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73-737: The ideas of the Spanish Enlightenment , which emphasized reason, science, practicality, clarity rather than obscurantism , and secularism , were transmitted from France to the New World in the eighteenth century, following the establishment of the Bourbon monarchy in Spain. In Spanish America , the ideas of the Enlightenment affected educated elites in major urban centers, especially Mexico City, Lima, and Guatemala, where there were universities founded in

146-692: A market-based economy aimed at the Hispanic sector and cultivated crops such as sugar , wheat , fruits and vegetables and produced animal products such as meat, wool , leather, and tallow . The system in Mexico is considered to have started when the Spanish crown granted to Hernán Cortés the title of Marquis of the Valley of Oaxaca in 1529, including the entire present state of Morelos , as well as vast encomienda labor grants. Although haciendas originated in grants to

219-599: A huge number of detailed botanical drawings and specimens destined for the Royal Botanical Garden and the Royal Natural History Cabinet in Madrid. The Malaspina Expedition was an important scientific expedition headed by Spanish naval commander Alejandro Malaspina over five years (1789–94), with naturalists and botanical illustrators gathering information for the Spanish crown. The illustrators on

292-557: Is an estate (or finca ), similar to a Roman latifundium , in Spain and the former Spanish Empire . With origins in Andalusia , haciendas were variously plantations (perhaps including animals or orchards), mines or factories , with many haciendas combining these activities. The word is derived from Spanish hacer (to make, from Latin facere ) and haciendo (making), referring to productive business enterprises. The term hacienda

365-407: Is imprecise, but usually refers to landed estates of significant size, while smaller holdings were termed estancias or ranchos . All colonial haciendas were owned almost exclusively by Spaniards and criollos , or rarely by mixed-race individuals. In Argentina, the term estancia is used for large estates that in Mexico would be termed haciendas . In recent decades, the term has been used in

438-559: The Reconquista of Andalusia in Spain. The sudden acquisition of conquered land allowed kings to grant extensive holdings to nobles, mercenaries, and religious military orders to reward their military service. Andalusian haciendas produced wine, grain, oils, and livestock, and were more purely agricultural than what was to follow in Spanish America . During the Spanish colonization of

511-610: The Archive of the Indies was established in Seville in 1785 to bring together documents pertaining to Spain's overseas empire. The Palacio de Minería in Mexico City was designed in the neoclassical style by Spanish architect Manuel Tolsá . The Spanish crown had mandated that "all new churches and other public buildings should be constructed in the neo-classic style, their design first approved by

584-571: The Chilean land reform (1962–1973). In the Philippines , the hacienda system and lifestyles were influenced by the Spanish colonisation that occurred via Mexico for more than 300 years, but which only took off in the 1850s at the behest of Nicholas Loney , an English businessman and the British Empire 's vice-consul in the city of Iloílo . Loney's objective, according to Alfred W. McCoy ,

657-546: The College of Mines in 1792, directed by Spanish mineralogist Fausto Elhuyar . It was designed to train experts for the empire’s most lucrative industry, silver mining. Art and architecture were cultural expressions that felt the impact of Enlightenment ideas. The Academy of San Carlos was founded in 1781 as the School for Engraving, and two years later renamed the(Real Academia de la Tres Nobles Artes de San Carlos. Miguel Cabrera

730-635: The Columbian Exchange and produced significant ecological changes. Sheep in particular had a devastating impact on the environment due to overgrazing . Mounted ranch hands variously called vaqueros and gauchos (in the Southern Cone ), among other terms worked for pastoral haciendas. Where the hacienda included working mines , as in Mexico, the patrón might gain immense wealth. The unusually large and profitable Jesuit hacienda Santa Lucía, near Mexico City, established in 1576 and lasting to

803-522: The Snow White brand name. In the late 19th century, Mercedita became the site of production of Don Q rum. Its profitable rum business is today called Destilería Serrallés . The last of such haciendas decayed considerably starting in the 1950s, with the industrialization of Puerto Rico via Operation Bootstrap . At the turn of the 20th century, most coffee haciendas had disappeared. The sugar-based haciendas changed into centrales azucarelas. Yet by

