 375 B-52s flown to the Aerospace Maintenance and Regeneration Center at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base , in Arizona. The bombers were stripped of all usable parts and chopped into five pieces by
3960-549: The sphere of disarmament" but said that he was waiting for the US to abandon attempts to "surround Russia with a missile defense ring" in reference to the placement of ten interceptor missiles in Poland and accompanying radar in the Czech Republic . On 17 March 2009, Medvedev signaled that Russia would begin "large-scale" rearmament and renewal of Russia's nuclear arsenal. He accused NATO of expanding near Russian borders and ordered
4026-406: The successor treaty, Measures to Further Reduction and Limitation of Strategic Offensive Arms , in Prague , Czech Republic , on 8 April 2010. The New START Treaty imposed even more limitations on the United States and Russia by reducing them to significantly-less strategic arms within seven years of its entering full force. Organized into three tiers, the new treaty focuses on the treaty itself,
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#17328561355014092-572: The treaty would be $ 1,250 to 2,050 million. Finally, the IDA estimated only the verification costs, which it claimed to be around $ 760 million. In addition to the costs of implementing the treaty, the US also aided the former Soviet republics with the Cooperative Threat Reduction Program (Nunn-Lugar Program) , which added $ 591 million to the costs of implementing the START I program in the former Soviet Union, which would almost double
4158-440: The treaty's integrity by providing a regulatory system handled by a representative from the verifying side at all times. In addition, access to telemetry from ballistic missile flight tests was required, including exchanges of tapes and a ban on encryption and encapsulation from both parties. Negotiations that led to the signing of the treaty began in May 1982. In November 1983, the Soviet Union "discontinued" communication with
4224-588: The treaty, supported by US President Barack Obama . Sergei Rogov , director of the Institute of the U.S. and Canada, said: "Obama supports sharp reductions in nuclear arsenals, and I believe that Russia and the U.S. may sign in the summer or fall of 2009 a new treaty that would replace START-1." He added that a new deal would happen only if Washington abandoned plans to place elements of a missile shield in Central Europe . He expressed willingness "to make new steps in
4290-412: The use of novel technologies for orbit raising because they operate in orbits that would ordinarily decay too soon to be economically useful. A low Earth orbit requires the lowest amount of energy for satellite placement. It provides high bandwidth and low communication latency . Satellites and space stations in LEO are more accessible for crew and servicing. Since it requires less energy to place
4356-537: The verifying side, as they helped to verify adherence to international treaties. The international technical means of verification provision protected the multilateral technical systems specified in other treaties. Co-operative measures were established to facilitate verification by the NTM and included displaying items in plain sight and not hiding them from detection. The new on-site inspections (OSI) and Perimeter and Portal Continuous Monitoring (PPCM) provisions helped to maintain
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