111-517: Stane Street is the modern name of the 91 km-long (57 mi) Roman road in southern England that linked Londinium (London) to Noviomagus Reginorum ( Chichester ). The exact date of construction is uncertain; however, on the basis of archaeological artefacts discovered along the route, it was in use by 70 AD and may have been built in the first decade of the Roman occupation of Britain (as early as 43–53 AD). Stane Street shows clearly
222-447: A phosphate mineral) is also sometimes present, as nodules or as small pellets interpreted as fecal pellets. In some chalk beds, the calcite has been converted to dolomite , CaMg(CO 3 ) 2 , and in a few cases the dolomitized chalk has been dedolomitized back to calcite. Chalk is highly porous, with typical values of porosity ranging from 35 to 47 per cent. While it is similar in appearance to both gypsum and diatomite , chalk
333-678: A 23° turn to the south, to allow it to reach the Upper Chalk of the North Downs more quickly. It has been suggested that the road bends somewhat more sharply than was strictly necessary, possibly to avoid the Hogsmill Spring , which may have held religious significance for the local British tribes. A second change in alignment occurs where the Epsom to Sutton railway line cuts across the road. The section from Thirty Acres Barn, Ashtead to Mickleham Downs
444-541: A guard post or larger encampment defending the ford over the River Mole) and at Pixham (where there may have been a Roman villa). As the route of Stane Street leaves Dorking, the underlying geology changes from Lower Greensand to impermeable Weald Clay . From North Holmwood to Ockley (a distance of 5.5 km (3 mi)), the exact route has been confirmed by a series of excavations. Much of this section remains in good condition (albeit buried below ground level), although
555-529: A significant contribution to our current understanding and formed the basis of the relevant chapter in Ivan Margary 's book Roman Ways in the Weald , published in 1948. Margary number 15 is assigned to the road. Several sections of Stane Street, including the mansiones at Alfoldean and Hardham, are listed as scheduled monuments. A 32 m (105 ft) length of Stane Street at Redlands Wood near South Holmwood
666-457: A solid 30 cm-thick (1 ft) mass, topped with a double layer of sandstone slats. Although the actual width of the metalling varies from place to place, the average width of the paved road is 7.4 m (24 ft), or 25 Roman pedes . This is wider than the average 6.51 m (21.4 ft) or 22 pedes for Roman roads in Britain. The distance between the outer ditches also varies and
777-650: A system of forts in the lowland region c. 80 –220 to control the indigenous population beyond Hadrian's Wall and annexed the Lowlands briefly with the construction of the Antonine Wall in 164. This barrier, across the 'neck' of Scotland, from the Firth of Clyde to the Firth of Forth , was held for twenty years. The Romans' main routes from Hadrian's Wall to the Antonine Wall, built by c. 120 , were: There
888-633: Is mined from chalk deposits both above ground and underground . Chalk mining boomed during the Industrial Revolution , due to the need for chalk products such as quicklime and bricks . Most people first encounter chalk in school where it refers to blackboard chalk , which was originally made of mineral chalk, since it readily crumbles and leaves particles that stick loosely to rough surfaces, allowing it to make writing that can be readily erased. Blackboard chalk manufacturers now may use mineral chalk, other mineral sources of calcium carbonate, or
999-469: Is also used for " blackboard chalk " for writing and drawing on various types of surfaces, although these can also be manufactured from other carbonate-based minerals, or gypsum . Chalk is a fine-textured, earthy type of limestone distinguished by its light colour, softness, and high porosity. It is composed mostly of tiny fragments of the calcite shells or skeletons of plankton , such as foraminifera or coccolithophores . These fragments mostly take
1110-428: Is applied to the hands and feet to remove perspiration and reduce slipping. Chalk may also be used as a house construction material instead of brick or wattle and daub : quarried chalk was cut into blocks and used as ashlar , or loose chalk was rammed into blocks and laid in mortar. There are still houses standing which have been constructed using chalk as the main building material. Most are pre- Victorian though
1221-518: Is commonly used as a drying agent to obtain better grip by gymnasts and rock climbers. Glazing putty mainly contains chalk as a filler in linseed oil . Chalk and other forms of limestone may be used for their properties as a base . Chalk is a source of quicklime by thermal decomposition , or slaked lime following quenching of quicklime with water. In agriculture , chalk is used for raising pH in soils with high acidity . Small doses of chalk can also be used as an antacid . Additionally,
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#17328511027761332-560: Is difficult to identify sites with certainty. Approximately every 12 mi (19 km) – a typical day's journey for an ox-drawn wagon – was a mansio (literally: "a sojourn", from which derive the English word "mansion" and French maison or "house"). This was a full-scale wayside inn, with large stables, tavern, rooms for travellers and even bath-houses in the larger establishments. Mansiones also housed detachments of troops, primarily auxiliaries, who regularly garrisoned and patrolled
1443-506: Is identifiable by its hardness, fossil content, and its reaction to acid (it produces effervescence on contact). In Western Europe, chalk was formed in the Late Cretaceous Epoch and the early Palaeocene Epoch (between 100 and 61 million years ago). It was deposited on extensive continental shelves at depths between 100 and 600 metres (330 and 1,970 ft), during a time of nonseasonal (likely arid) climate that reduced