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876-563: The War of the Spanish Succession , the Bourbon dynasty was to rule the Spanish crown, on the concession to their enemies that the Spanish and French crowns were never merged, and the cession of Spanish possessions elsewhere in Europe. Once they consolidated rule in Spain, the Bourbon monarchs embarked upon a series of reforms to revitalize the Spanish empire, which had significantly declined in power in

949-416: The history of science in Spain and the Spanish empire has blossomed, with primary sources being published in scholarly editions or reissued, as well the publication of a considerable number of important scholarly studies. An exception was Alexander von Humboldt , who published at his own expense his scientific findings and observations during his self-funded expedition to Spanish America 1799–1804. Even at

1022-501: The 1770s the conservatives had launched a counterattack and used censorship and the Inquisition to suppress Enlightenment ideas, but the "French Encyclopédie ... was nonetheless available to readers who wanted it." The writings of Montesquieu , Rousseau , Adam Smith , Condillac , Raynal , Buffon , and Linnaeus were in circulation among intellectual elites in Spain. The 1755 Lisbon earthquake and tsunami that destroyed much of

1095-428: The 17th century more haciendas were formed as the economy moved away from mining and into agriculture and husbandry. Beginning in the late 17th century Chilean haciendas begun to export wheat to Peru . While the immediate cause of this was Peru being struck by both an earthquake and a stem rust epidemic , Chilean soil and climatic conditions were better for cereal production than those of Peru and Chilean wheat

1168-630: The 1990s, and despite significant government fiscal support, the last 13 Puerto Rican centrales azucares were forced to shut down. This marked the end of haciendas operating in Puerto Rico. In 2000, the last two sugar mills closed, after having operated for nearly 100 years. An " estancia " was a similar type of food farm. An estancia differed from an hacienda in terms of crop types handled, target market, machinery used, and size. An estancia, during Spanish colonial times in Puerto Rico (1508 – 1898),

1241-411: The 20th century. In Spanish America , the owner of an hacienda was called the hacendado or patrón . Most owners of large and profitable haciendas preferred to live in Spanish cities, often near the hacienda, but in Mexico, the richest owners lived in Mexico City, visiting their haciendas at intervals. Onsite management of the rural estates was by a paid administrator or manager, which was similar to

1314-713: The Academy of San Fernando." Madrid had a number of buildings constructed in neoclassic style; Charles III's architect, Juan de Villanueva , designed a neoclassical building in 1785 to hold the Natural History Cabinet, but which became the Prado Museum to display paintings and sculpture. Hacienda An hacienda ( UK : / ˌ h æ s i ˈ ɛ n d ə / HASS -ee- EN -də or US : / ˌ h ɑː s i ˈ ɛ n d ə / HAH -see- EN -də ; Spanish: [aˈθjenda] or [aˈsjenda] )

1387-632: The Americas , the hacienda model was exported to the New World, continuing the pattern of the Reconquista . As the Spanish established cities in conquered territories, the crown distributed smaller plots of land nearby, while in areas farther afield, the conquistadores were allotted large land grants which became haciendas and estancias . Haciendas were developed as profit-making enterprises linked to regional or international markets. Estates were integrated into

1460-654: The Catholic Church by suppressing the Society of Jesus in Spain and in its overseas empire in 1767. The Jesuits were “soldiers of the Pope”, taking a vow to serve the pontiff. They were successful in their missions to indigenous peoples on the frontiers of the Spanish empire, such as northern Mexico and most famously in Paraguay. Jesuit educational institutions had as pupils the sons of American born Spaniards, and were places where ideas of

1533-529: The Enlightenment had some aspects of anticlericalism, but many priests were in favor of science and scientific thinking and were practitioners themselves. Some clergy were proponents of the Enlightenment as well as independence. Enlightenment texts circulating in Spanish America have been linked to the intellectual underpinnings of Spanish American independence. Works by Enlightenment philosophers were owned and read in Spanish America, despite restrictions on

