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71-576: Spode is an English brand of pottery and homewares produced in Stoke-on-Trent , England. Spode was founded by Josiah Spode (1733–1797) in 1770, and was responsible for perfecting two important techniques that were crucial to the worldwide success of the English pottery industry in the 19th century: transfer printing on earthenware and bone china . Spode perfected the technique for transfer printing in underglaze blue on fine earthenware in 1783–1784 –

142-428: A stoneware that came closer to porcelain than any previously, and introduced his "Stone-China" in 1813. It was light in body, greyish-white and gritty where it was not glazed and approached translucence in the early wares. Spode pattern books, which record about 75,000 patterns, survive from about 1800. In Spode's similar "Felspar porcelain", introduced on the market in 1821, felspar was an ingredient, substituted for

213-457: A development that led to the launch in 1816 of Spode's Blue Italian range, which has remained in production ever since. The company is credited with developing, around 1790, the formula for bone china. Josiah Spode's son, Josiah Spode II, successfully marketed bone china. In 2008, the Copeland Spode company went through some financial troubles. It was taken over in 2009 by Portmeirion Group ,

284-400: A differentiated culture which was earlier thought to be typical Indus Valley civilisation (IVC) culture. Pottery is durable, and fragments, at least, often survive long after artifacts made from less-durable materials have decayed past recognition. Combined with other evidence, the study of pottery artefacts is helpful in the development of theories on the organisation, economic condition and

355-484: A figure of "Chinaman" that are moulded from a cast of a Chinese original. Sauce-boats and their saucers, with shapes adapted from silversmithing, are among the most common pieces. Decoration could be underglaze blue "usually badly blurred and frequently in poorly executed chinoiserie designs, and overglaze enamels . The bodies fall into two different types, and the glaze formula was also changed at some point, improving it considerably. Cookworthy's Plymouth factory

426-446: A gum solution. The tissue was then floated off in water, leaving the pattern adhering to the plate. This was then dipped in the glaze and returned to the kiln for the glost firing . Blue underglaze transfer became a standard feature of Staffordshire pottery. Spode also used on-glaze transfers for other wares. The well-known Spode blue-and-white dinner services with engraved sporting scenes and Italian views were developed under Josiah Spode

497-459: A locality. The main ingredient of the body is clay . Some different types used for pottery include: It is common for clays and other raw materials to be mixed to produce clay bodies suited to specific purposes. Various mineral processing techniques are often utilised before mixing the raw materials, with comminution being effectively universal for non-clay materials. Examples of non-clay materials include: The production of pottery includes

568-416: A more distant connection between groups, such as trade in the same market or even relatively close settlements. Techniques that require more studied replication (i.e., the selection of clay and the fashioning of clay) may indicate a closer connection between peoples, as these methods are usually only transmissible between potters and those otherwise directly involved in production. Such a relationship requires

639-536: A pottery and homewares company based in Stoke-on-Trent. Many items in Spode's Blue Italian and Woodland ranges are made at Portmeirion Group's factory in Stoke-on-Trent. Josiah Spode is known to have worked for potter Thomas Whieldon from the age of 16 until he was 21. He then worked in a number of partnerships until he went into business for himself, renting a small potworks in Stoke-on-Trent in 1767; in 1776 he completed

710-581: A rough guide, modern earthenwares are normally fired at temperatures in the range of about 1,000  °C (1,830 °F) to 1,200 °C (2,190 °F); stonewares at between about 1,100 °C (2,010 °F) to 1,300 °C (2,370 °F); and porcelains at between about 1,200 °C (2,190 °F) to 1,400 °C (2,550 °F). Historically, reaching high temperatures was a long-lasting challenge, and earthenware can be fired effectively as low as 600 °C (1,112 °F), achievable in primitive pit firing . The time spent at any particular temperature

781-560: A useful interactive online exhibition was launched in October 2010. Josiah Spode I is credited with the introduction of underglaze blue transfer printing on earthenware in 1783–84. The Worcester and Caughley factories had commenced transfer printing underglaze and over glaze on porcelain in the early 1750s, and from 1756 overglaze printing was also applied to earthenware and stoneware. The processes for underglaze and overglaze decoration were very different. Overglaze "bat printing" on earthenware

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852-512: A waterproof barrier, and improve its durability. Below are the major types of glazing commonly used in pottery: 1. Glossy Glaze - Produces a shiny, reflective surface. - Highlights intricate patterns and textures. - Often used for decorative purposes. 2. Matte Glaze - Provides a smooth, non-reflective finish. - Suitable for modern and minimalist designs. - Ideal for functional wares like plates and mugs, as it minimizes glare. 3. Transparent Glaze - Can be glossy or matte. - Allows