1554-571: Is now usually made of talc (magnesium silicate). Chalk beds form important petroleum reservoirs in the North Sea and along the Gulf Coast of North America. In southeast England, deneholes are a notable example of ancient chalk pits. Such bell pits may also mark the sites of ancient flint mines, where the prime object was to remove flint nodules for stone tool manufacture. The surface remains at Cissbury are one such example, but perhaps
1665-515: Is overlain by the A29. The general alignment is a straight line sighted from Brockham Warren (on Box Hill ) to Borough Hill (near North Heath ), although the modern road deviates from the original route of Stane Street for short distances, especially around Slinfold . The modern roads also curve away from the straight alignment through Billingshurst, however in this instance, the Roman road is thought to have done
1776-475: Is simply an old spelling of "stone" ( Old English : stān ) which was commonly used to differentiate paved Roman roads from muddy native trackways. The name of the road is first recorded as Stanstret in both the 1270 Feet of Fines and the 1279 Assizes Rolls of Ockley . Some historical sources refer to the road as 'Stone Street'. There is no surviving record of the road's original Roman name. A number of first-century pottery fragments have been found along
1887-534: Is taken from Wade of Germanic and Norse mythology . English place names continue to reflect the settlement of Britain by the Anglo-Saxons. As these Germanic Pagan peoples advanced westward across the British isles, they encountered the decaying infrastructure of the former Roman Empire. Many settlements were founded on or near Roman roads (suffix -street e.g. Watling Street). The prefix strat-, strait-, streat-
1998-411: Is well preserved and is listed as a scheduled monument . A 2020 Lidar survey revealed that Stane Street was built across an earlier field system , although it is unclear whether the area was under active cultivation at the time of construction. The considerable evidence of both Bronze Age and Iron Age activity on Mickleham Downs suggests that a pre-existing early trackway was adapted and straightened by
2109-616: The Via Aemilia in northern Italy by the Emperor Augustus (reigned 37 BC – AD 14), two centuries after it was first built. After the final withdrawal of Roman government and troops from Britain in 410, regular maintenance ended on the road network. Repairs became intermittent and based on ad hoc work. Despite the lack of any national management of the highways, Roman roads remained fundamental transport routes in England throughout
2220-620: The Cretaceous Period was named for these deposits. The name Cretaceous was derived from Latin creta , meaning chalk . Some deposits of chalk were formed after the Cretaceous. The Chalk Group is a European stratigraphic unit deposited during the late Cretaceous Period. It forms the famous White Cliffs of Dover in Kent , England, as well as their counterparts of the Cap Blanc Nez on
2331-502: The Early , High and Late Middle Ages . Systematic construction of paved highways did not resume until the building of the first turnpikes in the early 18th century. Extant remains of Roman roads are often much degraded or contaminated by later surfacing. Well-preserved sections of structures sometimes identified as Roman roads include Wade's Causeway in Yorkshire , and at Blackpool Bridge in
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#17328511027762442-473: The Forest of Dean , although their integrity as original Roman surfaces is not certain. In many places, Roman roads were built over in the 18th century to create the turnpikes . Where they have not been built over, many sections have been ploughed over by farmers and some stripped of their stone to use on turnpike roads. There are numerous tracts of Roman road which have survived, albeit overgrown by vegetation, in
2553-523: The London Clay . The road is able to make a more gentle ascent of the South Downs escarpment at Bignor than was possible at East Lavington and the chosen route avoids the need to cross the steep-sided River Lavant valley at East Dean . No evidence survives as to how the course of the road was surveyed. For much of its length, Stane Street consisted of a central agger (a raised embankment on which
2664-506: The River Arun valley to Pulborough . The direct survey line was followed only for the northernmost 20 km (12 mi) from London to Ewell . At no point does the road lie more than 10 km (6 mi) from the direct line from London Bridge to Chichester. Today the Roman road is easily traceable on modern maps. Much of the route is followed by the A3 , A24 , A29 and A285, although most of
2775-489: The agger and the boundary ditches were used by pedestrians and animals, and were sometimes lightly metalled . The agger was sometimes, but not always, bordered by deep ditches to take rainwater and keep the road structure as dry as possible. The metalling was in two layers, a foundation of medium to large stones covered by a running surface, often a compacted mixture of smaller flint and gravel. About one quarter of road pavements were "bottomed" with large stones, mostly in
2886-409: The bedding or as nodules in seams , or linings to fractures , embedded in chalk. It is probably derived from sponge spicules or other siliceous organisms as water is expelled upwards during compaction. Flint is often deposited around larger fossils such as Echinoidea which may be silicified (i.e. replaced molecule by molecule by flint). Chalk is so common in Cretaceous marine beds that
2997-573: The withdrawal of the Roman legions in 410, the road system soon fell into disrepair . Large sections were abandoned and lost. Parts of the network were retained by the Anglo-Saxons , eventually becoming integral routes in Anglo-Saxon Britain . The earliest roads, built in the first phase of Roman occupation (the Julio-Claudian period, AD 43–68), connected London with the ports used in
3108-423: The 3rd century onwards with the emergence of Saxon seaborne raiding as a major and persistent threat to the security of Britannia . These roads linked to the coastal defensive line of Saxon Shore forts such as Brancaster ( Branodunum ), Burgh Castle ( Gariannonum ) near Great Yarmouth , Lympne ( Portus Lemanis ) and Pevensey ( Anderitum ). Standard Roman road construction techniques, long evolved on