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1606-410: The Enlightenment were disseminated. The Jesuits held a considerable number of profitable landed estates, or haciendas , which were run efficiently by Jesuits trained in management. Their loyalty to the pope and their defiance of the crown authority as well as their clear success in important realms where the diocesan clergy or other religious orders might have excelled meant that their expulsion in 1767

1679-559: The Malaspina Expedition augmented the collection. In Mexico, the crown established the School of Mines (1792), based on the Basque institute at Vergara, headed by scientist Fausto Elhuyar , to increase scientific knowledge about mining Spain's most valuable commodity, silver. As part of the attempt to revitalize the historiography of Spain and Charles III's general centralizing policies,

1752-506: The Museo de Historia Natural. The crown also funded the Balmis Expedition in 1804 to vaccinate colonial populations against smallpox. Much of the scientific research done under the auspices of the Spanish government in the eighteenth century was never published or otherwise disseminated, in part due to budgetary constraints on the crown. Starting in the late twentieth century, research on

1825-499: The Napoleonic period in Spain, wars of independence broke out, so that by the time Bourbon Ferdinand VII was restored to the throne in 1814, much of Spanish America had achieved independence and established constitutional republics. New Spain (Mexico) and Peru were the exceptions, becoming independent in 1821 (Mexico) and 1824 (Peru). Mexico briefly had a monarchy under royalist military officer turned insurgent Agustín de Iturbide , who

1898-639: The Portuguese capital was felt on the entire Iberian peninsula and beyond. Intellectuals and others debated whether the earthquake was divine retribution or a natural phenomenon. The crown sponsored a series of scientific expeditions of its own and authorized foreign scientists, such as La Condamine and Alexander von Humboldt , to its overseas empire, usually closed to foreigners. There were extended Royal Botanical Expeditions to Chile and Peru (1777–88) , New Granada (1783–1816) , and New Spain (1787–1803) , which scholars are now examining afresh. which produced

1971-599: The Roman Catholic Church, modernize administration and promote economic measures for greater prosperity, and gain power in the international sphere. In Spain, the ideas of the Age of Enlightenment reached Spain in attenuated form about 1750, and emphasized there reforms that would increase Spain's prosperity and return it to its former position as a major power. Attention focused on medicine and physics, with some philosophy. French and Italian visitors were influential but there

2044-590: The United States for an architectural style associated with the traditional estate manor houses. The hacienda system of Argentina , Bolivia , Chile , Colombia , Guatemala , El Salvador , Mexico , New Granada , and Peru was an economic system of large land holdings. A similar system existed on a smaller scale in the Philippines and Puerto Rico . In Puerto Rico, haciendas were larger than estancias ; ordinarily grew sugar cane, coffee, or cotton; and exported their crops abroad. Haciendas originated during

2117-623: The accumulation of land by aristocrats and the Church, which kept most Spaniards landless. A solution, also urged by Campomanes, was the sale of all Church lands. Historian Jonathan Israel argues that King Charles III cared little for the Enlightenment and his ministers paid little attention to the Enlightenment ideas influential elsewhere on the Continent. Israel says, "Only a few ministers and officials were seriously committed to enlightened aims. Most were first and foremost absolutists and their objective

2190-422: The achievements of indigenous civilizations and creating an idea of Mexico separate from peninsular Spain. The Spanish crown also moved against the clergy as a whole by attempted to limit the corporate privileges of the Catholic Church, the fuero eclesiástico , which gave clerics the right to be judged for all offenses in canonical rather than crown courts. The fuero had been an important factor in strengthening

2263-473: The arrangement with the encomienda. Administrators were often hired for a fixed term of employment, receiving a salary and at times some share of the profits of the estate. Some administrators also acquired landholdings themselves in the area of the estate they were managing. The work force on haciendas varied, depending on the type of hacienda and where it was located. In central Mexico near indigenous communities and growing crops to supply urban markets, there