923-401: Is also important, the combination of heat and time is known as heatwork . Kilns can be monitored by pyrometers , thermocouples and pyrometric devices . The atmosphere within a kiln during firing can affect the appearance of the body and glaze. Key to this is the differing colours of the various oxides of iron, such as iron(III) oxide (also known as ferric oxide or Fe 2 O 3 ) which

994-482: Is associated with brown-red colours, whilst iron(II) oxide (also known as ferrous oxide or FeO) is associated with much darker colours, including black. The oxygen concentration in the kiln influences the type, and relative proportions, of these iron oxides in fired the body and glaze: for example, where there is a lack of oxygen during firing the associated carbon monoxide (CO) will readily react with oxygen in Fe 2 O 3 in

1065-400: Is important part of archaeology for understanding the archaeological culture of the excavated site by studying the fabric of artifacts, such as their usage, source material composition, decorative pattern, color of patterns, etc. This helps to understand characteristics, sophistication , habits, technology, tools, trade, etc. of the people who made and used the pottery. Carbon dating reveals

1136-426: Is lit and the woman runs around the circumference of the mound touching the burning torch to the dried grass. Some mounds are still being constructed as others are already burning. Pottery may be decorated in many different ways. Some decoration can be done before or after the firing, and may be undertaken before or after glazing. Glaze is a glassy coating on pottery, and reasons to use it include decoration, ensuring

1207-425: Is made by heating materials, generally including kaolin , in a kiln to temperatures between 1,200 and 1,400 °C (2,200 and 2,600 °F). This is higher than used for the other types, and achieving these temperatures was a long struggle, as well as realizing what materials were needed. The toughness, strength and translucence of porcelain, relative to other types of pottery, arises mainly from vitrification and

1278-633: Is normally fired below 1200 °C. Because unglazed earthenware is porous, it has limited utility for the storage of liquids or as tableware. However, earthenware has had a continuous history from the Neolithic period to today. It can be made from a wide variety of clays, some of which fire to a buff, brown or black colour, with iron in the constituent minerals resulting in a reddish-brown. Reddish coloured varieties are called terracotta , especially when unglazed or used for sculpture. The development of ceramic glaze made impermeable pottery possible, improving

1349-481: Is not always the case; for example fritware uses no or little clay, so falls outside these groups. Historic pottery of all these types is often grouped as either "fine" wares, relatively expensive and well-made, and following the aesthetic taste of the culture concerned, or alternatively "coarse", "popular", "folk" or "village" wares, mostly undecorated, or simply so, and often less well-made. Cooking in pottery became less popular once metal pots became available, but

1420-430: Is placed within the context of linguistic and migratory patterns, it becomes an even more prevalent category of social artifact. As proposed by Olivier P. Gosselain, it is possible to understand ranges of cross-cultural interaction by looking closely at the chaîne opératoire of ceramic production. The methods used to produce pottery in early Sub-Saharan Africa are divisible into three categories: techniques visible to

1491-405: Is shaped by a variety of techniques, which include: Prior to firing, the water in an article needs to be removed. A number of different stages, or conditions of the article, can be identified: Firing produces permanent and irreversible chemical and physical changes in the body. It is only after firing that the article or material is pottery. In lower-fired pottery, the changes include sintering ,

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1562-455: Is still used for dishes that benefit from the qualities of pottery cooking, typically slow cooking in an oven, such as biryani , cassoulet , daube , tagine , jollof rice , kedjenou , cazuela and types of baked beans . The earliest forms of pottery were made from clays that were fired at low temperatures, initially in pit-fires or in open bonfires . They were hand formed and undecorated. Earthenware can be fired as low as 600 °C, and

1633-400: The "clay matrix" – composed of grains of less than 0.02 mm grains which can be seen using the high-powered microscopes or a scanning electron microscope , and the "clay inclusions" – which are larger grains of clay and could be seen with the naked eye or a low-power binocular microscope. For geologists, fabric analysis means spatial arrangement of minerals in a rock. For Archaeologists,

1704-566: The "fabric analysis" of pottery entails the study of clay matrix and inclusions in the clay body as well as the firing temperature and conditions . Analysis is done to examine the following 3 in detail: The Six fabrics of Kalibangan is a good example of fabric analysis. Body , or clay body, is the material used to form pottery. Thus a potter might prepare, or order from a supplier, such an amount of earthenware body, stoneware body or porcelain body. The compositions of clay bodies varies considerably, and include both prepared and 'as dug';