3219-516: The 5 km (3 mi) 'gap' between the Mole crossing and North Holmwood , Stane Street is thought to have passed through Dorking which was a Romano-British settlement. In the 1960s, the historian Ivan Margary proposed that the road headed directly for the town centre from the Burford Bridge, an alignment that would have taken it beneath the present day Ashcombe School site. However, excavations in
3330-555: The A2003 follows the general route as it left the town to the south. The confirmed alignment reappears in the south of North Holmwood, close to the junction of the A24 dual carriageway and Spook Hill. Based on the distance from Alfoldean (some 18.3 km (11.4 mi) to the town centre), there would be expected to have been a mansio in the Dorking area. Numerous excavations and chance findings along
3441-447: The A29 today), was probably maintained as a local link. Similarly, the 8 km (5 mi) stretch of road to the east of Chichester was a useful route to ascend onto the South Downs (and is followed by the A285 today). Elsewhere the road was lightly used and was most likely quarried in the decades following the end of Roman rule, to provide stone to for local construction. Particularly where
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3552-624: The Continent , were used. A road occupied a wide strip of land bounded by shallow ditches, varying in width from 86 pedes (25.5 m or 84 ft) on Ermin Way in Berkshire to 338 pedes (100 m or 330 ft) on Akeman Street in Oxfordshire . A trunk road in Britain would typically be 5–8 m (16–26 ft) in width, with a gauge of 7 m (23 ft) being the most common. Watling Street
3663-724: The Emperor in whose reign they were completed, such as the Via Traiana from Rome to Brindisi in southern Italy which was named after the Emperor Trajan (98–117). As the Dover to London section of Watling Street was begun in the years following the Roman invasion of Britain in 43, it may have been known to the Romano-Britons as the Via Claudia in honour of Emperor Claudius (41–54) who led
3774-704: The Hardham mansio , following a well-drained sandstone ridge east to Lewes . At Westhampnett, near the Rolls-Royce works, the Roman coastal road, which became the older A27 road, branches at the mini-roundabout. The Roman road continues via Broadwater , Sompting , Lancing (along a road still named The Street) and part of the Old Shoreham Road (the A270) through to Novus Portus (around modern Portslade ). The military importance of Stane Street appears to have declined through
3885-698: The North American interior. Chalk is also found in western Egypt (Khoman Formation) and western Australia ( Miria Formation ). Chalk of Oligocene to Neogene age has been found in drill cores of rock under the Pacific Ocean at Stewart Arch in the Solomon Islands . There are layers of chalk, containing Globorotalia , in the Nicosia Formation of Cyprus , which formed during the Pliocene . Chalk
3996-516: The Roman Empire. The cursus was primarily concerned with the carriage of government or military officers, government payload such as monies from tax collection and for military wages, and official despatches, but it could be made available to private individuals with special permission and for a fee. In Britain, the Vindolanda tablets , a series of letters written on wooden tablets to and by members of
4107-411: The Roman army. Responsibility for their regular repair and maintenance rested with designated imperial officials (the curatores viarum ), though the cost would probably have been borne by the local civitas (county) authorities whose territory the road crossed. From time to time, the roads would be completely resurfaced and might even be entirely rebuilt, e.g. the complete reconstruction and widening of
4218-400: The Roman equivalent of motorway service areas . Roughly every 4 mi (6.4 km) – the most a horse could safely be ridden hard – there would be a mutatio (literally: "a change"), essentially stables where mounted messengers could change horses and a tavern to obtain refreshment. Cavalrymen from auxiliary mixed infantry- and cavalry- regiments ( cohortes equitatae ) provided most of
4329-456: The Romans, to create this part of Stane Street. The confirmed route reaches the southwestern corner of Mickleham Downs close to Juniper Hall Field Centre , but from there south, the course is more uncertain. Stane Street is thought to have taken the same route as the modern B2209, the surface of which has been worn down over centuries of use to produce the sunken lane visible today. The footpath on
4440-525: The South Downs at Clayton . From Rowhook a road went northwest to Farley Heath at the foot of the North Downs where it passes through a Roman temple site. To the north of Pulborough another road branched off in a southeasterly direction to meet the Greensand Way at Wiggonholt . It is unclear whether it continued beyond this towards Storrington . The Sussex Greensand Way diverges from Stane Street at
4551-473: The amount of erosion from nearby exposed rock. The lack of nearby erosion explains the high purity of chalk. The coccolithophores, foraminifera, and other microscopic organisms from which the chalk came mostly form low-magnesium calcite skeletons, so the sediments were already in the form of highly stable low-magnesium calcite when deposited. This is in contrast with most other limestones, which formed from high-magnesium calcite or aragonite that rapidly converted to
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4662-557: The archaeological artefacts uncovered. A rare example of a Roman barrow , a circular mound roughly 32 m (105 ft) in diameter and 3.4 m (11 ft) high, survives in Morden Park approximately 350 m (380 yd) west of the road. From Morden , Stane Street passes through Sutton Common and forms the northern boundary of Sutton . The name 'Sutton' is derived from Old English sūth and tūn , meaning "the south enclosure", which may relate to its position in relation to