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2336-637: The beginning of the Bourbon era, Spain was already creating institutions to systematize and promote intellectual research in the early eighteenth century with the founding of the National Library (1711), Royal Spanish Academy (1713), and the Royal Academy of History (1738). Institutions founded in the later eighteenth century were designed to promote scientific knowledge, such as the Royal Botanical Gardens (1755) in Madrid, where specimens from

2409-537: The book trade and their inclusion on the Inquisition’s list of forbidden books . The Jesuits were instrumental introducing new trends in philosophy to Spanish America, and following their expulsion in 1767, the Franciscans continued exploring this line of thought. Spanish American secular clergy owned such works, including Mexican priest Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla , whose free-thinking lost him his position as rector of

2482-610: The crops for exporting. Some estancias were larger than some haciendas, but generally this was the exception and not the norm. In the present era, the Ministerio de Hacienda is the government department in Spain that deals with finance and taxation , as in Mexico Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público , and which is equivalent to the Department of the Treasury in

2555-578: The double effect of strengthening England and Scotland's textile industries at the expense of Iloílo's and satisfying the growing European demand for sugar. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, attempts to abolish the hacienda system in the country through land-reform laws have not been successful. The expiration of the Laurel–Langley Agreement and the resultant collapse of the Negros sugar industry gave President Ferdinand E. E. Marcos

2628-412: The elite, many ordinary Spaniards could also petition for land grants from the crown. New haciendas were formed in many places in the 17th and 18th centuries as most local economies moved from mining toward agriculture and husbandry. Distribution of land happened in parallel with the allocation of indigenous people to servitude under the encomienda system. Although the hacienda was not directly linked to

2701-400: The encomienda, many Spanish holders of encomiendas lucratively combined the two by acquiring land or developing enterprises to employ that forced labor. As the crown moved to eliminate encomienda labor, Spaniards consolidated private landholdings and recruited labor on a permanent or casual basis. Eventually, the hacienda became secure private property, which survived the colonial period and into

2774-408: The expansion of scientific knowledge, which had been urged by Benedictine monk Benito Feijóo . From 1777 to 1816, the Spanish crown funded scientific expeditions to gather information about the potential botanical wealth of the empire. When Prussian scientist Alexander von Humboldt proposed a self-funded scientific expedition to Spanish America, the Spanish crown accorded him not only permission, but

2847-464: The expulsion in 1767, has been reconstructed by Herman Konrad from archival sources. This reconstruction has revealed the nature and operation of the hacienda system in Mexico, its labor force, its systems of land tenure and its relationship to larger Hispanic society in Mexico. The Catholic Church and orders , especially the Jesuits , acquired vast hacienda holdings or preferentially loaned money to

2920-414: The hacendado, and owed a portion of their crops to him. Stock raising was central to ranching haciendas, the largest of which were in areas without dense indigenous populations, such as northern Mexico, but as indigenous populations declined in central areas, more land became available for grazing. Livestock were animals originally imported from Spain, including cattle, horses, sheep, and goats were part of

2993-575: The hacendados. As the hacienda owners' mortgage holders, the Church's interests were connected with the landholding class. In the history of Mexico and other Latin American countries, the masses developed some hostility to the church; at times of gaining independence or during certain political movements, the people confiscated the church haciendas or restricted them. Haciendas in the Caribbean were developed primarily as sugar plantations were dependent on

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3066-462: The instructions to crown officials to aid him. Spanish scholars sought to understand the decline of the Spanish empire from its earlier glory days, with the aim of reclaiming its former prestige. In Spanish America, the Enlightenment also had an impact in the intellectual and scientific sphere, with elite American-born Spanish men involved in these projects. The Napoleonic invasion of the Iberian peninsula

3139-429: The interior of churches and churchyards as a public health measure. It successfully suppressed Carnival in Mexico and sought to downsize popular pious practices such as religious processions. Secular entertainments such as bullfighting were no longer supported by the crown, and theatrical productions had didactic and secular themes rather than religious. Spanish Enlightenment The Enlightenment in Spain sought

