131-413: Stabiae ( Latin: [ˈstabɪ.ae̯] ) was an ancient city situated near the modern town of Castellammare di Stabia and approximately 4.5 km southwest of Pompeii . Like Pompeii, and being only 16 km (9.9 mi) from Mount Vesuvius , it was largely buried by tephra ash in the 79 AD eruption of Mount Vesuvius , in this case at a shallower depth of up to 5 m. Stabiae is most famous for
262-489: A Roman ally. Mithridates, still in Asia, was faced with local uprisings against his rule. Adding to his challenges was Lucullus' fleet, reinforced by Rhodian allies. When Flaccus' consular army marched through Macedonia towards Thrace, his command was usurped by his legate Gaius Flavius Fimbria , who had Flaccus killed before chasing Mithridates with his army into Asia itself. Faced with Fimbria's army in Asia, Lucullus' fleet off
393-530: A few important events, such as the discovery of substructures at Villa Arianna in 1994 and the gymnasium in 1997. The archaeological site was reopened to the public in 1995. The year 2004 saw an Italian-American collaboration between the Superintendency of Archaeology of Pompeii, the region of Campania and the University of Maryland to form the non-profit Restoring Ancient Stabiae Foundation (RAS) whose goal
524-1134: A fight. Sulla's arrival in Brundisium induced defections from the Senate in Rome: Marcus Licinius Crassus , who had already fled from the Cinnan regime, raised an army in Spain, and departed for Africa to join with Metellus Pius (who also joined the Sullans), joined Sulla even before his landing in Italy. Pompey , the son of Pompey Strabo , raised a legion from his clients in Picenum and also joined Sulla; Sulla treated him with great respect and addressed him as imperator before dispatching him to raise more troops. Even those whom Sulla had quarrelled with (including Publius Cornelius Cethegus , whom Sulla had outlawed in 88 BC) defected to join his side. The general feeling in Italy, however,
655-433: A fugitive who fell victim to falling debris. In 2008 Villa San Marco and Villa Arianna were re-explored and in the former three cubicula were uncovered areas behind the peristyle and two latrines , and a garden was brought to light, with the latter part of the great peristyle looking directly over the sea. In 2009 new excavations brought to light a Roman road running along the northern perimeter of Villa San Marco. It
786-457: A large number of villae rusticae in the ager stabianus and made precise reports. However he could not persuade the court to keep excavated buildings exposed and avoid their backfilling. So excavation of Stabiae continued with the usual technique of digging and backfilling. The location of Stabiae was again widely forgotten. In 1950 when Libero D'Orsi , an enthusiastic amateur, brought to light some rooms of Villa San Marco and Villa Arianna with
917-505: A legal commander. Sulla moved to intercept Flaccus' army in Thessaly, but turned around when Pontic forces reoccupied Boetia. Turning south, he engaged the Pontic army – allegedly 90,000 – on the plain of Orchomenus. His troops prepared the ground by starting to dig a series of three trenches, which successfully contained Pontic cavalry. When the Pontic cavalry attacked to interrupt the earthworks,
1048-692: A legate in Macedonia. Sulla's ability to use military force against his own countrymen was "in many ways a continuation of the Social War... a civil war between former allies and friends developed into a civil war between citizens... what was eroded in the process was the fundamental distinction between Romans and foreign enemies". Political violence in Rome continued even in Sulla's absence. Cinna violently quarrelled with his co-consul, Gnaeus Octavius . After Octavius induced
1179-592: A normal education for his class, grounded in ancient Greek and Latin classics. Sallust declares him well-read, intelligent, and he was fluent in Greek. Regardless, by the standards of the Roman political class, Sulla was a very poor man. His first wife was called either Ilia or Julia. If the latter, he may have married into the Julii Caesares. He had one child from this union, before his first wife's death. He married again, with
1310-498: A promise that Sulla's life would be safe". Sulla then left for Capua before joining an army near Nola in southern Italy. He may have felt, after this political humiliation, that the only way to recover his career was to come back from the Mithridatic command victorious. With Sulpicius able to enact legislation without consular opposition, Sulla discovered that Marius had tricked him, for the first piece of legislation Sulpicius brought
1441-675: A result of Jugurtha's betrayal by the king's allies, although his superior Gaius Marius took credit for ending the war. He then fought successfully against Germanic tribes during the Cimbrian War , and Italian allies during the Social War . He was awarded the Grass Crown for his bravery at the Battle of Nola. Sulla was closely associated with Venus , adopting the title Epaphroditos meaning favoured of Aphrodite/Venus. Sulla played an important role in
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#17328448503671572-544: A secret deal with Marius, who had for years been coveting another military command, according to which Marius would support Sulpicius' Italian legislation in exchange for a law transferring Sulla's command to Marius. Sulpicius' attempts to push through the Italian legislation again brought him into violent urban conflict, although he "offered nothing to the urban plebs... so it continued to resist him". The consuls, fearful of intimidation of Sulpicius and his armed bodyguards, declared
1703-490: A set of relatively cordial peace terms which were then forwarded to Mithridates. Mithridates was to give Asia and Paphlagonia back to Rome. He was to return the kingdoms of Bithynia and Cappadocia to Nicomedes and Ariobarzanes , respectively. Mithridates would also equip Sulla with seventy or eighty ships and pay a war indemnity of two or three thousand talents. Sulla would ratify Mithridates' position in Pontus and have him declared
1834-473: A size of only 38x22 cm and dates to the first century BC: the fresco represents the Greek nymph Flora , understood by the Romans as the goddess of Spring, turning round in the act of collecting a flower, an allegory of purity, all on a pale-green background; Flora is certainly the best known work of Stabiae, so much so that it has become its symbol, not only in Italy, but also abroad. Another work of great importance
1965-451: A suspension of public business ( iustitium ) which led to Sulpicius and his mob forcing the consuls to flee. During the violence, Sulla was forced to shelter in Marius' nearby house (later denied in his memoirs). Marius arranged for Sulla to lift the iustitium and allow Sulpicius to bring proposals; Sulla, in a "desperately weak position... [received] little in return[,] perhaps no more than
2096-657: A town held by Sulla in violation of a ceasefire. The breakdown allowed Sulla to play the aggrieved party and place blame on his enemies for any further bloodshed. Scipio's army blamed him for the breakdown in negotiations and made it clear to the consul that they would not fight Sulla, who at this point appeared the peacemaker. Sulla, hearing this, feigned an attack while instructing his men to fraternise with Scipio's army. Scipio's men quickly abandoned him for Sulla; finding him almost alone in his camp, Sulla tried again to persuade Scipio to defect. When Scipio refused, Sulla let him go. Sulla attempted to open negotiations with Norbanus, who
