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44-432: A spokesperson , spokesman or spokeswoman , is someone engaged or elected to speak on behalf of others. In the present media-sensitive world, many organizations are increasingly likely to employ professionals who have received formal training in journalism, communications , public relations and public affairs in this role in order to ensure that public announcements are made in the most appropriate fashion and through

88-623: A humanities perspective, communication is concerned with rhetoric and persuasion (traditional graduate programs in communication studies trace their history to the rhetoricians of Ancient Greece ). Humanities approaches to communication often overlap with history , philosophy , English , and cultural studies . Communication research informs politicians and policy makers , educators , strategists , legislators , business magnates , managers , social workers , non-governmental organizations , non-profit organizations , and people interested in resolving communication issues in general. There

132-398: A crucial role in fostering social cohesion in the military, as it allows soldiers to build relationships, establish trust, and work together towards common objectives. In past centuries communicating a message usually required someone to go to the destination, bringing the message. Thus, the term communication often implied the ability to transport people and supplies. A place under siege

176-406: A day-to-day level and for more routine announcements, the job may be delegated to the corporate communications or investor relations departments (or equivalents), who will act as spokespeople. As an example, in the particle physics community, large collaborations of physicists elect one (or two) spokespeople or leader(s) of the collaboration. The spokesperson in such cases is the lead scientist of

220-585: A field of study, communication is applied to journalism , business , mass media , public relations , marketing , news and television broadcasting , interpersonal and intercultural communication, education , public administration , the problem of media-adequacy —and beyond. As all spheres of human activity and conveyance are affected by the interplay between social communication structure and individual agency, communication studies has gradually expanded its focus to other domains, such as health , medicine , economy , military and penal institutions ,

264-536: A military message via a commercial communications network . The message may come from a military network , such as a tape relay network, a point-to-point telegraph network, a radio-telegraph network, or the Defense Switched Network . Commercial refiling of a message will usually require a reformatting of the message, particularly the heading. A signal corps is a military branch, responsible for military communications (signals). Many countries maintain

308-472: A much more rapid pace than ever before. This then sparked ideas for even more advanced ways of communication to later be created and discovered. The social science study was fully recognized as a legitimate discipline after World War II . Prior to being established as its own discipline, communication studies, was formed from three other major studies no: psychology, sociology, and political science. Communication studies focus on communication as central to

352-399: A quantitative approach. MSU was soon followed by important departments of communication at Purdue University , University of Texas-Austin , Stanford University , University of Iowa , University of Illinois , University of Pennsylvania , The University of Southern California , and Northwestern University . Associations related to Communication Studies were founded or expanded during

396-628: A relatively new discipline, however, there are programs and departments to support and teach this topic in about 13 Canadian universities and many colleges as well. The Communication et information from Laval, and the Canadian Journal of Communication from McGill University in Montréal, are two journals that exist in Canada. There are also organizations and associations, both national and in Québec, that appeal to

440-409: A small portion of these activities are directly related to combat actions. Modern concepts of network-centric warfare (NCW) rely on network -oriented methods of communications and control to make existing forces more effective. Drums , horns , flags , and riders on horseback were some of the early methods the military used to send messages over distances. The advent of distinctive signals led to

484-541: A textbook The Process and Effects of Mass Communication (1954) that helped define the field, partly by claiming Paul Lazarsfeld , Harold Lasswell , Carl Hovland , and Kurt Lewin as its founding forefathers. Schramm established three important communication institutes: the Institute of Communications Research (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign), the Institute for Communication Research ( Stanford University ), and

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528-408: A variety of qualitative and quantitative techniques. The linguistic and cultural turns of the mid-20th century led to increasingly interpretative , hermeneutic , and philosophic approaches towards the analysis of communication. Conversely, the end of the 1990s and the beginning of the 2000s have seen the rise of new analytically, mathematically, and computationally focused techniques. As

572-442: Is an early example of this. Later, the terms signals and signaller became words referring to a highly-distinct military occupation dealing with general communications methods (similar to those in civil use) rather than with weapons . Present-day military forces of an informational society conduct intense and complicated communicating activities on a daily basis, using modern telecommunications and computing methods. Only

616-474: Is designed for warfare, it also supports intelligence-gathering and communication between adversaries, and thus sometimes prevents war. The six categories of military comms are: The alert measurement systems are various states of alertness or readiness for the armed forces used around the world during a state of war, act of terrorism or a military attack against a state. They are known by different acronyms, such as DEFCON , or defense readiness condition, used by

660-411: Is often a great deal of crossover between social research , cultural research, market research , and other statistical fields. Recent critiques have been made about the homogeneity of communication scholarship. For example, Chakravartty, et al. (2018) find that white scholars comprise the vast majority of publications, citations, and editorial positions. From a post-colonial point of view, this state

704-423: Is problematic because communication studies engages with a wide range of social justice concerns. Business communication emerged as a field of study in the late 20th century, due to the centrality of communication within business relationships. The scope of the field is difficult to define because of the various ways in which communication is used between employers, employees, consumers, and brands. Because of this,

