115-401: The soybean , soy bean , or soya bean ( Glycine max ) is a species of legume native to East Asia , widely grown for its edible bean , which has numerous uses. Traditional unfermented food uses of soybeans include soy milk , from which tofu and tofu skin are made. Fermented soy foods include soy sauce , fermented bean paste , nattō , and tempeh . Fat-free (defatted) soybean meal
230-489: A coleoptile that forms the first leaf while the radicle is covered with a coleorhiza that connects to the primary root and adventitious roots form the sides. Here the hypocotyl is a rudimentary axis between radicle and plumule. The seeds of corn are constructed with these structures; pericarp, scutellum (single large cotyledon) that absorbs nutrients from the endosperm, plumule, radicle, coleoptile, and coleorhiza – these last two structures are sheath-like and enclose
345-409: A Neolithic site occupied between 9000 and 7800 calendar years ago (cal bp). An abundance of archeological charred soybean specimens have been found centered around this region. According to the ancient Chinese myth, in 2853 BC, the legendary Emperor Shennong of China proclaimed that five plants were sacred: soybeans, rice, wheat, barley, and millet . Early Chinese records mention that soybeans were
460-477: A symbiotic relationship with the bacterium Bradyrhizobium japonicum ( syn. Rhizobium japonicum ; Jordan 1982). This ability to fix nitrogen allows farmers to reduce nitrogen fertilizer use and increase yields when growing other crops in rotation with soy. There may be some trade-offs, however, in the long-term abundance of organic material in soils where soy and other crops (for example, corn ) are grown in rotation. For best results, though, an inoculum of
575-566: A Swiss village that are believed to date back to the Stone Age . Archaeological evidence suggests that these peas must have been grown in the eastern Mediterranean and Mesopotamian regions at least 5,000 years ago and in Britain as early as the 11th century. The soybean was domesticated around 5,000 years ago in China from a descendant of the wild vine Glycine soja. The oldest-known domesticated beans in
690-507: A botanically unique type of fruit – a simple dry fruit that develops from a simple carpel and usually dehisces (opens along a seam) on two sides. Most legumes have symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria in structures called root nodules . Some of the fixed nitrogen becomes available to later crops, so legumes play a key role in crop rotation . The term pulse , as used by the United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO),
805-422: A curved megagametophyte often giving the seed a tight "C" shape. The last ovule shape is called amphitropous , where the ovule is partly inverted and turned back 90 degrees on its stalk (the funicle or funiculus ). In the majority of flowering plants, the zygote's first division is transversely oriented in regards to the long axis, and this establishes the polarity of the embryo. The upper or chalazal pole becomes
920-413: A diet of perennial grasses. Factors include larger consumption, faster digestion, and higher feed conversion rate . The type of crop grown for animal rearing depends on the farming system. In cattle rearing, legume trees such as Gliricidia sepium can be planted along edges of fields to provide shade for cattle, the leaves and bark are often eaten by cattle. Green manure can be grown between harvesting
1035-479: A different genus. It originated in Africa and is now a widespread pasture crop in the tropics. Like some other crops of long domestication, the relationship of the modern soybean to wild-growing species can no longer be traced with any degree of certainty. It is a cultigen with a very large number of cultivars . Like many legumes, soybeans can fix atmospheric nitrogen , due to the presence of symbiotic bacteria from
1150-520: A farm animal feed to a human food. William Morse is considered the "father" of modern soybean agriculture in America. In 1910, he and Charles Piper (Dr. C. V. Piper) began to popularize what was regarded as a relatively unknown Oriental peasant crop in America into a "golden bean", with the soybean becoming one of America's largest and most nutritious farm crops. Legume Legumes ( / ˈ l ɛ ɡ j uː m , l ə ˈ ɡ j uː m / ) are plants in
1265-411: A few will end in a favorable place for growth. Herbaceous perennials and woody plants often have larger seeds; they can produce seeds over many years, and larger seeds have more energy reserves for germination and seedling growth and produce larger, more established seedlings after germination. Seeds serve several functions for the plants that produce them. Key among these functions are nourishment of