2227-497: A tyranny over the city. Hind 1994 , p. 150 dismisses claims in Plutarch and Vellius Paterclus of Athens' being forced to cooperate with Mithridates as "very hollow" and "apologia". Rome defended Delos unsuccessfully from a joint invasion by Athens and Pontus. They were, however, successful in holding Macedonia , then governed by propraetor Gaius Sentius and his legate Quintus Bruttius Sura . Early in 87 BC, Sulla transited
2358-600: A villa dating to the first century was discovered during the work to double the railway track of the Torre Annunziata-Sorrento line of the Circumvesuviana , between the stations of Ponte Persica and Pioppaino. From 2011 to 2014, Columbia University and H2CU (Centro Interuniversitario per la Formazione Internazionale) have been excavating in the Villa San Marco, investigating it as a Roman elite structure and
2489-589: A woman called Aelia, of whom nothing is known other than her name. During these marriages, he engaged in an affair with the hetaira Nicopolis , who also was older than he. The means by which Sulla attained the fortune which later would enable him to ascend the ladder of Roman politics are not clear; Plutarch refers to two inheritances, one from his stepmother (who loved him dearly) and the other from his mistress Nicopolis. Keaveney 2005 , pp. 10–11 accepts these inheritances without much comment and places them around Sulla's turning thirty years of age. After meeting
2620-567: Is a comune (municipality) in the Metropolitan City of Naples , Campania region, in southern Italy. It is situated on the Bay of Naples about 30 km (19 mi) southeast of Naples , on the route to Sorrento . Castellammare di Stabia lies next to the ancient Roman city of Stabiae , which was destroyed by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79. The castle, of the city it takes its name from,
2751-458: Is a paved road that connected the town of Stabiae with the seashore below: across this artery is a gate to the city and along the walls are a myriad of graffiti and small drawings in charcoal. On the other side of the road, a baths area of a new villa was discovered, partly explored in the Bourbon era. A Roman road also led to the entrance of a domus belonging to the " Ager stabianus ". In May 2010
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#17328448503672882-510: Is an Italian football club based in Castellammare di Stabia, Campania. Juve Stabia will play in Serie B, the second tier of Italian football system, following their promotion ahead of the 2024-25 season. Sulla Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix ( / ˈ s ʌ l ə / , Latin pronunciation: [ˈɫ̪uːkius̠ korˈneːlʲius̠ ˈs̠uɫːa ˈfeːlʲiːks̠] ; 138–78 BC), commonly known as Sulla ,
3013-456: Is currently underway. Villa Arianna and Villa San Marco can be visited and do not charge for admission. Castellammare is known as the Metropole of the waters for its hydrological heritage of 28 different kinds of waters, divided in sulphurous, calcic bicarbonate and mineral water, each one with a particular healthy property. The thermal bath has been a huge part of the economic life as well as of
3144-523: Is still to be identified but it was most probably a fortified town of some importance, since when conflict with the Romans reached a head during the Social War (91–88 BC) , the Roman general Sulla did not simply occupy the town on 30 April 89 BC but destroyed it. Its location is said to be delimited by the Scanzano gorge and the San Marco stream which partly eroded its walls. The Roman author and admiral Pliny
3275-473: Is the "Seller of cupids", found in 1759, also dating to the first century BC, which represents a woman in the act of selling a cupid to a girl: this fresco was already famous across Europe in the 18th century, influencing neoclassical taste and was copied on porcelain, prints, lithographs and paintings. Castellammare di Stabia Castellammare di Stabia ( Italian: [kaˌstɛllamˈmaːre di ˈstaːbja] ; Neapolitan : Castiellammare 'e Stabbia )
3406-474: Is the oldest villa d'otium (a leisure villa) in Stabiae, dating back to the 2nd century BC. The villa was extended over the course of 150 years. It is skilfully designed so that the residential quarters take advantage of the panorama along the ridge overlooking the Bay of Naples . It occupies an area of about 11000 sqm. of which only 2500 have been excavated. Some of the rooms were lost as a result of landslides on
3537-410: The atrium , the thermal baths , the triclinium and the peristyle . The "Tuscan" atrium , dating back to the late Republican age, is paved with white-black mosaic and has wall frescoes, often female figures and palmettes on a black and red background attributable to the third style . At the centre of the atrium is an impluvium while all around are numerous rooms: two of these, placed at
3668-508: The Mediaeval Castle, the other in Scanzano. A sanctuary, probably dedicated to Athena, was built in the locality of Privati. It then became part of the Nucerian federation, adopting its political and administrative structure and becoming its military port, although it enjoyed less autonomy than Pompeii, Herculaneum and Sorrento ; in 308 BC, after a long siege, it was forced to surrender in
3799-460: The caldarium , accessible by stone steps, is 7x5m and 1.5m deep. In excavations in the pool, part of the bottom was removed exposing a large brick furnace heating a large bronze boiler which was removed in 1798 by Lord Hamilton to be transported to London, but during the trip the Colossus was shipwrecked. The caldarium was covered with marble slabs. From the baths there are a number of ramps connecting
3930-407: The "Second Complex", from which it is separated by a narrow alley. The excavations were resumed by D'Orsi in 1950. In 2008 the large peristyle, one of the largest of any Roman villa at 370m in length, was brought to light almost completely, along with new rooms, columns and windows. It has a complex plan, the result of several expansions of the building and was conveniently divided into four sections:
4061-558: The 2nd c. AD new necropoles were created at Grotta S.Biagio (below the Villa Arianna ), Santa Maria la Carità and Pimonte. After the Crisis of the Third Century the city decreased in importance. Between the third and fourth centuries, as demonstrated by the discovery of a sarcophagus , were the first traces of a Christian community. The fifth century saw the formation of the diocese with
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4192-505: The Adriatic for Thessaly with his five legions. Upon his arrival, Sulla had his quaestor Lucullus order Sura, who had vitally delayed Mithridates' advances into Greece, to retreat back into Macedonia. He separately besieged Athens and Piraeus (the Long Walls had since been demolished). Threatened by the Pontic navy, Sulla sent his quaestor Lucullus to scrounge about for allied naval forces. At
4323-565: The East, claims which were "surely false". The troops were willing to follow Sulla to Rome; his officers, however, realised Sulla's plans and deserted him (except his quaestor and kinsman, almost certainly Lucius Licinius Lucullus ). They then killed Marcus Gratidius, one of Marius' legates, when Gratidius attempted to effect the transfer of command. When the march on Rome started, the Senate and people were appalled. The Senate immediately sent an embassy demanding an explanation for his seeming march on