4773-444: The army's despatch-riders ( dispositi ). Relays of fresh riders and horses careering at full gallop could sustain an average speed of about 20 mph (32 km/h). Thus an urgent despatch from the army base at York to London – 200 mi (320 km), a journey of over a week for a normal mounted traveller – could be delivered in just 10 hours. Because mutationes were relatively small establishments, and their remains ambiguous, it
4884-480: The centre and had a pronounced camber . Around Merton Priory , the surface consisted of sub-rounded flints and gravel embedded in sand and silt. Close to Tyrell's Wood and Mickleham Downs, Stane Street consisted of water-washed pebbles laid directly onto the chalk, which are thought to have given this section its local name, 'Pebble Lane'. Near to the Alfoldean station the metalling was constructed from iron slag in
4995-621: The construction of the Antonine Wall in 140. The core network was complemented by a number of routes built primarily for commercial, rather than military, purposes. Examples include: in Kent and Sussex , three certain roads leading from London to the important iron-mining area of the Weald ; and in East Anglia , the road from Colchester to Norwich, Peddars Way and the Fen Causeway . These eastern and southern routes acquired military importance from
5106-402: The course through the modern county of Surrey has either been completely abandoned or is followed only by bridlepaths . Earthworks associated with the road are visible in many places where the course is not overlain by modern roads. Several parts of Stane Street are listed as scheduled monuments , including the well-preserved section from Mickleham Downs to Thirty Acres Barn, Ashtead . Stane
5217-461: The customary dedication to the current Emperor and the number of miles to a particular destination. Only three provide additional information: two are dedicated by the public works departments of a civitas (county) ( Dobunni ) and a city (Lincoln), showing the involvement of local authorities in road maintenance; and the third records that the Emperor Caracalla (reigned 211–217) "restored
5328-477: The direct London Bridge-Pulborough alignment at this point, but turns instead to the east. This section of Stane Street is largely flat, with the exception of the hill at Rowhook , 86 m (282 ft) above OD, which the A29 avoids. Just to the south of the steep descent from Rowhook through Roman Woods, the road crossed the River Arun. Some of the timber piles on which the bridge was built are still present in
5439-506: The distances between them, though the remains would now be hidden under modern development. Alternative sites for the posting stations have also been suggested at Ewell, the Burford Bridge (where the road crossed the River Mole ) and Pixham (where the road is thought to have crossed the Pipp Brook ). The northernmost section of Stane Street, from London Bridge to Ewell, is the only part of
5550-619: The early 18th century. The Roman road network remained the only nationally managed highway system within Britain until the establishment of the Ministry of Transport in the early 20th century. Prior to the Romans pre-Roman Britons mostly used unpaved trackways for travel. These routes, many of which had prehistoric origins , followed elevated ridge lines across hills, such as the South Downs Way . Although most routes were unpaved tracks, some British tribes had begun engineering roads during
5661-417: The engineering principles that the Romans used when building roads. A straight-line alignment from London Bridge to Chichester would have required steep crossings of the North Downs , Greensand Ridge and South Downs . The road was therefore designed to exploit a natural gap in the North Downs cut by the River Mole and to pass to the east of the high ground of Leith Hill , before following flatter land in
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#17328511027765772-485: The entirety of the route. Since Belloc was not a trained surveyor, his work on the route to the north of Dorking contained significant inaccuracies, which W. A. Grant (a former captain in the Royal Engineers ) attempted to address in his critical review, published in 1922. Excavations carried out by the amateur archaeologist S. E. Winbolt , detailed in his book With a spade on Stane Street , first published in 1936, made
5883-535: The final 7 km (4.3 mi) stretch into Chichester. It has been suggested that the section of road between Chichester and Hardham was the first part of Stane Street to be constructed and that (based on archaeological finds) the Romans straightened and improved an existing Iron Age trackway. At least five Roman roads are known to have had junctions with Stane Street. The London to Brighton Way road diverged at Kennington Park , before passing through Croydon , Godstone , Haywards Heath and Burgess Hill to cross
5994-584: The first century BC. Beginning in AD ;43, the Romans quickly created a national road network. Engineers from the Roman army, in most cases, surveyed and built them from scratch. Key locations, both strategic and administrative, were connected by the most direct routes possible. Main roads were gravel or paved , had bridges constructed in stone or wood, and manned waypoints where travellers or military units could stop and rest. The roads' impermeable design permitted travel in all seasons and weather. Following
6105-512: The form of calcite plates ranging from 0.5 to 4 microns in size, though about 10% to 25% of a typical chalk is composed of fragments that are 10 to 100 microns in size. The larger fragments include intact plankton skeletons and skeletal fragments of larger organisms, such as molluscs , echinoderms , or bryozoans . Chalk is typically almost pure calcite, CaCO 3 , with just 2% to 4% of other minerals. These are usually quartz and clay minerals , though collophane (cryptocrystalline apatite ,