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#17328516477411380-495: A former East India Company sailor who had visited China in conjunction with James Flint , the first Englishman legally permitted by the Chinese authorities to learn Chinese. The first "New World" soybean crop was grown on Skidaway Island, Georgia , in 1765 by Henry Yonge from seeds given him by Samuel Bowen. Bowen grew soy near Savannah, Georgia , possibly using funds from Flint, and made soy sauce for sale to England. Although soybean
1495-439: A gift from the region of Yangtze River delta and Southeast China. The Great Soviet Encyclopedia claims soybean cultivation originated in China about 5000 years ago. Some scholars suggest that soybean originated in China and was domesticated about 3500 BC. Recent research, however, indicates that seeding of wild forms started early (before 5000 BC) in multiple locations throughout East Asia. Soybeans became an important crop by
1610-415: A location and be there at a time favorable for germination and growth. When the fruits open and release their seeds in a regular way, it is called dehiscent , which is often distinctive for related groups of plants; these fruits include capsules , follicles , legumes , silicles and siliques . When fruits do not open and release their seeds in a regular fashion, they are called indehiscent, which include
1725-461: A plant-based protein source in the world marketplace. Products containing legumes grew by 39% in Europe between 2013 and 2017. There is a common misconception that adding salt before cooking prevents them from cooking through. Legumes may not soften because they are old, or because of hard water or acidic ingredients in the pot; salting before cooking results in better seasoning . Legumes are
1840-604: A range of soluble carbohydrates protecting the seed's cell viability. Patents were awarded to him in the early 1990s on techniques for protecting biological membranes and proteins in the dry state. Together, protein and soybean oil content account for 56% of dry soybeans by weight (36% protein and 20% fat . The remainder consists of 30% carbohydrates , 9% water and 5% ash . Soybeans comprise approximately 8% seed coat or hull, 90% cotyledons and 2% hypocotyl axis or germ. The genus Glycine may be divided into two subgenera, Glycine and Soja . The subgenus Soja includes
1955-1557: A serious pest to broad beans and other beans. Common hosts for this pest are fathen, thistle and dock. Pea weevil and bean weevil damage leaf margins leaving characteristics semi-circular notches. Stem nematodes are very widespread but will be found more frequently in areas where host plants are grown. Common legume diseases include anthracnose , caused by Colletotrichum trifolii ; common leaf spot caused by Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae ; crown wart caused by Physoderma alfalfae ; downy mildew caused by Peronospora trifoliorum ; fusarium root rot caused by Fusarium spp.; rust caused by Uromyces striatus ; sclerotina crown and stem rot caused by Sclerotinia trifoliorum ; Southern blight caused by Sclerotium rolfsii ; pythium (browning) root rot caused by Pythium spp.; fusarium wilt caused by Fusarium oxysporum ; root knot caused by Meloidogyne hapla . These are all classified as biotic problems. Abiotic problems include nutrient deficiencies, (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, copper, magnesium, manganese, boron, zinc), pollutants (air, water, soil, pesticide injury, fertilizer burn), toxic concentration of minerals, and unfavorable growth conditions. Seed viability decreases with longer storage time. Studies done on vetch , broad beans , and peas show that they last about 5 years in storage. Environmental factors that are important in influencing germination are relative humidity and temperature. Two rules apply to moisture content between 5 and 14 percent:
2070-963: A significant source of protein , dietary fibre , carbohydrates , and dietary minerals ; for example, a 100 gram serving of cooked chickpeas contains 18 percent of the Daily Value (DV) for protein, 30 percent DV for dietary fiber, 43 percent DV for folate and 52 percent DV for manganese . Legumes are an excellent source of resistant starch ; this is broken down by bacteria in the large intestine to produce short-chain fatty acids (such as butyrate ) used by intestinal cells for food energy . Forage legumes are of two broad types. Some, like alfalfa , clover , vetch ( Vicia ), stylo ( Stylosanthes ), or Arachis , are sown in pasture and grazed by livestock. Others, such as Leucaena or Albizia , are woody shrubs or trees that are either broken down by livestock or regularly cut by humans to provide fodder. Legume-based feeds improve animal performance over