4454-583: The Elder recorded that the town was rebuilt after the Social Wars and became a popular resort for wealthy Romans. He reported that there were several miles of luxury villas built along the edge of the headland, all enjoying panoramic views out over the bay. The villas that can be visited today come from the time between the destruction of Stabiae by Sulla in 89 BC and the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD. In 1759 Karl Weber identified and described part of
4585-605: The Germanic invaders, he was able to negotiate their defection from the Cimbri and Teutones. His prospects for advancement under Marius being stalled, however, Sulla started to complain "most unfairly" that Marius was withholding opportunities from him. Demanding transfer to Catulus' (Marius' consular colleague) army, he received it. In 102 BC, the invaders returned and moved to force the Alps. Catulus, with Sulla, moved to block their advance;
4716-508: The Italian countryside. Advancing on Capua, he met the two consuls of that year – Lucius Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus and Gaius Norbanus – who had dangerously divided their forces. He defeated Norbanus at the Battle of Mount Tifata , forcing the consul to withdraw. Continuing towards Scipio's position at Teanum Sidicinum, Sulla negotiated and was almost able to convince Scipio to defect. Negotiations broke down after one of Scipio's lieutenants seized
4847-482: The Mithridatic command. Sulla became embroiled in a political fight against one of the plebeian tribunes, Publius Sulpicius Rufus , on the matter of how the new Italian citizens were to be distributed into the Roman tribes for purposes of voting. Sulla and Pompeius Rufus opposed the bill, which Sulpicius took as a betrayal; Sulpicius, without the support of the consuls, looked elsewhere for political allies. This led him to
4978-655: The Numidian king. Jugurtha had fled to his father-in-law, King Bocchus I of Mauretania (a nearby kingdom); Marius invaded Mauretania, and after a pitched battle in which both Sulla and Marius played important roles in securing victory, Bocchus felt forced by Roman arms to betray Jugurtha. After the Senate approved negotiations with Bocchus, it delegated the talks to Marius, who appointed Sulla as envoy plenipotentiary. Winning Bocchus' friendship and making plain Rome's demands for Jugurtha's deliverance, Sulla successfully concluded negotiations and secured Bocchus' capture of Jugurtha and
5109-589: The Parthian ambassador, Orobazus, was executed upon his return to Parthia for allowing this humiliation, the Parthians ratified the treaty, establishing the Euphrates as a clear boundary between Parthia and Rome. At this meeting, Sulla was told by a Chaldean seer that he would die at the height of his fame and fortune. This prophecy was to have a powerful hold on Sulla throughout his lifetime. In 94 BC, Sulla repulsed
5240-505: The Roman forces followed a plan very similar to that of Metellus, capturing and garrisoning fortified positions in the African countryside. Sulla was popular with the men; charming and benign, he built up a healthy rapport while also winning popularity with other officers, including Marius. Ultimately, the Numidians were defeated in 106 BC, due in large part to Sulla's initiative in capturing
5371-492: The Roman villas found near the ancient city which are regarded as some of the most stunning architectural and artistic remains from any Roman villas. They are the largest concentration of excellently preserved, enormous, elite seaside villas known in the Roman world. The villas were sited on a 50 m high headland overlooking the Gulf of Naples . Although it was discovered before Pompeii in 1749, unlike Pompeii and Herculaneum , Stabiae
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5502-541: The Romans almost broke; Sulla on foot personally rallied his men and stabilised the area. Roman forces then surrounded the Pontic camp. Archelaus tried to break out but was unsuccessful; Sulla then annihilated the Pontic army and captured its camp. Archelaus then hid in the nearby marshes before escaping to Chalcis. In the aftermath of the battle, Sulla was approached by Archelaus for terms. With Mithridates' armies in Europe almost entirely destroyed, Archelaus and Sulla negotiated
5633-586: The Samnite wars against the Romans. The earliest Roman evidence is coins from Rome and Ebusus found in the sanctuary of Privati dating back to the 3rd century BC probably brought in by merchants. During the Punic Wars Stabiae supported Rome against the Carthaginians with young men in the fleet of Marcus Claudius Marcellus , according to Silius Italicus who wrote: The location of the early city of Stabiae
5764-548: The Samnites, and general Roman victory across Italy, Sulla stood for and was elected easily to the consulship of 88 BC; his colleague would be Quintus Pompeius Rufus . Sulla's election to the consulship, successful likely due to his military success in 89 BC, was not uncontested. Gaius Julius Caesar Strabo , merely an ex-aedile and one of Sulla's long-time enemies, had contested the top magistracy. Beyond personal enmity, Caesar Strabo may also have stood for office because it
5895-447: The allies Roman citizenship over the decades had failed for various reasons, just as the allies also "became progressively more aware of the need to cease to be subjects and to share in the exercise of imperial power" by acquiring that citizenship. The Cimbric war also revived Italian solidarity, aided by Roman extension of corruption laws to allow allies to lodge extortion claims. When the pro-Italian plebeian tribune Marcus Livius Drusus
6026-400: The arrival of the Samnites the city suffered a sudden social and economic slowdown in favour of the development of nearby Pompeii, as shown by the almost total absence of burials: however, when the influence of the Samnites became more marked in the middle of the 4th century BC Stabiae began a slow recovery, so much so that it was necessary to build two new necropoles, one discovered in 1932 near
6157-405: The arrival of the sixth and largest pyroclastic surge of the eruption caused by the collapse of the eruption plume . The very diluted outer edge of this surge reached Stabiae and left two centimetres of fine ash on top of the immensely thick aerially-deposited tephra which further protected the underlying remains. Unlike Pompeii, the eruption did not end human activity as about 40 years later
6288-579: The banks of the Euphrates , where he was approached by an embassy from the Parthian Empire . Sulla was the first Roman magistrate to meet a Parthian ambassador. At the meeting, he took the seat between the Parthian ambassador, Orobazus , and Ariobarzanes, seeking to gain psychological advantage over the Parthian envoy by portraying the Parthians and the Cappadocians as equals, with Rome being superior. While
6419-454: The bay, and several colonnaded courtyards. There are also many other small rooms, a kitchen and two internal gardens. This villa is also important because it has provided frescoes, sculptures, mosaics and architecture, which show styles and themes comparable to those found in Pompeii and Herculaneum. The great peristyle (9) is surrounded by a long porch with a central pool (15) of 36×7 m which at
