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67-586: A significant motivation behind the Spellings Commission's formation was the fear that the American higher education system is deteriorating and failing to prepare the American workforce for the rigors and competitiveness of the globalized marketplace. The Spellings Commission opens its report by stating that “higher education in the United States has become one of our greatest success stories.” but moving into

134-538: A free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 ( license statement/permission ). Text taken from Seizing the opportunities of the African Continental Free Trade Area for the economic empowerment of women in agriculture​ , FAO, FAO. Association of American Universities The Association of American Universities ( AAU ) is an organization of predominantly American research universities devoted to maintaining

201-404: A family, like child care work, or actual habitual daily labour that is not monetarily rewarded, like working the fields. Unpaid workers have zero earnings , and although their work is valuable, it is hard to estimate its true value. The controversial debate still stands. Men and women tend to work in different areas of the economy, regardless of whether their work is paid or unpaid. Women focus on

268-519: A major research university that didn't want to be a member of the AAU." In 2012, the newly elected chancellor of University of Massachusetts Amherst , a nonmember of AAU, reaffirmed the objective of elevating the campus to AAU standards and the hope of becoming a member in the near future, and called it a distinctive status. Because of the lengthy and difficult entrance process, boards of trustees , state legislators, and donors often see membership as evidence of

335-478: A means of articulating institutional, classroom and personal learning outcomes at all levels as well as means to consistently rate performance toward those objectives. Alternative solutions are being researched, while the Spellings commissions was seeking funding for test projects in the 2008 federal budget. "Goal Aware Tools" development effort is one such attempt. Additionally, some disciplinary organizations, such as

402-508: A plan would require universities to submit much more information causing vast increases in cost and time commitment to the universities and could be regarded as an invasion of students' privacy. The Department of Education addresses some of these anxieties on a "Myth vs. Fact" page posted to the DOE web site on September 29, 2006. Some universities are beginning to use and modify learning management systems to create information systems that provide for

469-516: A strong system of academic research and education. Founded in 1900, it consists of 69 public and private universities in the United States as well as two universities in Canada . AAU membership is by invitation only and requires an affirmative vote of three-quarters of current members. The AAU was founded on February 28, 1900, by a group of 14 Doctor of Philosophy degree-granting universities in

536-413: A time when innovation occurs increasingly at the intersection of multiple disciplines (including business and social sciences), curricula and research funding remain largely contained in individual departments" (16). Commission member David Ward refused to sign the final version, citing "several issues of serious concern" including the report's tendency to attribute problems with multiple causes entirely to

603-503: Is always unstructured and unregulated. Formal employment is more reliable than informal employment. Generally, the former yields higher income and greater benefits and securities for both men and women. The contribution of informal labourers is immense. Informal labour is expanding globally, most significantly in developing countries . According to a study done by Jacques Charmes, in the year 2000 informal labour made up 57% of non-agricultural employment, 40% of urban employment, and 83% of

670-741: Is an overall larger source of employment for females than it is for males. Women frequent the informal sector of the economy through occupations like home-based workers and street vendors . The Penguin Atlas of Women in the World shows that in the 1990s, 81% of women in Benin were street vendors, 55% in Guatemala, 44% in Mexico, 33% in Kenya, and 14% in India. Overall, 60% of women workers in

737-416: Is defined as the ratio of the civilian labour force to the noninstitutional civilian population. Labour force participation rate = Labour force Noninstitutional civilian population {\displaystyle {\text{Labour force participation rate}}={\dfrac {\text{Labour force}}{\text{Noninstitutional civilian population}}}} Formal labour is any sort of employment that

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804-545: Is often compounded by their lack of access to credit and financial liquidity compared to larger businesses . A farmworker , farmhand or agricultural worker is someone employed for labor in agriculture. In labor law, the term "farmworker" is sometimes used more narrowly, applying only to a hired worker involved in agricultural production, including harvesting, but not to a worker in other on- farm jobs, such as picking fruit. Agricultural work varies widely depending on context, degree of mechanization and crop. In countries like