2185-435: A supply of nutrients for the embryo in most monocotyledons and the endospermic dicotyledons. Seeds have been considered to occur in many structurally different types (Martin 1946). These are based on a number of criteria, of which the dominant one is the embryo-to-seed size ratio. This reflects the degree to which the developing cotyledons absorb the nutrients of the endosperm, and thus obliterate it. Six types occur amongst
2300-550: A tegmen from the inner integument while unitegmic seeds have only one integument. Usually, parts of the testa or tegmen form a hard protective mechanical layer. The mechanical layer may prevent water penetration and germination. Amongst the barriers may be the presence of lignified sclereids . The outer integument has a number of layers, generally between four and eight organised into three layers: (a) outer epidermis, (b) outer pigmented zone of two to five layers containing tannin and starch, and (c) inner epidermis. The endotegmen
2415-669: A tenth to a quarter of an acre of soybeans. Chemical repellents or firearms are effective for controlling pests in soybean fields. Soybeans suffer from the fungus Pythium spinosum in Arkansas and Indiana (United States), and China. In Japan and the United States, the Soybean dwarf virus (SbDV) causes a disease in soybeans and is transmitted by aphids. Resistant varieties are available. In Indian cultivars, Nataraj et al. 2020 find that anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum truncatum
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#17328516477412530-405: A way for the species to survive dry or cold seasons. Ephemeral plants are usually annuals that can go from seed to seed in as few as six weeks. Seed germination is a process by which a seed embryo develops into a seedling. It involves the reactivation of the metabolic pathways that lead to growth and the emergence of the radicle or seed root and plumule or shoot. The emergence of the seedling above
2645-450: A wide variety of sizes and hull colors such as black, brown, yellow, and green. Variegated and bicolored seed coats are also common. The hull of the mature bean is hard, water-resistant, and protects the cotyledon and hypocotyl (or "germ") from damage. If the seed coat is cracked, the seed will not germinate . The scar, visible on the seed coat, is called the hilum (colors include black, brown, buff, gray and yellow) and at one end of
2760-423: Is triggered by day length , often beginning once days become shorter than 12.8 hours. This trait is highly variable however, with different varieties reacting differently to changing day length. Soybeans form inconspicuous, self-fertile flowers which are borne in the axil of the leaf and are white, pink or purple. Though they do not require pollination, they are attractive to bees, because they produce nectar that
2875-407: Is a significant and cheap source of protein for animal feeds and many packaged meals . For example, soybean products, such as textured vegetable protein (TVP), are ingredients in many meat and dairy substitutes. Soybeans contain significant amounts of phytic acid , dietary minerals and B vitamins . Soy vegetable oil , used in food and industrial applications, is another product of processing
2990-509: Is at a suitable temperature with proper soil moisture. This true dormancy or innate dormancy is therefore caused by conditions within the seed that prevent germination. Thus dormancy is a state of the seed, not of the environment. Induced dormancy, enforced dormancy or seed quiescence occurs when a seed fails to germinate because the external environmental conditions are inappropriate for germination, mostly in response to conditions being too dark or light, too cold or hot, or too dry. Seed dormancy
3105-481: Is caused by conditions outside the embryo, including: Endogenous dormancy is caused by conditions within the embryo itself, including: The following types of seed dormancy do not involve seed dormancy, strictly speaking, as lack of germination is prevented by the environment, not by characteristics of the seed itself (see Germination ): Not all seeds undergo a period of dormancy. Seeds of some mangroves are viviparous; they begin to germinate while still attached to
3220-576: Is considered a tertiary gene centre particularly the area encompassing Madhya Pradesh which is also the country largest soybean producer. In 1603, " Vocabvlario da Lingoa de Iapam ", a famous Japanese-Portuguese dictionary, was compiled and published by Jesuit priests in Nagasaki. It contains short but clear definitions for about 20 words related to soyfoods—the first in any European language. The Luso-Hispanic traders were familiar with soybeans and soybean product through their trade with Far East since at least