6216-519: The garrison of Hadrian's Wall, show the operation of the cursus on the island. Milestones , of which 95 are recorded in Roman Inscriptions of Britain . Most of these date from the later part of the Roman period (AD250 onwards), since it was the practice to replace a road's milestones when a major repair was carried out. Milestones were usually cylindrical and 2–4 m (6 ft 7 in – 13 ft 1 in) in height. Most contain only
6327-479: The goods crossed fixed toll points along the roads, which likely were located in or near mansiones . At least half a dozen sites have been positively identified as mansiones in Britain, e.g. the excavated mansio at Godmanchester ( Durovigutum ) on Ermine Street (near Huntingdon , Cambridgeshire ). Mutationes and mansiones were the key infrastructure for the cursus publicus (the imperial postal and transport system), which operated in many provinces of
6438-519: The invasion ( Chichester and Richborough ), and with the earlier legionary bases at Colchester , Lincoln ( Lindum ), Wroxeter ( Viroconium ), Gloucester and Exeter . The Fosse Way , from Exeter to Lincoln, was also built at this time to connect these bases with each other, marking the effective boundary of the early Roman province. During the Flavian period (AD 69–96), the roads to Lincoln, Wroxeter and Gloucester were extended (by CE 80) to
6549-507: The lack of written and inscribed sources. This is in contrast to surviving routes in Italy and other Roman provinces within western Europe. In Britain, most major such routes bear Welsh , early Anglo-Saxon or later Middle English names, ascribed after the end of Roman rule in Britain (during the period known as the Early Middle Ages ). This means that the toponym of a road is not based on
6660-408: The legionary bases at Eboracum ( York ), Deva Victrix ( Chester ) and Isca Augusta ( Caerleon ). By 96, further extensions were completed from York to Corbridge , and from Chester to Luguvalium ( Carlisle ) and Segontium ( Caernarfon ) as Roman rule was extended over Cambria ( Wales ) and northern England ( Brigantia ). Stanegate , the military road from Carlisle to Corbridge,
6771-512: The length of the High Street (from Pump Corner in the west to Pippbrook House in the east) have produced coins, pottery sherds and other items that indicate a Roman presence. There was also a Roman villa nearby at Abinger Hammer . Both Margary and the writer, Hilaire Belloc , proposed that the mansio was located at the western end of the High Street, in the 'triangle' between West Street and South Street. Excavations taking place in 2013, during
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#17328511027766882-575: The major legionary bases by AD 80 as the frontier of the Roman-occupied zone advanced: Later a large number of other cross-routes and branches were grafted onto this basic network. After Boudica's Revolt , London ( Londinium ) commanded the major bridge across the Thames connecting the final northern and western legionary bases with the Kentish ports communicating with Boulogne ( Gesoriacum ) and
6993-545: The mid-2000s at Westhumble and Denbies Wine Estate failed to find any trace of the road along his proposed route. The current consensus is that this section of Stane Street most likely lies under the A24 dual carriageway. Excavations in the 1970s and 1980s (in Horsham Road and Church Street respectively) uncovered sections of road in Dorking: however, they could not be conclusively identified as Stane Street. It seems likely that
7104-524: The mid-third century. The team's view was that the site had been an administrative and taxation centre for the Wealden iron industry . A geophysical survey of the Hardham mansio was carried out in 1997, which revealed that the station was roughly square with a total area of 1.4 ha (3.5 acres). Much of the western side was destroyed by the construction of the Pulborough to Midhurst railway , but evidence of
7215-636: The military campaign. The only well-documented name which might be etymologically linked to an original Roman name is the Fosse Way between Exeter and Lincoln , which may derive from fossa , the Latin word for "ditch". But this is likely to be attributable to a popular, rather than official, Roman name for the route. Generally, those Roman roads in Britain which are named look to Anglo-Saxon giants and divinities . For instance, Wade's Causeway in North Yorkshire
7326-640: The mineral calcite and originally formed deep under the sea by the compression of microscopic plankton that had settled to the sea floor . Chalk is common throughout Western Europe , where deposits underlie parts of France, and steep cliffs are often seen where they meet the sea in places such as the Dover cliffs on the Kent coast of the English Channel . Chalk is mined for use in industry, such as for quicklime , bricks and builder's putty , and in agriculture , for raising pH in soils with high acidity . It
7437-528: The mineral gypsum ( calcium sulfate ). While gypsum-based blackboard chalk is the lowest cost to produce, and thus widely used in the developing world , use of carbonate-based chalk produces larger particles and thus less dust, and it is marketed as "dustless chalk". Coloured chalks, pastel chalks, and sidewalk chalk (shaped into larger sticks and often coloured), used to draw on sidewalks , streets, and driveways , are primarily made of gypsum rather than calcium carbonate chalk. Magnesium carbonate chalk
7548-406: The more stable low-magnesium calcite after deposition, resulting in the early cementation of such limestones. In chalk, absence of this calcium carbonate conversion process prevented early cementation, which partially accounts for chalk's high porosity. Chalk is also the only form of limestone that commonly shows signs of compaction. Flint (a type of chert ) is very common as bands parallel to
7659-557: The most famous is the extensive complex at Grimes Graves in Norfolk . Chalk was traditionally used in recreation. In field sports, such as tennis played on grass, powdered chalk was used to mark the boundary lines of the playing field or court. If a ball hits the line, a cloud of chalk or pigment dust will be visible. In recent years, powdered chalk has been replaced with titanium dioxide . In gymnastics, rock-climbing, weightlifting and tug of war , chalk — now usually magnesium carbonate —