1775-506: The Bow porcelain factory , Chelsea porcelain factory , Royal Worcester and Royal Crown Derby factories had, before Spode, established a proportion of about 40–45 per cent calcined bone in the formula as standard, it was Spode who first abandoned the practice of calcining the bone with some of the other ingredients, and used a mix of bone ash , china stone and kaolin , which remains the basic recipe of bone china. The traditional bone china recipe

1846-528: The Cornish stone in his standard bone china body, giving rise to his slightly misleading name "Felspar porcelain", to what is in fact an extremely refined stoneware comparable to the rival "Mason's ironstone", produced by Josiah II's nephew, Charles James Mason, and patented in 1813 Spode's "Felspar porcelain" continued into the Copeland & Garrett phase of the company (1833–1847). Armorial services were provided for

1917-625: The Honourable East India Company , 1823, and the Worshipful Company of Goldsmiths , c 1824. Some of the ware employed underglaze blue and iron red with touches of gilding in imitation of " Imari porcelain " that had been introduced on Spode's bone china in the first decade of the century: the most familiar "Tobacco-leaf pattern" (2061) continued to be made by Spode's successors, William Taylor Copeland , and then "W.T. Copeland & Sons, late Spode". Messrs Spode were succeeded in

1988-526: The Russian Far East (14,000 BC), Sub-Saharan Africa (9,400 BC), South America (9,000s–7,000s BC), and the Middle East (7,000s–6,000s BC). Pottery is made by forming a clay body into objects of a desired shape and heating them to high temperatures (600–1600 °C) in a bonfire , pit or kiln , which induces reactions that lead to permanent changes including increasing the strength and rigidity of

2059-930: The Spode Museum Trust opened the Spode Works Visitor Centre in part of the historic Spode factory. Pottery Pottery is one of the oldest human inventions , originating before the Neolithic period , with ceramic objects such as the Gravettian culture Venus of Dolní Věstonice figurine discovered in the Czech Republic dating back to 29,000–25,000 BC. However, the earliest known pottery vessels were discovered in Jiangxi , China, which date back to 18,000 BC. Other early Neolithic and pre-Neolithic pottery artifacts have been found, in Jōmon Japan (10,500 BC),

2130-577: The Sèvres manufactory , in his Traité des Arts Céramiques , and by M. L. Solon hailed as a revolutionary improvement. Many examples of the elder Spode's productions were destroyed in a fire at Alexandra Palace , London in 1873, where they were included in an exhibition of nearly five thousand specimens of English pottery and porcelain. The business was carried on through his sons at Stoke until April 1833. Spode's London retail shop in Portugal Street went by

2201-427: The engraving of a design on a copper plate, which was then printed onto gummed tissue. The colour paste was worked into the cut areas of the copper plate and wiped from the uncut surfaces, and then printed by passing through rollers. These designs, including edge-patterns which had to be manipulated in sections, were cut out using scissors and applied to the biscuit-fired ware (using a white fabric), itself prepared with

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2272-499: The 1880s, and briefly made porcelain in about 1845–50. Bristol was England's second business city after London in the mid-18th century, and a major port for the Atlantic trade. It had long been, after London and together with Liverpool , one of the major centres of production for English pottery, especially tin-glazed English Delftware , some of which aspired to keep up with fashions in decoration such as chinoiserie . This part of

2343-503: The ability of the involved parties to communicate effectively, implying pre-existing norms of contact or a shared language between the two. Thus, the patterns of technical diffusion in pot-making that are visible via archaeological findings also reveal patterns in societal interaction. Chronologies based on pottery are often essential for dating non-literate cultures and are often of help in the dating of historic cultures as well. Trace-element analysis , mostly by neutron activation , allows

2414-452: The age. Sites with similar pottery characteristics have the same culture, those sites which have distinct cultural characteristics but with some overlap are indicative of cultural exchange such as trade or living in vicinity or continuity of habitation, etc. Examples are black and red ware , redware , Sothi-Siswal culture and Painted Grey Ware culture . The six fabrics of Kalibangan is a good example of use of fabric analysis in identifying

2485-417: The branches and then grass is piled high to complete the mound. Although the mound contains the pots of many women, who are related through their husbands' extended families, each women is responsible for her own or her immediate family's pots within the mound. When a mound is completed and the ground around has been swept clean of residual combustible material, a senior potter lights the fire. A handful of grass