3335-402: Is derived from the inner epidermis of the inner integument, the exotegmen from the outer surface of the inner integument. The endotesta is derived from the inner epidermis of the outer integument, and the outer layer of the testa from the outer surface of the outer integument is referred to as the exotesta . If the exotesta is also the mechanical layer, this is called an exotestal seed, but if
3450-533: Is high in sugar content. Depending on the soybean variety, node growth may cease once flowering begins. Strains that continue nodal development after flowering are termed " indeterminates " and are best suited to climates with longer growing seasons. Often soybeans drop their leaves before the seeds are fully mature. The fruit is a hairy pod that grows in clusters of three to five, each pod is 3–8 cm (1–3 in) long and usually contains two to four (rarely more) seeds 5–11 mm in diameter. Soybean seeds come in
3565-444: Is not the same as seed persistence in the soil or on the plant, though even in scientific publications dormancy and persistence are often confused or used as synonyms. Often, seed dormancy is divided into four major categories: exogenous; endogenous; combinational; and secondary. A more recent system distinguishes five classes: morphological, physiological, morphophysiological, physical, and combinational dormancy. Exogenous dormancy
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3680-535: Is protection against disease. Seeds protect and nourish the embryo or young plant. They usually give a seedling a faster start than a sporeling from a spore, because of the larger food reserves in the seed and the multicellularity of the enclosed embryo. Unlike animals, plants are limited in their ability to seek out favorable conditions for life and growth. As a result, plants have evolved many ways to disperse their offspring by dispersing their seeds (see also vegetative reproduction ). A seed must somehow "arrive" at
3795-428: Is reserved for legume crops harvested solely for the dry seed. This excludes green beans and green peas , which are considered vegetable crops. Also excluded are seeds that are mainly grown for oil extraction ( oilseeds like soybeans and peanuts ), and seeds which are used exclusively for sowing forage ( clovers , alfalfa ). However, in common usage, these distinctions are not always clearly made, and many of
3910-459: Is resisted by a combination of 2 major genes. The vast majority of cultivars in the US have soybean cyst nematode resistance (SCN resistance), but rely on only one breeding line (PI 88788) as their sole source of resistance. (The resistance genes provided by PI 88788, Peking , and PI 90763 were characterized in 1997.) As a result, for example, in 2012 only 18 cultivars out of 807 recommended by
4025-446: Is the ability of the embryo to germinate and is affected by a number of different conditions. Some plants do not produce seeds that have functional complete embryos, or the seed may have no embryo at all, often called empty seeds. Predators and pathogens can damage or kill the seed while it is still in the fruit or after it is dispersed. Environmental conditions like flooding or heat can kill the seed before or during germination. The age of
4140-563: Is the worst pest of soybean in the US. Losses of 30% or 40% are common even without symptoms. The corn earworm moth and bollworm (Helicoverpa zea) is a common and destructive pest of soybean growth in Virginia. Soybeans are consumed by whitetail deer which may damage soybean plants through feeding, trampling and bedding, reducing crop yields by as much as 15%. Groundhogs are also a common pest in soybean fields, living in burrows underground and feeding nearby. One den of groundhogs can consume
4255-448: Is their versatility, often assuming multiple roles concurrently. The extent of these roles is contingent upon the stage of maturity at which they are harvested. Grain legumes are cultivated for their seeds, for humans and animals to eat, or for oils for industrial uses. Grain legumes include beans , lentils , lupins , peas , and peanuts . Legumes are a key ingredient in vegan meat and dairy substitutes . They are growing in use as
4370-411: Is then aborted or absorbed during early development. The seed is composed of the embryo (the result of fertilization) and tissue from the mother plant, which also form a cone around the seed in coniferous plants such as pine and spruce . Seeds are very diverse, and as such there are many terms are used to describe them. A typical seed includes two basic parts: In addition, the endosperm forms