6550-414: The beginning had a very important role for the citizens and also for the tourists coming in summer for the thermal cure, making the city very crowded. Because of this overcrowding the building was enlarged with new pavilions and pools for the thermal cures of the body, like a real spa but it was also a cultural centre where many art exhibitions, cultural events and concerts were held. On 26 February 1956 began
6681-410: The city and stripping the twelve outlaws of their Roman citizenship. Of the twelve outlaws, only Sulpicius was killed after being betrayed by a slave. Marius and his son, along with some others, escaped to Africa. Sulla then had Sulpicius' legislation invalidated on the grounds that all had been passed by force. According only to Appian, he then brought legislation to strengthen the Senate's position in
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#17328448503676812-567: The city near the Villa San Marco which extended over about 45000 m. He found five paved streets intersecting at right angles, the forum , a temple on a podium, a gymnasium , tabernae with arcades, pavements and small private houses. In the plain around Stabiae was the Ager Stabianus , the land administered by the city and an agricultural area in which about 60 villae rusticae have been identified: farmhouses that vary from 400 to 800 m, from which intensive agriculture took advantage of
6943-530: The city's walls, Sulla then invested the town and for his efforts was awarded a grass crown , the highest Roman military honour. Pompeii was taken some time during the year, along with Stabiae and Aeclanum ; with the capture of Aeclanum, Sulla forced the Hirpini to surrender. He then attacked the Samnites and routed one of their armies near Aesernia before capturing the new Italian capital at Bovianum Undecimanorum . All of these victories would have been won before
7074-493: The close of the Social War, in 89 BC, Mithridates VI Eupator of Pontus invaded Roman Asia . In the summer of 88, he reorganised the administration of the area before unsuccessfully besieging Rhodes. News of these conquests reached Rome in the autumn of 89 BC, leading the Senate and people to declare war; actual preparations for war were, however, delayed: after Sulla was given the command, it took him some eighteen months to organise five legions before setting off; Rome
7205-425: The coast, and internal unrest, Mithridates eventually met with Sulla at Dardanus in autumn 85 BC and accepted the terms negotiated by Archelaus. After peace was reached, Sulla advanced on Fimbria's forces, which deserted their upstart commander. Fimbria then committed suicide after a failed attempt on Sulla's life. Sulla then settled affairs – "reparations, rewards, administrative and financial arrangements for
7336-508: The command of Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo 's army. The law was vetoed by one of the tribunes, but when Quintus Pompeius Rufus went to Pompey Strabo's army to take command under the Senate's authority, he was promptly assassinated after his arrival and assumption of command, almost certainly on Strabo's orders. No action was taken against the troops nor any action taken to relieve Pompey Strabo of command. He then left Italy with his troops without delay, ignoring legal summons and taking over command from
7467-462: The construction of the luxury villas along the entire coast of the Gulf of Naples in this period was such that Strabo also wrote: Stabiae was also well known for the quality of its spring water according to Columella , which was believed to have medicinal properties. In 62 AD the city was hit by a violent earthquake that affected the whole region, causing considerable damage to the buildings and creating
7598-597: The consul Lucius Porcius Cato . But after Cato's death in battle with the Marsi, Sulla was prorogued pro consule and placed in supreme command of the southern theatre. He brought Pompeii under siege. After one of the other legates was killed by his men, Sulla refused to discipline them except by issuing a proclamation imploring them to show more courage against the enemy. While besieging Pompeii, an Italian relief force came under Lucius Cluentius , which Sulla defeated and forced into flight towards Nola . Killing Cluentius before
7729-515: The consul conducted offensive campaigning. Late in the year, Sulla cooperated with Marius (who was a legate in the northern theatre) in the northern part of southern Italy to defeat the Marsi: Marius defeated the Marsi, sending them headlong into Sulla's waiting forces. Sulla attempted also to assist Lucius' relief of the city of Aesernia , which was under siege, but both men were unsuccessful. The next year, 89 BC, Sulla served as legate under
7860-582: The consular elections in October 89. Political developments in Rome also started to bring an end to the war. In 89 BC, one of the tribunes of the plebs passed the lex Plautia Papiria , which granted citizenship to all of the allies (with exception for the Samnites and Lucanians still under arms). This had been preceded by the lex Julia , passed by Lucius Julius Caesar in October 90 BC, which had granted citizenship to those allies who remained loyal. Buttressed by success against Rome's traditional enemies,
7991-434: The court of Naples. He proposed the systematic unearthing of the buildings and their display on site, in their context. In 1759 Weber partially identified and described part of the old city that extended over an area of about 45000 m. The ruins that had been excavated, however, were reburied. A second excavation campaign until 1782 was assisted by the architect Franceso La Vega after Weber's death. He diligently collected all
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#17328448503678122-541: The destruction of the ancient building to make way for today's building. At the end of the 1980s the thermal building was in crisis because most of its offered treatments were closed, even if today they are offered in the New Thermal Baths . Today the Ancient Baths opens only few hours a day for bathing. In summer there are some cultural events. In the summer of 2007 the renovation of the building began so it can resume
8253-524: The east in 82 BC, marched on Rome again and crushed the populares and their Italian allies at the Battle of the Colline Gate . Sulla revived the office of dictator , which had been dormant since the Second Punic War , over a century before. He used his powers to purge his opponents , and reform Roman constitutional laws , to restore the primacy of the Senate and limit the power of the tribunes of
8384-764: The end has a nymphaeum (64,65) that has yet to be explored, decorated with frescoes depicting Neptune , Venus and several athletes, that were removed by the Bourbons and are now at the Naples museum and the Condé Museum in Chantilly , France. In the peristyle garden large plane trees grew and their root cavities were found; just as with the casts of humans these cavities were filled with plaster to make casts and archaeologists have also calculated that their age ranged from 75 to 100 years. The villa has an even larger second peristyle on
8515-561: The end of the 3rd century BC and shows the complex population changes with the arrival of new peoples, such as the Etruscans , which opened up new contacts. Stabiae had a small port which by the 6th century BC had already been overshadowed by the much larger port at Pompeii. It later became an Oscan settlement and it appears that the Samnites later took over the Oscan town in the 5th century. With