2556-431: The cultural development of the societies that produced or acquired pottery. The study of pottery may also allow inferences to be drawn about a culture's daily life, religion, social relationships, attitudes towards neighbours, attitudes to their own world and even the way the culture understood the universe. It is valuable to look into pottery as an archaeological record of potential interaction between peoples. When pottery

2627-614: The designs from the engraved copper plate to the biscuit earthenware body, and the development of a glaze recipe that brought the colour of the black-blue cobalt print to a brilliant perfection. When Spode employed the skilled engraver Thomas Lucas and printer James Richard, both of the Caughley factory, in 1783 he was able to introduce high quality blue printed earthenware to the market. Thomas Minton , another Caughley-trained engraver, also supplied copper plates to Spode until he opened his own factory in Stoke-on-Trent in 1796. This method involved

2698-480: The duration of firing influences the final characteristics of the ceramic. Thus, the maximum temperature within a kiln is often held constant for a period of time to soak the wares to produce the maturity required in the body of the wares. Kilns may be heated by burning combustible materials, such as wood , coal and gas , or by electricity . The use of microwave energy has been investigated. When used as fuels, coal and wood can introduce smoke, soot and ash into

2769-460: The eye (decoration, firing and post-firing techniques), techniques related to the materials (selection or processing of clay, etc.), and techniques of molding or fashioning the clay. These three categories can be used to consider the implications of the reoccurrence of a particular sort of pottery in different areas. Generally, the techniques that are easily visible (the first category of those mentioned above) are thus readily imitated, and may indicate

2840-430: The following stages: Before being shaped, clay must be prepared. This may include kneading to ensure an even moisture content throughout the body. Air trapped within the clay body needs to be removed, or de-aired, and can be accomplished either by a machine called a vacuum pug or manually by wedging . Wedging can also help produce an even moisture content. Once a clay body has been kneaded and de-aired or wedged, it

2911-481: The foot) is left unglazed or, alternatively, special refractory " spurs " are used as supports. These are removed and discarded after the firing. Some specialised glazing techniques include: Types of Glazing in Pottery. Glazing in pottery is the process of applying a coating or layer of material to ceramics that, when fired, forms a vitreous or glass-like surface. Glazes enhance the aesthetic appeal of pottery, provide

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2982-646: The formation of the mineral mullite within the body at these high temperatures. Although porcelain was first made in China , the Chinese traditionally do not recognise it as a distinct category, grouping it with stoneware as "high-fired" ware, opposed to "low-fired" earthenware. This confuses the issue of when it was first made. A degree of translucency and whiteness was achieved by the Tang dynasty (AD 618–906), and considerable quantities were being exported. The modern level of whiteness

3053-443: The former being by far the dominant type for studio and industry. The properties also vary considerably, and include plasticity and mechanical strength before firing; the firing temperature needed to mature them; properties after firing, such as permeability, mechanical strength and colour. There can be regional variations in the properties of raw materials used for pottery, and these can lead to wares that are unique in character to

3124-412: The fusing together of coarser particles in the body at their points of contact with each other. In the case of porcelain, where higher firing-temperatures are used, the physical, chemical and mineralogical properties of the constituents in the body are greatly altered. In all cases, the reason for firing is to permanently harden the wares, and the firing regime must be appropriate to the materials used. As

3195-510: The glaze. Bristol porcelain Bristol porcelain covers porcelain made in Bristol , England by several companies in the 18th and 19th centuries. The plain term "Bristol porcelain" is most likely to refer to the factory moved from Plymouth in 1770, the second Bristol factory. The product of the earliest factory is usually called Lund's Bristol ware and was made from about 1750 until 1752, when

3266-526: The industry continued well into the 19th century, while the various porcelain producers proved short-lived. Bristol was also the largest city in the West Country , which includes the Cornish sites where china stone , an essential ingredient for hard-paste porcelain and bone china , was discovered in the 1740s. Benjamin Lund was a Bristol Quaker whose main business was as a brass -founder. On 7 March 1748/9 he

3337-417: The item is impermeable to liquids, and minimizing the adherence of pollutants. Glaze may be applied by spraying, dipping, trailing or brushing on an aqueous suspension of the unfired glaze. The colour of a glaze after it has been fired may be significantly different from before firing. To prevent glazed wares sticking to kiln furniture during firing, either a small part of the object being fired (for example,