871-510: Is structured and paid in a formal way. They are paid formally using payrolls paper, electronic card and alike. Unlike the informal sector of the economy, formal labour within a country contributes to that country's gross national product . Informal labour is labour that falls short of being a formal arrangement in law or in practice. Labour inherit may come as formal or non-formal , an employee old enough but below retirement age bracket passing on to his children. It can be paid or unpaid and it

938-444: Is the total population minus people who cannot or choose not to work (children, retirees, soldiers, and incarcerated people). The noninstitutional civilian population is the number of people potentially available for civilian employment. Noninstitutional civilian population = Labour force + Out of the labour force = Employed + Unemployed + Out of

1005-506: Is to provide a forum for the development and implementation of institutional and national policies in order to strengthen programs in academic research, scholarship, and education at the undergraduate, graduate, and professional levels. The largest attraction of the AAU for many schools, especially nonmembers, is prestige. Since the AAU's founding, it has "been a grouping of the elite in the American university world", and "[n]ew presidents of nonmember universities often list gaining admission to

1072-775: The American Academy of Arts and Sciences 2006 Class of Fellows are affiliated with an AAU university. The faculties at AAU universities include 2,993 members of the United States National Academies (82 percent of all members): the National Academy of Sciences , the National Academy of Engineering , and the Institute of Medicine (2004). AAU membership is by invitation only, which requires an affirmative vote of three-fourths of current members. Invitations are considered periodically, based in part on an assessment of

1139-690: The FAFSA form to encourage more people to apply for financial aid to lessen the stress of paying for college. The report also called for greater productivity and efficiency of the financial aid system. State funding for higher education has fallen to the lowest levels the nation has seen in two decades, and the Commission proposed that Universities be held accountable for their "spending decisions... based on their own limited resources." The Commission urged colleges and universities to embrace innovative ideas for new teaching methods, such as distance learning , to improve

1206-533: The US , European countries, and Japan ) to developing countries in Asia (such as China , Vietnam , and India ), Mexico and Central America . This is because companies search for the cheapest locations to manufacture and assemble components, so low-cost labor-intensive parts of the manufacturing process are shifted to the developing world where costs are substantially lower. But not only manufacturing processes are shifted to

1273-562: The University of Wisconsin , and Yale University —to meet in Chicago in February 1900 to promote and raise standards. The AAU's founding members elected Harvard's Charles William Eliot as the association's first president and Stanford's David Starr Jordan as its first chairman. In 1914, the AAU began accrediting undergraduate education at its member and other schools. German universities used

1340-541: The service sector , while men focus on the industrial sector . Women usually work fewer hours in income generating jobs than men do. Often it is housework that is unpaid. Worldwide, women and girls are responsible for a great amount of household work. The Penguin Atlas of Women in the World, published in 2008, stated that in Madagascar, women spend 20 hours per week on housework, while men spend only two. In Mexico, women spend 33 hours and men spend 5 hours. In Mongolia

1407-407: The workforce or labour force is the sum of those either working (i.e., the employed) or looking for work (i.e., the unemployed): Labour force = Employed + Unemployed {\displaystyle {\text{Labour force}}={\text{Employed}}+{\text{Unemployed}}} Those neither working in the marketplace nor looking for work are out of the labour force . The sum of

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1474-455: The "AAU Accepted List" to determine whether a college's graduates were qualified for graduate programs. Regional accreditation agencies existed in the U.S. by the 1920s, and the AAU ended accrediting schools in 1948. For its first six decades, the AAU functioned as a club for the presidents and deans of elite research universities to informally discuss educational matters, and its day-to-day operations were managed by an executive secretary. In