8646-533: The ends of the entrance of the atrium , preserve decorations that imitate architectures such as Ionic columns that support the coffered ceiling belonging to the second style . In the other rooms the most important frescoes of all of Stabiae were found, all removed in the Bourbon era and preserved in the National Archaeology Museum of Naples. They include the Flora or Primavera found in 1759; it has
8777-433: The entire kingdom of Numidia in defiance of Roman decrees that divided it among several members of the royal family. After the massacre of a number of Italian traders who supported one of his rivals, indignation erupted as to Jugurtha's use of bribery to secure a favourable peace treaty; called to Rome to testify on bribery charges, he plotted successfully the assassination of another royal claimant before returning home. After
8908-541: The fatherland, to which Sulla responded boldly, saying that he was freeing it from tyrants. Rome having no troops to defend itself, Sulla entered the city; once there, however, his men were pelted with stones from the rooftops by common people. Almost breaking before Marius' makeshift forces, Sulla then stationed troops all over the city before summoning the Senate and inducing it to outlaw Marius, Marius' son , Sulpicius, and nine others. He then reinforced this decision by legislation, retroactively justifying his illegal march on
9039-411: The fertility of the soil, and which included production and processing of agricultural products with wine and olive presses, threshing floors and storehouses, making the owners wealthy, considering the villas' thermal baths and frescoed rooms. Stabiae established itself as a luxury residential centre, so much so that Cicero wrote in a letter to his friend Marcus Marius Gratidianus : The phenomenon of
9170-461: The finds quickly attracted important visitors and nobility from all over Europe. Some of the most important frescoes were detached to allow better conservation and almost 9000 finds collected were housed locally. His work finally stopped in 1962 following lack of funds. The site was declared an archaeological protected area in 1957. Sporadically, numerous remains of villas and necropolises were found; as when Villa Carmiano (now in commune of Gragnano)
9301-523: The first bishops Orso and Catello. In the 5th century it was known as a centre of the Benedictine Order . The archaeological remains at Stabiae were originally discovered in 1749 by Cavaliere Roque Joaquín de Alcubierre , an engineer working for King Charles VII of Naples . These ruins were partially excavated by Alcubierre with help from Karl Weber between 1749 and 1775. Weber was the first to make detailed architectural drawings and delivered them to
9432-541: The first to be explored in the excavations in Bourbon times between 1749 and 1754. The villa was re-buried after the removal of its furnishings and of the better-preserved frescoes. Excavations were resumed in 1950 by Libero d’Orsi and O. Elia of the Archaeological Superintendency. The villa was built at least in part on a 6th c. BC platform that may have levelled the ground on the hill. Construction started at
9563-543: The forces of Tigranes the Great of Armenia from Cappadocia. He may have stayed in the east until 92 BC, when he returned to Rome; Keaveney places his departure in the year 93 BC. Sulla was regarded to have done well in the east: he had restored Ariobarzanes to the throne, been hailed imperator by his men, and was the first Roman to treat successfully with the Parthians. With military and diplomatic victory, his political fortunes seemed positive. However, his candidature
9694-417: The future" – in Asia, staying there until 84 BC. He then sailed for Italy at the head of 1,200 ships. The peace reached with Mithridates was condemned in ancient times as a betrayal of Roman interests in favour of Sulla's private interest in fighting and winning the coming civil war. Modern sources have been somewhat less damning, as the Mithridatic campaigns later showed that no quick victory over Pontus
9825-434: The help of the maps from the Bourbon excavations, and also Villa Petraro, a domus found by chance in 1957 (in the commune of Santa Maria la Carità) but then reburied after a few years of study. He also found parts of a residential area of the city about 300 m from Villa San Marco including remains of houses, shops, and parts of the macellum to which roads from the port converged. These remains were again reburied. News of
9956-510: The king's rendition to Marius' camp. The publicity attracted by this feat boosted Sulla's political career. Years later, in 91 BC, Bocchus paid for the erection of a gilded equestrian statue depicting Sulla's capture of Jugurtha. In 104 BC, the Cimbri and the Teutones , two Germanic tribes who had bested the Roman legions on several occasions, seemed again to be heading for Italy. Marius, in
10087-490: The last weeks of the year, Sulla married his daughter to one of his colleague Pompeius Rufus' sons. He also divorced his then-wife Cloelia and married Metella, widow of the recently-deceased Marcus Aemilius Scaurus . These marriages helped build political alliances with the influential Caecilii Metelli and the Pompeys. He was also assigned by the senate, probably with the support of his consular colleague, Quintus Pompeius Rufus ,
10218-571: The latest in Augustus ' reign and was significantly enlarged with the garden and swimming pool under Claudius . The owner's name is not exactly known but it could belong to a certain Narcissus, a freedman , on the basis of stamps found on tiles, or to the Virtii family who had tombs not far away. It has an entrance atrium (44) containing a pool, a oecus triclinaris (banqueting hall) (16) with views of
10349-578: The long political struggle between the optimates and populares factions at Rome. He was a leader of the optimates , who sought to maintain senatorial supremacy against the populist reforms advocated by the populares , headed by Marius. In a dispute over the command of the war against Mithridates , initially awarded to Sulla by the Senate but withdrawn as a result of Marius' intrigues, Sulla marched on Rome in an unprecedented act and defeated Marian forces in battle. The populares seized power once he left with his army to Asia . He returned victorious from
10480-460: The many thermal services, however due to political neglect and governance issues the ancient thermal baths remain closed as of 2024. The New Thermal Baths, located on the hill of the Solaro , near the district of Scanzano, was inaugurated on 26 July 1964. This building has two zones: one zone is the building dedicated to the thermal cure and then there is the park for the hydroponic cure. The building for
10611-404: The midst of this military crisis, sought and won repeated consulships, which upset aristocrats in the Senate; it is likely however that they acknowledged the indispensability of Marius' military capabilities in defeating the Germanic invaders. Amid a reorganisation of political alliances, the traditionalists in the Senate raised up Sulla – a patrician, even if a poor one – as a counterweight against