3212-426: The labor of African slaves imported to the region and staffed by slaves brought from Africa . In Puerto Rico, this system ended with the abolition of slavery on 22 March 1873. In South America , the hacienda remained after the collapse of the colonial system in the early 19th century when nations gained independence. In some places, such as Dominican Republic , with independence came efforts to break up

3285-700: The land from the hacendados and redistributed it to the peasants. The first haciendas of Chile formed during the Spanish conquest in the 16th century. The Destruction of the Seven Cities following the battle of Curalaba (1598) meant for the Spanish the loss of both the main gold districts and the largest sources of indigenous labour. After those dramatic years the colony of Chile became concentrated in Central Chile which became increasingly populated, explored and economically exploited. Much land in Central Chile

3358-521: The large plantation holdings into a myriad of small subsistence farmers' holdings, an agrarian revolution. In Bolivia , haciendas were prevalent until the 1952 Revolution of Víctor Paz Estenssoro . He established an extensive program of land distribution as part of the Agrarian Reform . Likewise, Peru had haciendas until the Agrarian Reform (1969) of Juan Velasco Alvarado , who expropriated

3431-499: The late Habsburg era. The ideas of the Age of Enlightenment had a strong impact in Spain and a ripple effect in Spanish American Enlightenment in Spain's overseas empire. Despite the general anticlerical tendencies of the Enlightenment, Spain and Spanish America held Roman Catholicism as a core identity. When French forces under Napoleon Bonaparte invaded the Iberian peninsula and placed Napoleon's brother Joseph on

3504-482: The need for reform to Humboldt, and his ideas found their way into Humboldt’s famous ‘’Political Essay on the Kingdom of New Spain’’. Another development in Spanish America was the formation of economic societies and “friends of the country,” by elite men to improve the local economy through science. They also functioned as discussion groups that considered political issues, particularly as crown policies increasingly favored

3577-436: The opening to strip the hacenderos of their self-appointed roles as kingmakers in national politics . Hopes were short-lived, however, as protests revolving around Hacienda Luisita , as well as massacres and targeted assassinations in the Negros provinces , continue to this day. The opportunity that had earlier arisen was squandered and any significant gains stillborn. Haciendas in Puerto Rico developed during

3650-407: The peninsula. The Bourbon Reforms that started to gain traction in Spanish America in the mid-18th century encouraged economic progress and activities. The Bourbon Reforms also sought to make progress through education programs in Spanish America. The crown founded a number of institutions aimed at scientific and economic progress, as well as cultural advancement. In Mexico, the crown established of

3723-540: The prestige and power of the lower secular clergy. Parish priests were often the only person of European ethnicity in indigenous parishes, who exercised both political and sacred power. In late colonial Mexico, an important bishop-elect Manuel Abad y Queipo , considered liberal, and sought social, economic, and political reforms, but he firmly opposed Father Hidalgo’s 1810 uprising for independence. Abad y Queipo gave Humboldt some of his writings on conditions in New Spain and

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3796-436: The seminary of San Nicolás and he was sent to the small parish of Dolores. Priests pursued science, even in the seventeenth-century “baroque” era, most prominently Mexican creole intellectual Don Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora , as well as the remarkable Mexican nun, Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz . In the eighteenth century, there were several Spanish-born as well as American-born priests practicing science. Prominent among them

3869-557: The sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. In these centers of learning, American-born Spanish intellectuals were already participants in intellectual and scientific discourse, with Spanish American universities increasingly anti-scholastic and opposed to “untested authority” even before the Spanish Bourbons came to power. The best studied is the University of San Carlos Guatemala , founded in 1676. In Spanish America just as in Spain,

3942-489: The supremacy of the crown over the Catholic Church, and those adhering to ultramontanism , supporting the power of the papacy over monarchs. The Bourbon Reforms put into place by the Spanish crown made a strong impact on centralizing issues in Spanish America back to Spain. This had a large impact on the Catholic Church's loss of power in Spanish America The Spanish crown moved to consolidate its supremacy over