7770-551: The north and south gateways, as well as traces of the outer ditches, remain. Cremation burials dating from the late Iron Age and early Romano-British periods have been found both inside and just outside of the enclosure, however, their relationship to the rest of the mansio is unclear. The Hardham station is thought to have become disused by the end of the second century AD. Given its length, Stane Street would be expected to have had two further mansiones . Stations at Merton Priory and Dorking are considered most likely, based on
7881-594: The north and west where stone was more readily available. Some high-status roads in Italy were bound together by volcanic mortar , and a small minority of excavated sites in Britain have shown concrete or limestone mortar. Road surfaces in the iron-producing areas of the Weald were made from iron slag . The average depth of metalling over 213 recorded roads is about 51 cm (20 in), with great variation from as little as 10 cm (4 in) to up to 4 m (13 ft) in places, probably built up over centuries. The main trunk roads were originally constructed by
7992-430: The northern end of Stane Street, is approximately 60 m (197 ft) east of the modern bridge. From there the route heads southwestwards, but between Borough and Elephant & Castle tube stations , it deviates from the direct line to Chichester to run along Newington Causeway , most likely to avoid marshy ground to the east. It then continues southwestwards as Kennington Park Road and Clapham Road. The course of
8103-626: The original Roman nomenclature for naming highways within Britannia Superior or Britannia Inferior . For example, the Anglo-Saxons used the name Watlingestrate for the entire route from Dover / Portus Ritupis to Wroxeter , via Londinium (London) ; it is one of four former Roman roads ( Latin : cammini ) named as public rights of way under the Laws of Edward the Confessor in the early 11th century. Official road names were usually taken from
8214-645: The other side of the Dover Strait . The Champagne region of France is mostly underlain by chalk deposits, which contain artificial caves used for wine storage . Some of the highest chalk cliffs in the world occur at Jasmund National Park in Germany and at Møns Klint in Denmark . Chalk deposits are also found in Cretaceous beds on other continents, such as the Austin Chalk , Selma Group , and Niobrara Formations of
8325-491: The outer ditches was measured as 28 m (92 ft). Through Eartham Woods where the Monarch's Way long-distance path follows the route, the flint surface of the well-preserved road is exposed and the trees are mostly cut back to the boundary ditches. The A285 joins the route at the western side of Eartham Woods, although it leaves the alignment almost immediately to avoid the ascent of Halnaker Hill , before rejoining again for
8436-573: The rebuilding of the Waitrose supermarket in South Street, failed to produce any significant finds of Roman origin that might support the presence of either a posting station or even Stane Street itself in this area. Alternative sites for the mansio have also been suggested at the Burford Bridge (the 'bur' part of the name is derived from the Old English burh meaning a fortified site, which may reference
8547-621: The reigns of Titus (79–81), Domitian (81–96), Nerva (96–98), Hadrian (117–138), Commodus (180–192), Severus Alexander (222–235), Gallienus (260–268), Claudius Gothicus (268–270) and Constantine the Great (306–337). The direct line from London Bridge to Chichester passes over the North Downs at Ranmore (200 m (660 ft) above ordnance datum ) and the Greensand Ridge at Holmbury St Mary (260 m (850 ft) above OD). The steep gradients that would have been required if
8658-469: The rest of the Empire . Six core roads were constructed tying the new capital to the existing network. Ignoring their later English names , they are as follows: Margary, Ivan D. (1973), Roman Roads in Britain (third ed.), London: John Baker, ISBN 0-212-97001-1 Chalk Chalk is a soft, white, porous , sedimentary carbonate rock . It is a form of limestone composed of
8769-408: The retention of the stretch of road between Ewell and Southwark. The emergence of Sussex as a political entity, decreased the importance of the north-south roads leading across the Weald to the former Roman capital and so much of the rest of Stane Street was abandoned. The route between Alfoldean and Pulborough, which connects Billingshurst with two crossing points of the River Arun (and is followed by
8880-437: The river bed. Scattered Roman tiles and squared stone in the river bed show that stone bridge piers were built above the piling. The Alfoldean mansio is some 30 m (33 yd) south of the bridge site. A small, linear settlement grew up alongside the 300 m (300 yd) stretch of road immediately to the south of the posting station. The 16 km (9.9 mi) section of the route south from Alfoldean to Pulborough
8991-508: The river has changed since Roman times and the original crossing point (believed to have been a ford, although there may have been a bridge for pedestrians) was close to the site of Colliers Wood tube station . Excavations carried out between 1997 and 1999 showed that the road was approximately 14 m (46 ft) wide and the surface consisted primarily of pebbles compacted into silt and the natural gravel below. Two metal brooches , likely to have been worn by high-status individuals, were among
9102-555: The road around Clapham Common is unclear and it may have remained on the direct alignment (which would have required a descent to run alongside a former tributary of the Thames) or followed a similar route to the A24 along the south side of the Common, which would have allowed it to remain on higher ground. Stane Street crossed the River Wandle close to the site of Merton Priory . The course of