10742-417: The minimum age requirement of thirty, he stood for the quaestorship in 108 BC. Normally, candidates had to have first served for ten years in the military, but by Sulla's time, this had been superseded by an age requirement. He was then assigned by lot to serve under the consul Gaius Marius . The Jugurthine War had started in 112 BC when Jugurtha , grandson of Massinissa of Numidia , claimed
10873-459: The need for restoration work, which was never finished. According to a letter written by his nephew , Pliny the Elder was at the other side of the bay in Misenum when the eruption of 79 AD started. He sailed by galley across the bay, partly to observe the eruption more closely, and partly to rescue people from the coast near the volcano. Pliny died at Stabiae the following day. This coincides with
11004-411: The newcomer Marius. Starting in 104 BC, Marius moved to reform the defeated Roman armies in southern Gaul. Sulla then served as legate under his former commander and, in that stead, successfully subdued a Gallic tribe which revolted in the aftermath of a previous Roman defeat. The next year, Sulla was elected military tribune and served under Marius, and assigned to treat with the Marsi, part of
11135-571: The park there are many events, during mornings and evenings, such as concerts, open cinema, exhibitions and conventions. Because of lack of demand and political turmoil, the new thermal baths remain closed as of 2024. Castellammare borders with the municipalities of Gragnano , Pimonte , Pompei , Santa Maria la Carità , Torre Annunziata and Vico Equense . It counts the hamlets ( frazioni ) of Fratte, Madonna della Libera, Pioppaino, Ponte Persica, Pozzano, Privati, Quisisana, Scanzano and Varano. The local football team, Società Sportiva Juve Stabia
11266-417: The plain. According to the ancient sources, Archelaus commanded between 60,000 and 120,000 men; in the aftermath, he allegedly escaped with only 10,000. After the Battle of Chaeronea, Sulla learnt that Cinna's government had sent Lucius Valerius Flaccus to take over his command. Sulla had officially been declared an outlaw and in the eyes of the Cinnan regime, Flaccus was to take command of an army without
11397-465: The plebs . Resigning his dictatorship in 79 BC, Sulla retired to private life and died the following year. Later political leaders such as Julius Caesar followed the precedent set by Sulla with his military coup to attain political power through force. Sulla, the son of Lucius Cornelius Sulla and the grandson of Publius Cornelius Sulla , was born into a branch of the patrician gens Cornelia , but his family had fallen to an impoverished condition at
11528-429: The praetorship again the next year and, promising he would pay for good shows, was elected praetor for 97 BC; he was assigned by lot to the urban praetorship. His term as praetor was largely uneventful, excepting a public dispute with Gaius Julius Caesar Strabo (possibly his brother-in-law) and his magnificent holding of the ludi Apollinares . The next year, 96 BC, he was assigned – "probably pro consule as
11659-621: The pre-79 AD history of the site. In 2019 excavations in the Piazza Unità d'Italia unearthed an Augustan or Julio-Claudian building and a 4th-century building. Among the many villas found at Stabiae are firstly large leisure villas ( villa otium ) without agricultural buildings such as: and secondly residential villas with agricultural sections ( villa rustica ) such as: One of the largest villas ever discovered in Campania , it measured more than 11,000 m, although only half has been excavated. It
11790-514: The preceding material to reconstruct the history of the excavations. He introduced new concepts for the first time about context, emphasising direct observation of ancient buildings in their landscape or in their historical and archaeological context. In seven years at Stabiae La Vega resumed excavations in some villas built on the plateau of Varanium already partially excavated, the Villa del Pastore, Villa Arianna and Second Complex and extended research to
11921-426: The road to Nuceria was rebuilt, as its 11th milestone recovered from the cathedral site shows. Also Publius Papinius Statius ( c. 45–96 ) asked in a poem for his wife to join him in what he called "Stabias renatas" (Stabiae reborn). It continued to be an important centre for trade as the surrounding agricultural area needed a port and that of Stabiae was restored whilst that of Pompeii had been destroyed. In
12052-564: The same time, Mithridates attempted to force a land battle in northern Greece , and dispatched a large army across the Hellespont . These sieges lasted until spring of 86 BC. Discovering a weak point in the walls and popular discontent with the Athenian tyrant Aristion, Sulla stormed and captured Athens (except the Acropolis ) on 1 March 86 BC. The Acropolis was then besieged. Athens itself
12183-465: The senate to outlaw Cinna, Cinna suborned the army besieging Nola and induced the Italians again to rise up. Marius, offering his services to Cinna, helped levy troops. By the end of 87 BC, Cinna and Marius had besieged Rome and taken the city, killed consul Gnaeus Octavius, massacred their political enemies, and declared Sulla an outlaw; they then had themselves elected consuls for 86 BC. During
12314-434: The slope. Another feature is its private tunnel system that links the villa from its location on the ridge to the sea shore, which was probably only between 100 and 200 metres away from the bottom of the hill in Roman times. The shoreline has since changed, leaving the site further inland than it was in antiquity. It was first excavated between 1757 and 1762 when the villa was called the "First Complex" to distinguish it from
12445-454: The southern side, partially excavated, approximately 140m long, with arcades supported by spiral columns which collapsed during the 1980 Irpinia earthquake : the ceilings are painted with scenes depicting Melpomene , the Apotheosis of Athena etc. In this peristyle was a sundial found during the excavation in a deposit as the villa at the time of the eruption was under renovation; the sundial
12576-582: The start of the war, there were largely two theatres: a northern theatre from Picenum to the Fucine Lake and a southern theatre including Samnium. Sulla served as one of the legates in the southern theatre assigned to consul Lucius Julius Caesar . In the first year of fighting, Roman strategy was largely one of containment, attempting to stop the revolting allies from spreading their rebellion into Roman-controlled territory. Sulla, in southern Italy, operated largely defensively on Lucius Julius Caesar's flank while
12707-479: The state and weaken the plebeian tribunes by eliminating the comitia tributa as a legislative body and requiring that tribunes first receive senatorial approval for legislation; some scholars, however, reject Appian's account as mere retrojection of legislation passed during Sulla's dictatorship. He sent his army back to Capua and then conducted the elections for that year, which yielded a resounding rejection of him and his allies. His enemy, Lucius Cornelius Cinna ,
12838-399: The thermal cure offers the chance of practicing physiotherapy, hyperbaric medicine, massages, mud baths, inhalation of the sulphurous waters, rehabilitating, dermatological, aesthetic and gynaecological cures. Instead the hydroponic park allows practicing hydrotherapy, that is drinking the specific kind of water to cure specific pathologies, while walking through the park. Moreover, in summer in