748-485: Is the communications coordinator primarily responsible for providing information to the public through media, pursuant to and limited by any applicable laws. Communication studies Scholarly communication theorists focus primarily on refining the theoretical understanding of communication, examining statistics in order to help substantiate claims. The range of social scientific methods to study communication has been expanding. Communication researchers draw upon

792-575: The East-West Communication Institute ( Honolulu ). The patterns of scholarly work in communication studies that were set in motion at these institutes continue to this day. Many of Schramm's students, such as Everett Rogers and David Berlo went on to make important contributions of their own. The first college of communication was founded at Michigan State University in 1958, led by scholars from Schramm's original ICR and dedicated to studying communication scientifically using

836-1088: The International Communication Association (ICA). Undergraduate curricula aim to prepare students to interrogate the nature of communication in society, and the development of communication as a specific field. The National Communication Association (NCA) recognizes several distinct but often overlapping specializations within the broader communication discipline including: technology , critical-cultural, health , intercultural , interpersonal -small group, mass communication, organizational , political , rhetorical, and environmental communication . Students take courses in these subject areas. Other programs and courses often integrated in communication programs include journalism , rhetoric , film criticism , theatre , public relations , political science (e.g., political campaign strategies, public speaking, effects of media on elections), as well as radio , television , computer-mediated communication , film production , and new media . Many colleges in

880-581: The University of Chicago , and the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign , where early pioneers of the field worked after the Second World War . Wilbur Schramm is considered the founder of the field of communication studies in the United States. Schramm was hugely influential in establishing communication as a field of study and in forming departments of communication studies across universities in

924-499: The 1950s. The National Society for the Study of Communication (NSSC) was founded in 1950 to encourage scholars to pursue communication research as a social science. This Association launched the Journal of Communication in the same year as its founding. Like many communication associations founded around this decade, the name of the association changed with the field. In 1968 the name changed to

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968-480: The Internet , social capital , and the role of communicative activity in the development of scientific knowledge . Communication, a natural human behavior, became a topic of study in the 20th century. As communication technologies developed, so did the serious study of communication. During this time, a renewed interest in the studies of rhetoric, such as persuasion and public address, was created, which ultimately laid

1012-446: The U.S. Armed Forces. Cryptography is the study of methods of converting messages to a form unreadable except to one who knows how to decrypt them. This ancient military comms art gained new importance with the rise of radio systems whose signals traveled far and were easily intercepted. Cryptographic software is also widely used in civilian commerce. In United States military communications systems, commercial refile refers to sending

1056-474: The United States offer a variety of different majors within the realm of communication studies, consisting of programs of study in the areas mentioned above. Communication studies is often perceived by many in society as being primarily centered around the media arts, however, those that become communication studies graduates could move on to have careers in areas ranging from media arts to public advocacy to marketing to non-profit organizations and even more. With

1100-484: The United States. He was the first individual to identify himself as a communication scholar; he created the first academic degree-granting programs with communication in their name; and he trained the first generation of communication scholars. Schramm had a background in English literature and developed communication studies partly by merging existing programs in speech communication, rhetoric, and journalism. He also edited

1144-412: The collaboration, not a public speaker. Each collaboration chooses the roles and responsibilities of the spokesperson for internal purposes, but typically spokespeople also have defined roles for liaising with the host laboratory and/or funding agencies. In certain governmental organizations (i.e. city, county, school district, state government and police/fire departments), a public information officer

1188-934: The community and patients; enhancing organizational visibility; marketing products and services; establishing a venue for acquiring news about activities, promotions, and fund-raising; providing a channel for patient resources and education; and providing customer service and support." Military communications Military communications or military signals involve all aspects of communications , or conveyance of information , by armed forces . Examples from Jane's Military Communications include text, audio, facsimile , tactical ground-based communications , naval signalling , terrestrial microwave , tropospheric scatter , satellite communications systems and equipment, surveillance and signal analysis , security , direction finding and jamming . The most urgent purposes are to communicate information to commanders and orders from them. Military communications span from pre-history to

1232-563: The early influence of federal institutional inquiries, notably the 1951 Massey Commission , which "investigated the overall state of culture in Canada", the study of communication in Canada has frequently focused on the development of a cohesive national culture, and on infrastructural empires of social and material circulation. Although influenced by the American Communication tradition and British Cultural Studies , Communication studies in Canada has been more directly oriented toward

1276-408: The field of business. Implementation of modern business communication curriculums are enhancing the study of business communication as a whole, while further preparing those to be able to effectively communicate in the business community. Health communication is a multidisciplinary field that practices the application of "communication evidence, strategy, theory, and creativity" in order to advance

1320-483: The focus of the field is usually placed on the demands of employers, which is more universally understood by the revision of the American Assembly of Collegiate Schools of business standards to emphasize written and oral communication as an important characteristic in the curriculum. Business communication studies, therefore, revolve around the, ever changing, written and oral communication aspects directly related to