4015-523: The throne of Spain, there was a crisis of legitimacy in both Spain and its overseas empire. The Cortes of Cádiz , which served as a democratic Regency after Ferdinand VII was deposed, ratified a liberal constitution in 1812, limiting the power of the monarchy constitutionally as well as the power of the Catholic Church. Ferdinand VII claimed he supported the liberal constitutions, but once restored to power in 1814, he renounced it and reverted to unfettered absolutist rule. In most parts of Spanish America during

4088-513: The time of Spanish colonization. An example of these was the 1833 Hacienda Buena Vista , which dealt primarily with the cultivation, packaging, and exportation of coffee. Today, Hacienda Buena Vista, which is listed in the United States National Register of Historic Places , is operated as a museum, Museo Hacienda Buena Vista . The 1861 Hacienda Mercedita was a sugar plantation that once produced, packaged and sold sugar in

4161-476: The voyage included José de Pozo, trained at the Royal Academy of Fine Arts in Madrid, and, with other artists on the voyage, produced a plethora of botanical images as well as coastal views, ethnographic images, views of the expedition's ships, Descubierta and Atrevida , and a self-portrait in Patagonia. In Mexico, the Malaspina Expedition helped spur the founding of a botanical garden in Mexico City, as well as

4234-549: The works of Alzate (who died just before Humboldt arrived in New Spain) during his scientific expedition to Spanish America at the beginning of the nineteenth century. Humboldt was impressed by the intellectual level of science in Spanish America. Two strains of philosophical thought were evident in Spanish America, one was enlightened despotism and the other variations on constitutionalism . Divisions among clerics in Spanish America were between those supporting regalism , that is,

4307-480: Was Benito Feijóo (1676–1764) a Benedictine monk and professor. He was a successful popularizer noted for encouraging scientific and empirical thought in an effort to debunk myths and superstition. His Teatro crítico universal (1726–39) bemoaned that "physics, and mathematics are almost foreigners in Spain." The eighteenth century was an era with increasing absolutism in Europe, with centralization of power of monarchies, which sought to undermine rival powers, such as

4380-651: Was Spanish-born José Celestino Mutis in New Granada, who headed the royal botanical expedition to New Granada. He was educated in mathematics, astronomy, and medicine. Mutis trained Francisco José de Caldas . In Peru, Hipólito Unanue , a secular cleric trained in medicine, contributed to a Peruvian publication, Mercurio Peruano . Similar to him was Mexican secular cleric José Antonio de Alzate y Ramírez , who founded important newspapers that disseminated knowledge about scientific findings, including his own. Alexander von Humboldt met and consulted with Mutis, Caldas, and read

4453-772: Was a plot of land used for cultivating "frutos menores" (minor crops). That is, the crops in such estancia farms were produced in relatively small quantities and thus were meant, not for wholesale or exporting, but for sale and consumption locally, where produced and its adjacent towns. Haciendas, unlike estancias, were equipped with industrial machinery used for processing its crops into derivatives such as juices , marmalades , flours , etc., for wholesale and exporting. Some "frutos menores" grown in estancias were rice , corn , beans , batatas , ñames , yautías , and pumpkins ; among fruits were plantains , bananas , oranges , avocados , and grapefruits . Most haciendas in Puerto Rico produced sugar, coffee, and tobacco, which were

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4526-401: Was always to reinforce monarchy, empire, aristocracy...and ecclesiastical control and authority over education." The Enlightenment emphasized scientific inquiry and approaches to the world, which could be in conflict with religious world views. The Spanish Inquisition had the power to censor books and suppress unorthodox thought, increasingly ideas of the Enlightenment circulated in Spain. By