9213-484: The road at the Hardham mansio , to the south west of Pulborough. From here Stane Street turns to run straight towards the east gate of Chichester, passing the notable Roman villa at Bignor . It makes a slight detour from the direct line to ascend the escarpment of the South Downs via a spur of chalk at Bignortail Wood. The road is visible as a terrace, cut into the steep hillside, as it climbs towards Bignor Hill . As
9324-407: The road crosses Gumber Down, the agger narrows to a width of 1 m (3 ft), although its height often exceeds 1.5 m (5 ft). The distinctive shape is thought to result from a series of post-Roman reconstructions, which converted Stane Street to a prominent boundary bank . An excavation carried out in 1913, showed that the roadway had previously been much wider and the distance between
9435-479: The road had followed a direct line would not have been practical for wheeled traffic. The road was therefore designed to cross the North Downs by a natural breach cut by the River Mole and to pass to the east of the high ground of Leith Hill . The geology of the region was also considered and the road leaves the direct line at Ewell to move onto the well-drained chalk of the North Downs, in preference to remaining on
9546-399: The road included pottery from Rowlands Castle . The extent to which the Anglo-Saxons used and maintained the route reflects the changes in government and economic activity which took place after the end of Roman rule in Britain . Although Londinium had been abandoned as a city by the fifth century, the sphere of influence of its successor, Lundenwick , was sufficiently large to ensure
9657-568: The road which lies on the direct alignment to the east gate of Chichester, (although the builders made short local deviations to avoid difficult ground conditions). From the start of the route on the south bank of the River Thames , the course is followed by the A3 as far as the northeast corner of Clapham Common and from there by the A24 as far as Ewell. The site of the Roman London Bridge, at
9768-430: The road, including samian ware of Claudian date at Pulborough. The earliest coins found along the route are from the reigns of Claudius (41–54 AD), Nero (54–68) and Vespasian (69-79), consistent with the road being in use by 60 to 70 AD. Stane Street may in fact have been constructed during the first decade of Roman occupation, as early as 43–53 AD. Archaeological evidence from later periods includes coins from
9879-460: The road. Stane Street runs along the western boundary of Nonsuch Park as it enters Surrey to the northeast of Ewell. From the first to the fourth centuries AD, Ewell was a large Romano-British town. Stane Street approaches from the northeast, leaving the silty clays of the Reading Beds and moving briefly onto the better-draining Thanet Sands . Close to the present Church Street, the road makes
9990-411: The roads along their whole length. These would check the identities, travel permits and cargoes of road users. Mansiones may have housed the agents of the imperial procurator , the chief financial officer in the province, who collected the portorium , an imperial toll on goods in transit on public roads that was charged at 2 to 2 + 1 ⁄ 2 per cent of the value. The tax would be exacted when
10101-471: The roads, which had fallen into ruin and disuse through old age". Maps and Itineraries of the Roman era, designed to aid travellers, provide useful evidence of placenames, routes and distances in Britain. The most important is the Antonine Itinerary , dating from the later 3rd century, which contains 14 itineraries on the island. The original names of the Roman roads in Britain are not known due to
10212-420: The route ran across Weald Clay, removal of the upper surface probably rendered the road unusable in the wetter months and subsequently all traces were eliminated by ploughing or urban development. Daniel Defoe (the author of Robinson Crusoe ) described the disappearance of Stane Street in his travelogue, A tour thro' the whole island of Great Britain (1724–1727), which describes the country shortly before
10323-472: The same to accommodate the local topography and ground conditions. Stane Street crossed the River Arun for a second time at Pulborough Bridge. Although the original crossing is lost, a medieval-style bridge was built in 1777 on the same site. The road was laid on top of a 580 m (630 yd) causeway to cross marshy ground on the south side of the river, over which the modern A29 runs as far as Winters Farm. The Greensand Way Roman road to Lewes joined
10434-442: The second half of the Roman occupation of Britain . The mansio at Hardham is thought to have become disused by the end of the second century AD and the road is absent from the third-century Antonine Itinerary , which indicates that the preferred route from Chichester to London was via Winchester . Nevertheless, Stane Street continued to be an important trade route until at least the early fourth century, and goods transported along
10545-436: The small particles of chalk make it a substance ideal for cleaning and polishing. For example, toothpaste commonly contains small amounts of chalk, which serves as a mild abrasive . Polishing chalk is chalk prepared with a carefully controlled grain size, for very fine polishing of metals. French chalk (also known as tailor's chalk) is traditionally a hard chalk used to make temporary markings on cloth, mainly by tailors . It
10656-429: The south bypasses this section, by climbing the eastern slopes of Leith Hill as far as Coldharbour , before descending to Ockley. Although the later route is longer, steeper and requires an ascent to an altitude of 225 m (738 ft), it remains on the freer draining Lower Greensand. It is possible that, once the upper surface of the Roman road had been robbed, the corresponding section of Stane Street (on Weald Clay)
10767-507: The start of the Industrial Revolution : Although knowledge of Stane Street appears to have continued from Anglo-Saxon times into the early modern period and beyond (as evidenced by a reference in Britannia by William Camden , first published in 1586), no systematic studies of the route were carried out until the early 20th century. The writer Hilaire Belloc published The Stane Street: A monograph in 1913, in which he attempted to reconstruct