4485-418: Is therefore a necessary ingredient in the production of proteins. Hence, legumes are among the best sources of plant protein. When a legume plant dies in the field, for example following the harvest , all of its remaining nitrogen, incorporated into amino acids inside the remaining plant parts, is released back into the soil. In the soil, the amino acids are converted to nitrate ( NO − 3 ), making
4600-419: Is usually triploid , and is rich in oil or starch , and protein . In gymnosperms, such as conifers , the food storage tissue (also called endosperm) is part of the female gametophyte , a haploid tissue. The endosperm is surrounded by the aleurone layer (peripheral endosperm), filled with proteinaceous aleurone grains. Originally, by analogy with the animal ovum , the outer nucellus layer ( perisperm )
4715-533: The Cerrado region of Brazil into highly productive cropland that could grow profitable soybeans. Human sewage sludge can be used as fertilizer to grow soybeans. Soybeans grown in sewage sludge likely contain elevated concentrations of metals. Soybean plants are vulnerable to a wide range of bacterial diseases , fungal diseases , viral diseases , and parasites. The primary bacterial diseases include bacterial blight , bacterial pustule and downy mildew affecting
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4830-541: The Iowa State University Extension had any ancestry outside of PI 88788. By 2020 the situation was still about the same: Of 849 there were 810 with some ancestry from PI 88788, 35 from Peking, and only 2 from PI 89772. (On the question of exclusively PI 88788 ancestry, that number was not available for 2020.) That was speculated to be in 2012—and was clearly by 2020—producing SCN populations that are virulent on PI 88788. In 2020, world production of soybeans
4945-516: The Rhizobia group. Cultivation is successful in climates with hot summers, with optimum growing conditions in mean temperatures of 20 to 30 °C (70 to 85 °F); temperatures of below 20 °C (70 °F) and over 40 °C (105 °F) stunt growth significantly. They can grow in a wide range of soils, with optimum growth in moist alluvial soils with good organic content. Soybeans, like most legumes, perform nitrogen fixation by establishing
5060-742: The black locust ( Robinia pseudoacacia ), Kentucky coffeetree ( Gymnocladus dioicus ), Laburnum , and the woody climbing vine Wisteria , have poisonous elements. Neanderthals and early modern humans used wild pulses when cooking meals 70,000 to 40,000 years ago. Traces of pulse production have been found around the Ravi River ( Punjab ), the seat of the Indus Valley civilisation , from c. 3300 BC. Meanwhile, evidence of lentil cultivation has also been found in Egyptian pyramids and cuneiform recipes . Dry pea seeds have been discovered in
5175-417: The cone scales as they develop in some species of conifer . Angiosperm (flowering plants) seeds consist of three genetically distinct constituents: (1) the embryo formed from the zygote, (2) the endosperm, which is normally triploid, (3) the seed coat from tissue derived from the maternal tissue of the ovule. In angiosperms, the process of seed development begins with double fertilization , which involves
5290-412: The embryo , dispersal to a new location, and dormancy during unfavorable conditions. Seeds fundamentally are means of reproduction, and most seeds are the product of sexual reproduction which produces a remixing of genetic material and phenotype variability on which natural selection acts. Plant seeds hold endophytic microorganisms that can perform various functions, the most important of which
5405-421: The flowering plants , the ovary ripens into a fruit which contains the seed and serves to disseminate it. Many structures commonly referred to as "seeds" are actually dry fruits. Sunflower seeds are sometimes sold commercially while still enclosed within the hard wall of the fruit, which must be split open to reach the seed. Different groups of plants have other modifications, the so-called stone fruits (such as
5520-424: The legumes (such as beans and peas ), trees such as the oak and walnut , vegetables such as squash and radish , and sunflowers . According to Bewley and Black (1978), Brazil nut storage is in hypocotyl and this place of storage is uncommon among seeds. All gymnosperm seeds are albuminous. The seed coat develops from the maternal tissue, the integuments , originally surrounding the ovule. The seed coat in