3408-431: The kiln which can affect the appearance of unprotected wares. For this reason, wares fired in wood- or coal-fired kilns are often placed in the kiln in saggars , ceramic boxes, to protect them. Modern kilns fuelled by gas or electricity are cleaner and more easily controlled than older wood- or coal-fired kilns and often allow shorter firing times to be used. Niche techniques include: [...] pots are positioned on and amid

3479-576: The late Middle Ages, as European kilns were less efficient, and the right type of clay less common. It remained a speciality of Germany until the Renaissance. Stoneware is very tough and practical, and much of it has always been utilitarian, for the kitchen or storage rather than the table. But "fine" stoneware has been important in China , Japan and the West, and continues to be made. Many utilitarian types have also come to be appreciated as art. Porcelain

3550-506: The name of Spode, Son, and Copeland. Among the many surviving Spode documents are two shape books dated to about 1820 which contain thumbnail sketches of bone china objects with instructions to throwers and turners about size requirements. One copy is in the Joseph Downes collection at Winterthur Museum, Garden and Library in Delaware, United States. After some early trials Spode perfected

3621-424: The object. Much pottery is purely utilitarian, but some can also be regarded as ceramic art . An article can be decorated before or after firing. Pottery is traditionally divided into three types: earthenware , stoneware and porcelain . All three may be glazed and unglazed. All may also be decorated by various techniques. In many examples the group a piece belongs to is immediately visually apparent, but this

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3692-582: The operation was merged with Worcester porcelain ; this was soft-paste porcelain . In 1770 the Plymouth porcelain factory, which made England's first hard-paste porcelain , moved to Bristol, where it operated until 1782. This called itself the Bristol China Manufactory . A further factory called the Water Lane Pottery made non-porcelain earthenware very successfully from about 1682 until

3763-436: The other 18th-century English soft-paste porcelains, and its cold, harsh, glittering glaze marks it off at once from the wares of Bow , Chelsea , Worcester or Derby ". Champion had great hopes for the factory, and succeeded in greatly improving the quality of the porcelain body, as well as maintaining and improving artistic standards. Michel Socquet and the young Henry Bone , later a leading enamel painter on copper, were

3834-502: The popularity and practicality of pottery vessels. Decoration has evolved and developed through history. Stoneware is pottery that has been fired in a kiln at a relatively high temperature, from about 1,100 °C to 1,200 °C, and is stronger and non-porous to liquids. The Chinese, who developed stoneware very early on, classify this together with porcelain as high-fired wares. In contrast, stoneware could only be produced in Europe from

3905-452: The porcelain was not producing immediate profits, so by the autumn of 1778 the firing of new porcelain ended, although there were considerable stocks of undecorated fired wares. These were being decorated and sold until 1782. The wares of Plymouth and the first years at Bristol are not easily distinguished, and many prefer to classify pieces as "Cookworthy" or "Champion". Factory marks are of only limited help, as many pieces are unmarked, and

3976-445: The purchase of what became the Spode factory until 2008. His early products comprised earthenwares such as creamware (a fine cream-coloured earthenware) and pearlware (a fine earthenware with a bluish glaze) as well as a range of stonewares including black basalt, caneware, and jasper which had been popularised by Josiah Wedgwood . The history and products of the Spode factory have inspired generations of historians and collectors, and

4047-421: The raw materials and cause it to be reduced to FeO. An oxygen deficient condition, called a reducing atmosphere, is generated by preventing the complete combustion of the kiln fuel; this is achieved by deliberately restricting the supply of air or by supplying an excess of fuel. Firing pottery can be done using a variety of methods, with a kiln being the usual firing method. Both the maximum temperature and

4118-412: The same business in c. 1833 by Copeland and Garrett, who often used the name Spode in their marks. In particular these are called 'Late Spode' and include productions of the so-called 'Felspar porcelain'. They also produced other kinds of bone china, earthenware, parian , etc. The partnership continued in this form until 1847. After 1847 the business continued until 1970 as W.T. Copeland and sons, and again

4189-467: The sources of clay to be accurately identified and the thermoluminescence test can be used to provide an estimate of the date of last firing. Examining sherds from prehistory, scientists learned that during high-temperature firing, iron materials in clay record the state of the Earth's magnetic field at that moment. The "clay body" is also called the "paste" or the "fabric" , which consists of 2 things,

4260-641: The term 'Spode' or 'Late Spode' continued in use alongside the name of Copeland. Under the name 'Spode Ltd' the same factories and business were continued after 1970. In 2006, the business merged with Royal Worcester . The merged company entered administration on 6 November 2008. The brand names Royal Worcester and Spode, the intellectual property and some of the stock were acquired by Portmeirion Group on 23 April 2009. The purchase did not include Royal Worcester or Spode manufacturing facilities. Many items in Spode's Blue Italian and Woodland ranges are now made at Portmeirion Group's factory in Stoke-on-Trent. In 2012,