1541-489: The "old" international division of labor, until around 1970, underdeveloped areas were incorporated into the world economy principally as suppliers of minerals and agricultural commodities. However, as developing economies are merged into the world economy, more production takes place in these economies. This has led to a trend of transference, or what is also known as the " global industrial shift ", in which production processes are relocated from developed countries (such as

1608-438: The 1970s, the AAU shifted to a role of active advocacy on behalf of its members' interests; dues were raised, more staff members were hired, and its chief executive was given the title of president and the duty of becoming far more publicly visible than his predecessors. Today, the AAU consists of 71 U.S. and Canadian universities of varying sizes and missions that share a commitment to research. The organization's primary purpose

1675-481: The 21 century, the commission bluntly states in its preamble how [foreign higher education systems] are passing us by at a time when education is more important to our collective prosperity than ever. The commission emphasizes the relationship between industry, education, and the government. Presidential commissions on education have been relatively common since The Truman Report in 1947. Other notable groups include President Eisenhower's "Committee on Education Beyond

1742-560: The AAU are also classified as Highest Research Activity (R1) Universities by the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education , as are three of the five former AAU members. (Dollars in thousands)   In 2014, the AAU supported the proposed Research and Development Efficiency Act arguing that the legislation "can lead to a long-needed reduction in the regulatory burden currently imposed on universities and their faculty members who conduct research on behalf of

1809-431: The AAU as a goal of their administration." For example, in 2010 the chancellor of nonmember North Carolina State University described it as "the pre-eminent research-intensive membership group. To be a part of that organization is something N.C. State aspires to." A spokesman for nonmember University of Connecticut called it "perhaps the most elite organization in higher education. You'd probably be hard-pressed to find

1876-483: The Commission proposed linking the expectations of college professors for incoming freshmen to the criteria required for students to graduate from high school by increasing communication between the two groups. The Commission "strongly encourages early assessment initiatives that determine whether students are on track for college." Another proposal of the Report was an increase in the use of open content and open source at

1943-563: The High School," (1956), President Kennedy's Task Force on Education (1960), and President Reagan's National Commission on Excellence in Education, which produced A Nation at Risk (1983). The published report (pdf) (first available on September 26, 2006 as a pre-publication copy ), was titled A Test of Leadership: Charting the Future of U.S. Higher Education . It proposed several solutions to

2010-476: The National Center for Public Policy and Higher Education is not directly affiliated with the commission, there is significant overlap in not only the areas of concern, but in some of the membership (notably James B. Hunt, Jr. and Arturo Madrid). Spellings is quoted as saying that she is proud her report has similarities to the National Center's report. One of the most controversial proposed implementations of

2077-631: The National Council of Teachers of English and the Council of Writing Program Administrators, have begun to demonstrate the ways in which member institutions engage in assessment practices designed to improve student learning. They make the case, advanced in documents like the NCTE-WPA White Paper on Writing Assessment in Colleges and Universities, that good assessment is locally contextualized, based in

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2144-405: The U.S. The presidents of Harvard University , Columbia University , Johns Hopkins University , the University of Chicago , and the University of California sent a letter of invitation to nine other universities— Clark University , Catholic University of America , Cornell University , the University of Michigan , Princeton University , the University of Pennsylvania , Stanford University ,

2211-474: The United States to strengthen and standardize American doctoral programs. American universities—starting with University of Michigan and Johns Hopkins University in 1876—were adopting the research-intensive German model of higher education. Lack of standardization damaged European universities' opinions of their American counterparts and many American students attended graduate school in Europe instead of staying in

2278-419: The United States where there is a declining population of American citizens working on farms — temporary or itinerant skilled labor from outside the country is recruited for labor-intensive crops like vegetables and fruits. Paid and unpaid work are also closely related with formal and informal labour. Some informal work is unpaid, or paid under the table. Unpaid work can be work that is done at home to sustain