1364-695: The formation of the signal corps , a group specialized in the tactics of military communications. The signal corps evolved into a distinctive occupation where the signaller became a highly technical job dealing with all available communications methods including civil ones. In the middle 20th century radio equipment came to dominate the field. Many modern pieces of military communications equipment are built to both encrypt and decode transmissions and survive rough treatment in hostile climates. They use different frequencies to send signals to other radios and to satellites. Military communications – or "comms" – are activities, equipment, techniques, and tactics used by

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1408-422: The foundation for several of the forms of communication studies that we know of today. The focus of communication studies developed further in the 20th century, eventually including means of communication such as mass communication, interpersonal communication, and oral interpretation. When World War I ended, the interest in studying communication intensified. The methods of communication that had been used during

1452-581: The healthcare system. It brought elevated awareness to different avenues including promotional activities and communication between heath professionals and their employees, patients, and constituents. "Efforts to create marketing-oriented organizations called for the widespread dissemination of information", putting a spotlight on theories of "communication, the communication process, and the techniques that were being utilized to communicate in other settings." Now, health care organizations of all types are using things like social media. "Uses include communicating with

1496-509: The human experience, which involves understanding how people behave in creating, exchanging, and interpreting messages. Today, this accepted discipline now also encompasses more modern forms of communication studies as well, such as gender and communication, intercultural communication, political communication, health communication, and organizational communication. The institutionalization of communication studies in U.S. higher education and research has often been traced to Columbia University ,

1540-542: The military in some of the most hostile areas of the earth and in challenging environments such as battlefields, on land (compare radio in a box ), underwater and also in air. Military comms include command, control and communications and intelligence and were known as the C3I model before computers were fully integrated. The U.S. Army expanded the model to C4I when it recognized the vital role played by automated computer equipment to send and receive large, bulky amounts of data. In

1584-453: The modern world, most nations attempt to minimize the risk of war caused by miscommunication or inadequate communication. As a result, military communication is intense and complicated, and often motivates the development of advanced technology for remote systems such as satellites and aircraft, both crewed and uncrewed, as well as computers. Computers and their varied applications have revolutionized military comms. Although military communication

1628-444: The most appropriate channels to maximize the impact of favorable messages and minimize the unfavorable. Celebrity spokespeople such as popular athletes (such as Michael Jordan for Nike and Coca-Cola ) or entertainers (such as Beyoncé for Pepsi and L'Oreal ) are often chosen as spokespeople for commercial advertising. Unlike giving a personal testimonial , it is the job of spokespeople to faithfully represent and advocate for

1672-413: The organization's positions, even when these conflict with their own opinion. As a result, spokespeople are generally selected from experienced, long-time employees or other people who are known to support the organization's goals. A corporation may be represented in public by its chief executive officer, chairperson or president, chief financial officer, counsel or external legal advisor. In addition, on

1716-574: The present. The earliest military communications were delivered by runners . Later, communications progressed to visual and audible signals, and then advanced into the electronic age. Today, there are many perspectives used to examine how troops around the world communicate. The Word of Command: Communication and Cohesion in the Military by Anthony King states how Military sociologists have attempted to explain how military institutions develop and maintain high levels of social cohesion. Communication plays

1760-462: The specific interests that are targeted towards these academics. These specific journals consist of representatives from the industry of communication, the government, and members of the public as a whole. Communication studies integrates aspects of both social sciences and the humanities. As a social science , the discipline overlaps with sociology , psychology , anthropology , biology , political science , economics , and public policy . From

1804-533: The state and the policy apparatus, for example the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission . Influential thinkers from the Canadian communication tradition include Harold Innis , Marshall McLuhan , Florian Sauvageau, Gertrude Robinson, Marc Raboy, Dallas Smythe , James R. Taylor , François Cooren , Gail Guthrie Valaskakis and George Grant . Communication studies within Canada are

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1848-411: The war had challenged the beliefs many people had on the limits of it that existed prior to these events. Innovations were invented during this period of time that no one had ever seen before, like the aircraft telephones and throat microphones. However, new ways of communicating that had been discovered, especially the use of morse code through portable morse code machines, helped troops to communicate in

1892-705: The well-being of people and populations. The term was first coined in 1975 by the International Communication Association and, in 1997, Health communication was officially recognized in the broader fields of Public Health Education and Health Promotion by the American Public Health Association. The discipline integrates components of various theories and models, with a focus on social marketing. It uses marketing to develop "activities and interventions designed to positively change behaviors." This emergence affected several dynamics of

1936-539: Was one that lost communication in both senses. The association between transport and messaging declined in recent centuries. The first military communications involved the use of runners or the sending and receiving of simple signals (sometimes encoded to be unrecognizable). The first distinctive uses of military communications were called semaphore . Modern units specializing in these tactics are usually designated as signal corps . The Roman system of military communication ( cursus publicus or cursus vehicularis )

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