4331-510: The two leading painters, and new Neoclassical styles were introduced. Where Cookworthy looked to East Asia porceain for models, Champion preferred Meissen porcelain and French factories. Whilst ornamental wares were made, the staple was tea and coffee services, a number made for local businessmen or for politicians and their wives, including Jane Burke, wife of Edmund Burke , who Champion helped to be elected MP for Bristol in 1774. But Champion's other business interests ran into difficulty, and

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4402-569: The underlying decoration or texture of the pottery to show through. - Often used over underglaze decorations. 4. Opaque Glaze - Completely covers the surface of the pottery, hiding any underlying texture or decoration. - Useful for creating uniform, bold colors. 5. Celadon Glaze - A translucent glaze, usually in shades of green or blue. - Originated in China and is popular in East Asian ceramics. - Accentuates carved or textured designs beneath

4473-455: The younger, but continued to be reproduced into much later times. During the 18th century, many English potters were striving and competing to discover the secret of the production of porcelain. The Plymouth and Bristol factories, and (from 1782 to 1810) the New Hall (Staffordshire) factory under Richard Champion's patent, were producing hard paste similar to Oriental porcelain. The technique

4544-431: Was a fairly straightforward process, and designs in a range of colours including black, red and lilac were produced. Underglaze "hot-press" printing was limited to the colours that would withstand the subsequent glaze firing, and a rich blue was the predominant colour. To adapt the process from the production of small porcelain teaware to larger earthenware dinnerware required the creation of more flexible paper to transmit

4615-411: Was developed by adding calcined bone to this glassy frit , for example in the productions of Bow porcelain and Chelsea porcelain , and this was carried on from at least the 1750s onwards. Soapstone porcelains further added steatite , known as French chalk, for instance at Worcester and Caughley factories. The bone porcelains, especially those of Spode, Minton , Davenport and Coalport . Although

4686-509: Was granted a license for "soaprock", perhaps indicating the start of his porcelain operation. A letter of a Dr Richard Pococke from 1750 reports being shown near Lizard Point, Cornwall , a deposit "mostly valued for making porcelane ... and they get five pounds a ton for the manufacture of porcelane now carrying on at Bristol". The Cornish china stone was apparently first noticed by the Quaker pharmacist William Cookworthy (1705-1780) around 1745; he

4757-649: Was not clear to early scholars, and older sources sometimes talk of a phantom "Lowdin's Porcelain Manufactory". The factory only operated in Bristol until mid-1752, when Dr. Wall and his partners in Worcester porcelain bought the business and moved everything to Worcester . Pieces that are certainly made in Bristol in 1748? to 1752, rather than Worcester in the years after are extremely rare, but there are some with "Bristoll" in raised letters, including sauce-boats and copies of

4828-512: Was not reached until much later, in the 14th century. Porcelain was also made in Korea and in Japan from the end of the 16th century, after suitable kaolin was located in those countries. It was not made effectively outside East Asia until the 18th century. The study of pottery can help to provide an insight into past cultures. Fabric analysis (see section below), used to analyse the fabric of pottery ,

4899-422: Was removed to Bristol in 1770 and was afterwards transferred to Richard Champion of Bristol , a merchant and shipowner who had been a shareholder from 1768. Champion's Bristol factory lasted from 1774 to 1781, when the business was sold to a number of Staffordshire potters owing to serious losses it had accrued. Bristol porcelain, like that of Plymouth, was a hard-paste porcelain : "It is harder and whiter than

4970-473: Was six parts bone-ash, four parts china stone and 3.5 parts kaolin. Josiah Spode I effectively finalised the formula, and appears to have been doing so between 1789 and 1793. It remained an industrial secret for some time. The importance of his innovations has been disputed, being played down by Arthur Church in his English Porcelain , estimated practically by William Burton, and being very highly esteemed by Spode's contemporary Alexandre Brongniart , director of

5041-412: Was to found Plymouth porcelain, which moved to become the next Bristol factory. Cookworthy had family in Bristol, and it seems likely that the two Quakers knew each other. Lund had a partner, William Miller, a "grocer and banker", a necessity as Lund was bankrupt at the time. A previous tenant of the premises was a Mr Lowdin, who died in 1745, and had nothing to do with the porcelain business, but this

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