2345-408: The association; current members whose research and education profile falls significantly below that of other current members or below the criteria for admission of new members will be subject to further review and possible discontinuation of membership. A vote by two-thirds of the member institutions can revoke membership for poor rankings. As of 2022 annual dues are $ 139,500. All 69 U.S. members of

2412-483: The breadth and quality of university programs of research and graduate education, as well as undergraduate education. The association ranks its members using four criteria: research spending, the percentage of faculty who are members of the National Academies, faculty awards, and citations . Non-member universities whose research and education profile exceeds that of a number of current members may be invited to join

2479-452: The call for a national student database, which Spellings and the commission have argued should include information on individual students' performance. Microsoft 's Gerri Elliot, a commission member, sparred with other commission members over the inclusion of a discussion of the benefits of open source software and open content. The Higher Education Consumers Resource took exception to the report, citing inadequate research on root cause of

2546-472: The college or university is one step towards reducing dismal successful college completion rates. But the National Center for Public Policy and Higher Education's "Measuring Up 2006: The National Report Card on Higher Education" focuses on most of the same areas as Spellings Commission report. The "report card" looks at individual states and assesses the status of their higher education since 2000. Although

2613-468: The collegiate level to increase access to more people. Another dilemma that the Commission faced regarding access to higher education was the availability of low-income families and, to a lesser extent, students of minority groups. The authors stated, "There is ample evidence that qualified young people from families of modest means are far less likely to go to college than their affluent peers with similar qualifications." The Commission recommended shortening

2680-560: The developing world are employed in the informal sector. The specific percentages are 84% and 58% for women in Sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America respectively. The percentages for men in both of these areas of the world are lower, amounting to 63% and 48% respectively. In Asia, 65% of women workers and 65% of men workers are employed in the informal sector. Globally, a large percentage of women that are formally employed also work in

2747-403: The developing world. The growth of offshore outsourcing of IT-enabled services (such as offshore custom software development and business process outsourcing ) is linked to the availability of large amounts of reliable and affordable communication infrastructure following the telecommunication and Internet expansion of the late 1990s. [REDACTED]  This article incorporates text from

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2814-500: The development of new ideas and risky experimentation. Additionally, universities and government officials enacting policy and controlling monetary resources have been slow to adapt to the future and reluctant to provide the resources necessary for creative ventures, "with the exception of several promising practices, many of our postsecondary institutions have not embraced opportunities for innovation, from new methods of teaching and content delivery to technological advances to meeting [sic]

2881-754: The federal government." According to the AAU, "too often federal requirements" for accounting for federal grant money "are ill-conceived, ineffective, and/or duplicative." This wastes the researchers' times and "reduces the time they can devote to discovery and innovation and increases institutional compliance costs." Similar organizations around the world include the Russell Group (United Kingdom), U15 (Germany), League of European Research Universities (Europe), BRICS Universities League (BRICS), Association of East Asian Research Universities (mainland China, Japan, South Korea, Hong Kong, and Taiwan), C9 League (China), Group of Eight (Australia), RU11 (Japan), and

2948-512: The global workforce grew from 1.2 to 2.9 billion people. According to a 2012 report by the McKinsey Global Institute, this was caused mostly by developing nations, where there was a "farm to factory" transition. Non-farming jobs grew from 54 percent in 1980 to almost 73 percent in 2010. This industrialization took an estimated 620 million people out of poverty and contributed to the economic development of China, India and others. Under

3015-894: The haziness of accountability. The information that would be made available in the proposed database would include the cost, price, admissions data, and college completion rates. The database could eventually even contain data such as the "learning outcomes of students." The Commission argued that colleges might have a more vested interest in the success of their students if this information were made public to prospective students and their parents. American universities have not adequately prioritized innovation and creativity as important learning outcomes. The Commission advocated that "policymakers and educators need to do more to build America’s capacity to compete and innovate by investing in critical skill sets and basic research. Institutions and government agencies have failed to sustain and nurture innovation in our colleges and universities. The Commission found that