10878-525: The transportation of goods. A considerable number of Roman roads remained in daily use as core trunk roads for centuries after the end of Roman rule in Britain in 410. Some routes are now part of the UK's national road network . Others have been lost or are of archeological and historical interest only. After the Romans departed, systematic construction of paved highways in the United Kingdom did not resume until
10989-424: The upper road surface was laid), with parallel ditches either side. A variety of local materials was used to build the road, sometimes supplemented with stone brought from elsewhere. The agger was often constructed of alternating layers of sand and gravel paved with large flint nodules , or sandstone, surfaced with smaller flint or sand and gravel. The metalling was generally about 30 cm (1 ft) thick at
11100-471: The upper surface appears to have been removed (presumably to supply stone to local building projects). A large quantity of flints, which do not occur in the Weald Clay, were found in the remaining core. The flint is likely to have been quarried to the north of Dorking and then transported to the site, suggesting that this part of the road was built from north to south. The Saxon and medieval road from Dorking to
11211-444: The visible form of footpaths through woodland or common land, such as the section of Stane Street crossing Eartham Wood in the South Downs near Bignor (Sussex). This and others like it are marked on Ordnance Survey maps with dotted lines. Peddars Way in Norfolk is a Roman road converted into a long-distance footpath. Wayside stations have been identified in Britain. Roman roads had regularly spaced stations along their length –
11322-423: The western side of the modern road may indicate the extent to which the original Roman road surface has been eroded. Stane Street crossed the River Mole via a ford close to the site of the modern Burford Bridge . Excavations carried out in 1937 revealed a "flint-surfaced approach to [a] ford at low level having all the signs of Roman workmanship". Although no conclusive evidence for the route has been found in
11433-507: Was 10.1 m (33 ft) wide while the Fosse Way was little more than half that. Several unnamed roads were wider than Watling Street, such as the Silchester to Chichester road at 11.2 m (37 ft). In the centre a carriageway was built on a raised agger after stripping off soft topsoil, using the best local materials, often sand or sandy gravel. The two strips of ground between
11544-506: Was a province of the Roman Empire . It is estimated that about 2,000 mi (3,200 km) of paved trunk roads (surfaced roads running between two towns or cities) were constructed and maintained throughout the province. Most of the known network was complete by 180. The primary function of the network was to allow rapid movement of troops and military supplies, but it subsequently provided vital infrastructure for commerce, trade and
11655-544: Was also a certain road beyond the Antonine Wall to Perth ( Bertha ) from the Antonine fort at Falkirk . Indeed, it has been thought that the Roman road to the north of the Forth , to Stirling and Perth, dates from the expedition of Severus to beyond the Dee in 209; it may be doubted whether there was time in that campaign for such a work, and the road may well belong to a period before
11766-518: Was built under the Emperor Trajan (ruled 98–117) along the line of the future Hadrian's Wall , which was constructed by his successor Hadrian in 122–132. Scotland ( Caledonia ), including England north of Hadrian's Wall, remained mostly outside the boundaries of Britannia province, as the Romans never succeeded in subjugating the entire island, despite a serious effort to do so by governor Gnaeus Julius Agricola in 82–84. The Romans maintained
11877-599: Was close to a crossing point of the River Arun . The Alfoldean mansio , which is partly covered by the A29 road , was investigated in 2006 by the Channel 4 archaeological television programme Time Team . Excavations revealed the remains of a two-storey mansio built around a courtyard and also many other buildings. The site was enclosed by massive ramparts and ditches 4 m (13 ft) wide and as deep, which were dated by pottery finds to around 90 AD. The ditches were filled in by
11988-432: Was employed to name settlements near these former imperial highways. Stretham means "homestead or village on a Roman road" and likewise Stretford means " ford on a Roman road". The initial road network was built by the army to facilitate military communications. The emphasis was therefore on linking up army bases, rather than catering for economic flows. Thus, three important cross-routes were established connecting
12099-500: Was found to be 12–16 m (39–52 ft) at Merton Priory and 27 m (89 ft) at Westhampnett . Posting stations or mansiones were provided at regular intervals (generally every 15–20 km (9.3–12.4 mi)) along Roman roads, so that official messengers could change horses and travellers could rest. Typically, they were rectangular fortified sites of about 1 ha (2.5 acres). Mansiones have in been identified on Stane Street at Alfoldean and Hardham , each of which
12210-411: Was impassable in the wetter months. A change of direction occurs to the west of South Holmwood , where the road takes up a line sighted from London Bridge to Pulborough . The only significant deviation is at Okewood Hill, where the road loops to the west for around 200 m (220 yd) to cross a small stream at a convenient fording point. The A29, which follows the route through Ockley, also leaves
12321-492: Was restored by the archaeologist S. E. Winbolt in 1935. The section was turfed over to protect it for future generations. 51°06′49″N 0°23′07″W / 51.11362°N 0.38538°W / 51.11362; -0.38538 Roman roads in Britannia Roman roads in Britannia were initially designed for military use, created by the Roman army during the nearly four centuries (AD 43–410) that Britannia
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