12969-617: The time Sulla reached adulthood, Sulla found himself impoverished. He might have been disinherited, though it was "more likely" that his father simply had nothing to bequeath. Lacking ready money, Sulla spent his youth among Rome’s comedians, actors, lute players, and dancers. During these times on the stage, after initially only singing, he started writing plays, Atellan farces , a kind of crude comedy. Plutarch mentions that during his last marriage to Valeria , he still kept company with "actresses, musicians, and dancers, drinking with them on couches night and day". Sulla almost certainly received
13100-441: The time of his birth. Publius Cornelius Rufinus , one of Sulla's ancestors and also the last member of his family to be consul, was banished from the Senate after having been caught possessing more than 10 pounds of silver plate. Sulla's family thereafter did not reach the highest offices of the state until Sulla himself. His father may have served as praetor, but details are unclear; his father married twice and Sulla's stepmother
13231-509: The tourism of Castellammare since the 19th century. To take advantage of the waters’ property there are two different thermal baths, one in the historical centre of the town and the other on the hill. Besides, the two most important waters of Castellammare, Acqua della Madonna and Acetosella, have been known since the time of Pliny the Elder , who suggested to drink them in case of calculosis , today they are sold as far away as America. The Ancient Thermal Baths were inaugurated in 1836 and since
13362-468: The two men likely cooperated well. But Catulus' army was defeated in the eastern Alps and withdrew from Venetia and thence to the southern side of the river Po . At the same time, Marius had annihilated the Cimbri's allies, the Teutones, at the Battle of Aquae Sextiae . Marius, elected again to the consulship of 101, came to Catulus' aid; Sulla, in charge of supporting army provisioning, did so competently and
13493-405: The vast necropolis discovered in 1957 on via Madonna delle Grazie, situated between Gragnano and Santa Maria la Carità . The necropolis of over 300 tombs containing imported pottery of Corinthian, Etruscan, Chalcidian and Attic origin clearly shows that the town had major commercial contacts. The necropolis, covering an area of 15,000 m (160,000 sq ft), was used from the 7th to
13624-435: The villa with the shore. Named for the fresco depicting Dionysus saving Ariadne from the island of Dia (a mythological name for Naxos ), this villa is particularly famous for its frescoes, many of which depict light, winged figures. Notably some of the most exquisite and famous Roman frescoes were found in bedrooms 23 to 26 on Weber's plan, the latter room having an especially fine decor with 18 outstanding frescoes. It
13755-485: The violent earthquake of Irpinia caused huge damage to the villas and destroyed part of the colonnade of the upper peristyle of Villa San Marco. It caused the closure of the excavations to the public. Nevertheless, in 1981 part of the courtyard of Villa Arianna was found, inside which were two agricultural wagons, one of which was restored and put on view to the public. In the rest of the eighties and nineties, only maintenance and restoration works were carried out, except for
13886-409: The war started, several Roman commanders were bribed ( Bestia and Spurius ); and one ( Aulus Postumius Albinus ) was defeated. In 109, Rome sent Quintus Caecilius Metellus to continue the war. Gaius Marius , a lieutenant of Metellus, returned to Rome to stand for the consulship in 107 BC. Marius was elected consul and, through assignment by tribunician legislation, took over the campaign. Sulla
14017-526: Was a Roman general and statesman . He won the first major civil war in Roman history and became the first man of the Republic to seize power through force. Sulla held the office of consul twice and revived the dictatorship . A gifted general, he achieved successes in wars against foreign and domestic opponents. Sulla rose to prominence during the war against the Numidian king Jugurtha , whom he captured as
14148-407: Was a law transferring the command against Mithridates to Marius. Thus, Sulla was presented with a choice. He could acknowledge the law as valid. To do so would mean total humiliation at the hands of his opponents, the end of his political career, and perhaps even further danger to his life. Or he could attempt to reverse it and regain his command. He can hardly have been in any doubt. Like Caesar, he
14279-524: Was able to feed both armies. The two armies then crossed the Po and attacked the Cimbri. After the failure of negotiations, the Romans and Cimbri engaged in the Battle of the Raudian Field in which the Cimbri were routed and destroyed. Victorious, Marius and Catulus were both granted triumphs as the commanding generals. Refusing to stand for an aedileship (which, due to its involvement in hosting public games,
14410-572: Was also severely strained financially. While Rome was preparing to move against Pontus, Mithridates arranged the massacre of some eighty thousand Roman and Italian expatriates and their families – known today as the Asiatic vespers – and confiscated their properties. Mithridates' successes against the Romans incited a revolt by the Athenians against Roman rule. The Athenian politician Aristion had himself elected as strategos epi ton hoplon and established
14541-475: Was an outsider in politics, totally self-centred in pursuit of his ambitions, always ready to break the rules of the political game to achieve his objective... If Sulla hesitated it can only have been because he was not sure how his army would react. Speaking to the men, Sulla complained to them of the outrageous behaviour of Marius and Sulpicius. He hinted to them that Marius would find other men to fight Mithridates, forcing them to give up opportunities to plunder
14672-403: Was assassinated in 91 BC while trying again to pass a bill extending Roman citizenship, the Italians revolted. The same year, Bocchus paid for the erection of a statue depicting Sulla's capture of Jugurtha. This may have been related to Sulla's campaign for the consulship. Regardless, if he had immediate plans for a consulship, they were forced into the background at the outbreak of war. At
14803-404: Was assigned by lot to his staff. When Marius took over the war, he entrusted Sulla to organise cavalry forces in Italy needed to pursue the mobile Numidians into the desert. If Sulla had married one of the Julii Caesares, this could explain Marius' willingness to entrust such an important task to a young man with no military experience, as Marius too had married into that family. Under Marius,
14934-479: Was at Capua, but Norbanus refused to treat and withdrew to Praeneste as Sulla advanced. While Sulla was moving in the south, Scipio fought Pompey in Picenum but was defeated when his troops again deserted. For 82 BC, the consular elections returned Gnaeus Papirius Carbo , in his third consulship, with the younger Gaius Marius , the son of the seven-time consul, who was then twenty-six. The remainder of 83 BC
15065-400: Was being renovated at the time of the eruption as shown by building materials present and displaced artefacts. Nevertheless, it was lavishly decorated with frescoes, with stucco work, floor mosaics and wall mosaics all of very high artistic quality, many of which were removed and are now held in museums. This villa derived its name from a nearby chapel that existed in the 18th century. It was