5635-416: The peach ) have a hardened fruit layer (the endocarp ) fused to and surrounding the actual seed. Nuts are the one-seeded, hard-shelled fruit of some plants with an indehiscent seed, such as an acorn or hazelnut . The first land plants evolved around 468 million years ago, and reproduced using spores. The earliest seed bearing plants to appear were the gymnosperms , which have no ovaries to contain
5750-405: The polyculture practice known as coconut-soybean intercropping . Grain legumes are grown in coconut ( Cocos nuficera ) groves in two ways: intercropping or as a cash crop. These are grown mainly for their protein, vegetable oil and ability to uphold soil fertility. However, continuous cropping after 3–4 years decrease grain yields significantly. A common pest of grain legumes that is noticed in
5865-590: The 13th century, the soybean had arrived and cultivated in Indonesia; it probably arrived much earlier however, carried by traders or merchants from Southern China. The earliest known reference to it as " tempeh " appeared in 1815 in the Serat Centhini manuscript. The development of tempeh fermented soybean cake probably took place earlier, circa 17th century in Java. By the 1600s, soy sauce spread from southern Japan across
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#17328516477415980-823: The 17th century. However, it was not until the late 19th century that the first attempt to cultivate soybeans in the Iberian peninsula was undertaken. In 1880, the soybean was first cultivated in Portugal in the Botanical Gardens at Coimbra (Crespi 1935). In about 1910 in Spain the first attempts at Soybean cultivation were made by the Count of San Bernardo, who cultivated soybeans on his estates at Almillo (in southwest Spain) about 48 miles east-northeast of Seville. Soybeans were first introduced to North America from China in 1765, by Samuel Bowen ,
6095-578: The 18th century, soybeans were introduced to the Americas and Europe from China. Soy was introduced to Africa from China in the late 19th century, and is now widespread across the continent. The cultivation of soybeans began in the eastern half of northern China by 2000 BC, but is almost certainly much older. The earliest documented evidence for the use of Glycine of any kind comes from charred plant remains of wild soybean recovered from Jiahu in Henan province China,
6210-563: The Amazon "Soy Moratorium", soy production continues to play a significant role in deforestation when its indirect impacts are taken into account, as land used to grow soy continues to increase. This land either comes from pasture land (which increasingly supplants forested areas), or areas outside the Amazon not covered by the moratorium, such as the Cerrado region. Roughly one-fifth of deforestation can be attributed to expanding land use to produce oilseeds, primarily for soy and palm oil , whereas
6325-703: The Americas were found in Guitarrero Cave , an archaeological site in Peru , and dated to around the second millennium BCE. Genetic analyses of the common bean Phaseolus show that it originated in Mesoamerica , and subsequently spread southward, along with maize and squash, traditional companion crops. In the United States, the domesticated soybean was introduced in 1770 by Benjamin Franklin after he sent seeds to Philadelphia from France. The International Year of Pulses 2016
6440-599: The Early Mumun period Okbang site in Korea indicated soybean was cultivated as a food crop in around 1000–900 BC. Soybeans from the Jōmon period in Japan from 3000 BC are also significantly larger than wild varieties. Soybeans were mentioned as kadêlê (modern Indonesian term: kedelai ) in an old Javanese manuscript, Serat Sri Tanjung , which dates to 12th- to 13th-century Java . By
6555-598: The Zhou dynasty (c. 1046–256 BC) in China. However, the details of where, when, and under what circumstances soybean developed a close relationship with people are poorly understood. Soybean was unknown in South China before the Han period. From about the first century AD to the Age of Discovery (15–16th centuries), soybeans were introduced into across South and Southeast Asia. This spread was due to
6670-631: The cells are filled with starch , as for instance cereal grains , or not (non-farinaceous). The endosperm may also be referred to as "fleshy" or "cartilaginous" with thicker soft cells such as coconut , but may also be oily as in Ricinus (castor oil), Croton and Poppy . The endosperm is called "horny" when the cell walls are thicker such as date and coffee , or "ruminated" if mottled, as in nutmeg , palms and Annonaceae . In most monocotyledons (such as grasses and palms ) and some ( endospermic or albuminous ) dicotyledons (such as castor beans )