4599-425: Was cheaper and of better quality than Peruvian wheat. Initially Chilean haciendas could not meet the wheat demand due to a labour shortage, so had to incorporate temporary workers in addition to the permanent staff. Another response by the latifundia to labour shortages was to act as merchants, buying wheat produced by independent farmers or from farmers that hired land. In the period 1700 to 1850, this second option

4672-451: Was cleared with fire during this period. On the contrary open fields in southern Chile were overgrown as indigenous populations declined due to diseases introduced by the Spanish and intermittent warfare. The loss of the cities meant Spanish settlements in Chile became increasingly rural with the hacienda gaining importance in economic and social matters. As Chilean mining activity declined in

4745-526: Was enormously destabilizing for Spain and the Spanish overseas empire. The ideas of the Hispanic Enlightenment have been seen as a major contributor to the Spanish American wars of independence , although the situation is more complex. The French Bourbons had a strong claim on the Spanish throne following the death of the last Habsburg monarch, Charles II, who died without an heir in 1700. After

4818-665: Was little challenge to Catholicism or the Church such as characterized the French philosophes . In Spain, one of the leading intellectuals was Minister of Justice Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos , who in an address to the Royal Academy of History, called on "patriots" to study legal history, particularly of the deep past of the Visigothic era, and faulted Spain for its failure "to conserve the constitution in its primitive purity." In his Informe en el expediente de ley agraria (1795), he deplored

4891-470: Was not opposed by the episcopal hierarchy or religious orders. The exile of the Jesuits to Europe was a blow to elite American-born Spanish families, whose sons were educated by the Jesuits or themselves Jesuits and has been seen as contributing to creole alienation from the Bourbon monarchy. An important exiled Jesuit was Francisco Javier Clavijero , who wrote a major history of Mexico, seeing its origins in

4964-412: Was often a small, permanent workforce resident on the hacienda. Labor could be recruited from nearby indigenous communities on an as-needed basis, such as planting and harvest time. The permanent and temporary hacienda employees worked land that belonged to the patrón and under the supervision of local labor bosses. In some places small scale cultivators or campesinos worked small holdings belonging to

5037-571: Was one of its most important members. The Palacio de Minería in Mexico City and the hospicio in Guadalajara, as well as the cathedral in Buenos Aires were designed in the neoclassical style, favoring clean lines and minimal decoration, in contrast to the more ornate baroque architecture. "Readily understandable and providing solace in its promise of heavenly glory, the Baroque is an art for the people. It

5110-487: Was overall more lucrative. It was primarily the haciendas of Central Chile, La Serena and Concepción that came to be involved in cereal export to Peru. In the 19th and early 20th century haciendas were the main prey for Chilean banditry . 20th century Chilean haciendas stand out for the poor conditions of workers and being a backward part of the economy. The hacienda and inquilinaje institutions that characterized large parts of Chilean agriculture were eliminated by

5183-577: Was overthrown in favor of a federated republic under the Constitution of 1824 . The ideas of the Enlightenment in France came to Spain following the establishment of the Bourbon dynasty in Spain in 1715, with the end of the War of the Spanish Succession . In Spain, as elsewhere in much of Europe, there was no consistent pattern of the Enlightenment on the monarchy, which continued to follow existing frameworks of authority and hierarchy. A leading Spanish figure

5256-495: Was the systematic deindustrialisation of Iloílo . This deindustrialisation was to be accomplished through shifting labour and capital from Iloílo's textile industry ( Hiligaynon : habol Ilonggo ), the origins of which predate the arrival of the Castilians , to sugar-production on the neighbouring island of Negros . The Port of Iloílo was also opened to the flood of cheaply priced British textiles. These changes had

5329-512: Was this very popularity that led to the anti-Baroque movement of the highbrow Neoclassical academies of the eighteenth century." The growth of scientific ideas and the development of different kinds of taxonomy, such as Carl Linnaeus ’s, may well have been the impetus behind the emergence of secular paintings of racial mixture and racial hierarchy in late eighteenth-century Mexico, called casta paintings. The crown attempted to rein in popular aspects of “baroque” Catholicism, eliminating burials in

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