15196-412: Was both necessary to ensure the survival of his army and also to relieve a brigade of six thousand men cut off in Thessaly. He declined battle with Pontus at the hill Philoboetus near Chaeronea before manoeuvring to capture higher ground and build earthworks. After some days, both sides engaged in battle. The Romans neutralised a Pontic charge of scythed chariots before pushing the Pontic phalanx back across
15327-846: Was customary" – to Cilicia in Asia Minor . While governing Cilicia, Sulla received orders from the Senate to restore Ariobarzanes to the throne of Cappadocia . Ariobarzanes had been driven out by Mithridates VI of Pontus , who wanted to install one of his own sons ( Ariarathes ) on the Cappadocian throne. Despite initial difficulties, Sulla was successful with minimal resources and preparation; with few Roman troops, he hastily levied allied soldiers and advanced quickly into rugged terrain before routing superior enemy forces. His troops were sufficiently impressed by his leadership that they hailed him imperator . Sulla's campaign in Cappadocia had led him to
15458-551: Was dealt a blow when he was brought up on charges of extorting Ariobarzanes. Even though the prosecutor declined to show up on the day of the trial, leading to Sulla's victory by default, Sulla's ambitions were frustrated. Relations between Rome and its allies (the socii ), had deteriorated over the years up to 91 BC. From 133 BC and the start of Tiberius Gracchus ' land reforms, Italian communities were displaced from de jure Roman public lands over which no title had been enforced for generations. Various proposals to give
15589-411: Was decidedly anti-Sullan; many people feared Sulla's wrath and still held memories of his extremely unpopular occupation of Rome during his consulship. The Senate moved the senatus consultum ultimum against him and was successful in levying large amount of men and materiel from the Italians. Sulla, buoyed by his previous looting in Asia, was able to advance quickly and largely without the ransacking of
15720-407: Was elected consul for 87 BC in place of his candidate; his nephew was rejected as plebeian tribune while Marius' nephew was successful. Cinna, even before the election, said he would prosecute Sulla at the conclusion of the latter's consular term. After the elections, Sulla forced the consuls designate to swear to uphold his laws. And for his consular colleague, he attempted to transfer to him
15851-426: Was erected around the 9th century on a hill commanding the southern side of the Gulf of Naples. It was restored during the reign of Frederick II of Hohenstaufen and enlarged by King Charles I of Anjou . The comune, previously called Castellamare , assumed the name Castellammare on 22 January 1863, and the current name on 31 May 1912. The excavation of Roman villas preserved by the eruption of Vesuvius in AD 79
15982-490: Was evident that Rome's relations with the Pontic king, Mithridates VI Eupator , were deteriorating and that the consuls of 88 would be assigned an extremely lucrative and glorious command against Pontus. Pompey Strabo may have coveted a second consulship for similar reasons. The question as to whom to send against Mithridates would be one of the sources of the following domestic crisis. Shortly after Sulla's election, probably in
16113-493: Was excavated in 1963 then reburied; in 1967 part of the "Second Complex" and the Villa del Pastore resurfaced and was reburied in 1970; in 1974 a villa belonging to the ager stabianus was discovered located in the current municipality of Sant'Antonio Abate but whose excavation has not yet been completed. In addition other villas, especially rural ones, were discovered throughout the ager stabianus , especially between Santa Maria la Carità and Gragnano and all were reburied. In 1980
16244-415: Was extremely expensive), Sulla became a candidate for the praetorship in 99 BC. He was, however, defeated. In memoirs related via Plutarch, he claimed this was because the people demanded that he first stand for the aedilate so – due to his friendship with Bocchus, a rich foreign monarch, – he might spend money on games. Whether this story of Sulla's defeat is true is unclear. Regardless, Sulla stood for
16375-540: Was fought in early summer around the same time the Athenian Acropolis was taken. The later battle of Orchomenus was fought in high summer but before the start of the autumn rains. The Pontic casualties given in Plutarch and Appian, the main sources for the battles, are exaggerated; Sulla's report that he suffered merely fifteen losses is not credible. Sulla decamped his army from Attica toward central Greece. Having exhausted available provisions near Athens, doing so
16506-416: Was of considerable wealth, which certainly helped the young Sulla's ambitions. One story, "as false as it is charming", relates that when Sulla was a baby, his nurse was carrying him around the streets, until a strange woman walked up to her and said, " Puer tibi et reipublicae tuae felix ", which can be translated as, "The boy will be a source of luck to you and your state". After his father's death, around
16637-463: Was possible as long as Mithridates survived. However, this and Sulla's delay in Asia are "not enough to absolve him of the charge of being more concerned with revenge on opponents in Italy than with Mithridates". The extra time spent in Asia, moreover, equipped him with forces and money later put to good use in Italy. Sulla crossed the Adriatic for Brundisium in spring of 83 BC with five legions of Mithridatic veterans, capturing Brundisium without
16768-543: Was reburied by 1782 and so failed to establish itself as a destination for travellers on the Grand Tour . Many of the objects and frescoes taken from these villas are now in the National Archaeological Museum of Naples . The settlement at Stabiae arose from as early as the 7th century BC due to the favourable climate and its strategic and commercial significance as evocatively documented by materials found in
16899-506: Was spared total destruction "in recognition of [its] glorious past" but the city was sacked. In need of resources, Sulla sacked the temples of Epidaurus , Delphi , and Olympia ; after a battle with the Pontic general Archelaus outside Piraeus, Sulla's forces forced the Pontic garrison to withdraw by sea. Capturing the city, Sulla had it destroyed. In the summer of 86 BC, two major battles were fought in Boeotia . The Battle of Chaeronea
17030-404: Was subsequently placed in its original position. The baths of the villa are of considerable size on a triangular plot. The remains of the frescoes show they were finely decorated with depictions of large pendulous branches. Access to the baths is via an atrium , painted with wrestlers and boxers, followed by apodyterium , tepidarium , frigidarium , palaestra and caldarium : the pool in
17161-557: Was to restore and build an archaeological park. The year 2006 was eventful: following clearance on the Varano hill, rooms belonging to the Villa of Anteros and Heracles , already discovered by the Bourbons in 1749, but reburied and lost, were brought to light. In July the RAS revealed the upper peristyle of Villa San Marco and in its south-east corner Stabiae's first human skeleton was also found, probably
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