3082-466: The housework hours amount to 27 and 12 for women and men respectively. In Spain, women spend 26 hours on housework and men spend 4 hours. Only in the Netherlands do men spend 10% more time than women do on activities within the home or for the household. The Penguin Atlas of Women in the World also stated that in developing countries, women and girls spend a significant amount of time fetching water for

3149-455: The increasing demand for lifelong learning. We also find that for their part, both state and federal policymakers have failed to prioritize supporting innovation by adequately providing incentives for individuals, employers, and institutions to pursue more opportunities for innovative, effective, and efficient practice" (16). If universities were re-structured according to interdisciplinary emphases and topics, innovation could occur efficiently: "At

3216-731: The informal sector behind the scenes. These women make up the hidden work force. According to a 2021 FAO study, currently, 85 per cent of economic activity in Africa is conducted in the informal sector where women account for nearly 90 per cent of the informal labour force. According to the ILO 's 2016 employment analysis, 64 per cent of informal employment is in agriculture (relative to industry and services) in sub-Saharan Africa. Women have higher rates of informal employment than men with 92 per cent of women workers in informal employment versus 86 per cent of men. Formal and informal labour can be divided into

3283-463: The labour force = Total Population − People who can not work {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\text{Noninstitutional civilian population}}&={\text{Labour force}}+{\text{Out of the labour force}}\\&={\text{Employed}}+{\text{Unemployed}}+{\text{Out of the labour force}}\\&={\text{Total Population}}-{\text{People who can not work}}\end{aligned}}} The labour force participation rate

3350-399: The labour force and out of the labour force results in the noninstitutional civilian population , that is, the number of people who (1) work (i.e., the employed), (2) can work but don't, although they are looking for a job (i.e., the unemployed), or (3) can work but don't, and are not looking for a job (i.e., out of the labour force). Stated otherwise, the noninstitutional civilian population

3417-461: The lack of communication between colleges and high schools as one source of the problem. The authors stated that "forty-four percent of university faculty members say students aren't well prepared for college-level writing , in contrast to the 90 percent of high school teachers who think they are prepared" and "only 17 percent of seniors are considered proficient in mathematics, and just 36 percent are proficient in reading." In response to those figures,

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3484-553: The most important sources of livelihood for women. Women are estimated to account for approximately 70 per cent of informal cross-border traders and are also prevalent among owners of micro, small, or medium-sized enterprises (MSMEs). MSMEs are more vulnerable to market shocks and market disruptions. For women-owned MSMEs this is often compounded by their lack of access to credit and financial liquidity compared to larger businesses. However, MSMEs are often more vulnerable to market shocks and market disruptions. For women-owned MSMEs, this

3551-599: The new jobs in Latin America. That same year, informal labour made up 78% of non-agricultural employment, 61% of urban employment, and 93% of the new jobs in Africa. Particularly after an economic crisis, labourers tend to shift from the formal sector to the informal sector. This trend was seen after the Asian economic crisis which began in 1997. Gender is frequently associated with informal labour. Women are employed more often informally than they are formally, and informal labour

3618-491: The opportunity for discussion without media coverage. Prominent government officials, business leaders, and others often speak to the groups. As of 2004 , AAU members accounted for 58 percent of U.S. universities' research grants and contract income and 52 percent of all doctorates awarded in the United States. Since 1999, 43 percent of all Nobel Prize winners and 74 percent of winners at U.S. institutions have been affiliated with an AAU university. Approximately two-thirds of

3685-400: The practice of accessing the lowest-cost workers from all parts of the world, is partly a result of this enormous growth in the workforce. While most of the absolute increase in this global labour supply consisted of less-educated workers (those without higher education), the relative supply of workers with higher education increased by about 50 percent during the same period. From 1980 to 2010,

3752-472: The principles of the discipline, and must be used to improve teaching and learning at the local level. Since the US Department of Education published the Spellings Commission report on September 26, 2006, Spellings has pushed for progress in implementing the recommendations, progress that faces the challenge of working with limited time before the 2008 presidential elections. This push for tangible changes in

3819-428: The problems facing higher education today, corresponding to the primary concerns of the commission: access, affordability , quality , accountability , and innovation. According to the Commission, access to higher education "is unduly limited by the complex interplay of inadequate preparation, lack of information about college opportunities, and persistent financial barriers" (Commission Report 5). The Commission blames

3886-494: The problems. With over 80% of all Americans having successfully completed 12 years of school, that fewer than 25% go on to successfully complete a college degree is meaningful. In Ohio alone, there are eight colleges that graduate less than 35% of the full-time freshman class within six years. This indicates serious institutional barriers to success within those institutions. Higher Education Consumers Resource believes academic and career advising from independent sources not beholden to

3953-519: The quality of a university. The AAU acts as a lobbyist at its headquarters in Washington, D.C. , for research and higher education funding and for policy and regulatory issues affecting research universities. The association holds two meetings annually, both in Washington. Separate meetings are held for university presidents , provosts , and other officials. Because the meetings are private, they offer

4020-411: The quality of higher education. The Commission also stated that organization and nationwide reform are vital to repairing higher education problems. [1] Modifying the curricula and assessments nationwide would help distinguish students in the academic world. The Commission proposed creating a public database where all could view statistics and other information about colleges and universities to clarify

4087-483: The remainder of her term has included: The Higher Education Opportunity Act (enacted August 2008) has stated: Nothing in this section shall be construed to permit the Secretary to establish any criteria that specifies, defines, or prescribes the standards that accrediting agencies or associations shall use to assess any institution’s success with respect to student achievement. Workforce In macroeconomics,

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4154-420: The report's recommendations is the proposal for a federally managed system to record the progress of individual college students. The Department of Education has proposed revamp or expand the current Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System, arguing that a database is necessary to sufficiently assess the status of universities and college students nationwide. University and pro-privacy advocates fear that such

4221-429: The results of scholarly research on teaching and learning were rarely translated into practice, especially for those working at the grassroots level in fields such as teacher preparation and math and science education" (15). Although the Commission did not point this out, the accepted practice of research in higher education requires scholars to fit their research in with pre-existing scholarly conversations, which can limit

4288-453: The state of higher education. After the publication of the report, it has been the target of criticism from prominent individuals in higher education, including Robert Berdahl, president of the Association of American Universities (and not a commission member), who stated that the report lacked a "nuanced understanding" of the realities of higher education. Privacy advocates have criticized

4355-753: The subcategories of agricultural work and non-agricultural work. Martha Chen et al. believe these four categories of labour are closely related to one another. A majority of agricultural work is informal, which the Penguin Atlas for Women in the World defines as unregistered or unstructured. Non-agricultural work can also be informal. According to Martha Chen et al. , informal labour makes up 48% of non-agricultural work in North Africa, 51% in Latin America, 65% in Asia, and 72% in Sub-Saharan Africa. Agriculture and informal economic activity are among some of

4422-562: The week, while men do not. For example, in Malawi women spend 6.3 hours per week fetching water, while men spend 43 minutes. Girls in Malawi spend 3.3 hours per week fetching water, and boys spend 1.1 hours. Even if women and men both spend time on household work and other unpaid activities, this work is also gendered. In the United Kingdom in 2014, two-thirds of workers on long-term sick leave were women, despite women only constituting half of

4489-571: The workforce, even after excluding maternity leave. The global supply of labour almost doubled in absolute numbers between the 1980s and early 2000s, with half of that growth coming from Asia. At the same time, the rate at which new workers entered the workforce in the Western world began to decline. The growing pool of global labour is accessed by employers in more advanced economies through various methods, including imports of goods, offshoring of production, and immigration . Global labor arbitrage ,

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