6785-405: The cells of the outer epidermis enlarge radially and their walls thicken, with nucleus and cytoplasm compressed into the outer layer. these cells which are broader on their inner surface are called palisade cells. In the inner epidermis, the cells also enlarge radially with plate like thickening of the walls. The mature inner integument has a palisade layer, a pigmented zone with 15–20 layers, while
6900-435: The correct strain of bacteria should be mixed with the soybean (or any legume) seed before planting. Modern crop cultivars generally reach a height of around 1 m (3 ft), and take 80–120 days from sowing to harvesting. Soil scientists Edson Lobato (Brazil), Andrew McClung (U.S.), and Alysson Paolinelli (Brazil) were awarded the 2006 World Food Prize for transforming the ecologically biodiverse savannah of
7015-564: The cultivated soybean, G. max , and the wild soybean, treated either as a separate species G. soja , or as the subspecies G. max subsp. soja . The cultivated and wild soybeans are annuals . The wild soybean is native to China , Japan , Korea and Russia . The subgenus Glycine consists of at least 25 wild perennial species: for example, G. canescens and G. tomentella , both found in Australia and Papua New Guinea . Perennial soybean ( Neonotonia wightii ) belongs to
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#17328516477417130-407: The early 19th century, influential works being: Angiosperm seeds are "enclosed seeds", produced in a hard or fleshy structure called a fruit that encloses them for protection. Some fruits have layers of both hard and fleshy material. In gymnosperms, no special structure develops to enclose the seeds, which begin their development "naked" on the bracts of cones. However, the seeds do become covered by
7245-440: The elaiosomes are eaten. The remainder of the seed, which is hard and inedible to the ants, then germinates either within the nest or at a removal site where the seed has been discarded by the ants. This dispersal relationship is an example of mutualism , since the plants depend upon the ants to disperse seeds, while the ants depend upon the plants seeds for food. As a result, a drop in numbers of one partner can reduce success of
7360-429: The embryo is embedded in the endosperm (and nucellus), which the seedling will use upon germination . In the non-endospermic dicotyledons the endosperm is absorbed by the embryo as the latter grows within the developing seed, and the cotyledons of the embryo become filled with stored food. At maturity, seeds of these species have no endosperm and are also referred to as exalbuminous seeds. The exalbuminous seeds include
7475-525: The establishment of sea and land trade routes. The earliest Japanese textual reference to the soybean is in the classic Kojiki ( Records of Ancient Matters ), which was completed in AD 712. The oldest preserved soybeans resembling modern varieties in size and shape were found in archaeological sites in Korea dated about 1000 BC. Radiocarbon dating of soybean samples recovered through flotation during excavations at
7590-487: The expansion of beef production accounts for 41%. The main driver of deforestation is the global demand for meat, which in turn requires huge tracts of land to grow feed crops for livestock. Around 80% of the global soybean crop is used to feed livestock. Soybeans were a crucial crop in East Asia long before written records began. The origin of soy bean cultivation remains scientifically debated. The closest living relative of
7705-464: The family Fabaceae (or Leguminosae), or the fruit or seeds of such plants. When used as a dry grain for human consumption, the seeds are also called pulses . Legumes are grown agriculturally, primarily for human consumption, but also as livestock forage and silage , and as soil-enhancing green manure . Well-known legumes include beans , chickpeas , peanuts , lentils , lupins , mesquite , carob , tamarind , alfalfa , and clover . Legumes produce
7820-452: The fertilised ovule, an immature plant from which a new plant will grow under proper conditions. The embryo has one cotyledon or seed leaf in monocotyledons , two cotyledons in almost all dicotyledons and two or more in gymnosperms. In the fruit of grains (caryopses) the single monocotyledon is shield shaped and hence called a scutellum . The scutellum is pressed closely against the endosperm from which it absorbs food and passes it to
7935-899: The first 48 hours under ideal growing conditions. The first photosynthetic structures, the cotyledons , develop from the hypocotyl , the first plant structure to emerge from the soil. These cotyledons both act as leaves and as a source of nutrients for the immature plant, providing the seedling nutrition for its first 7 to 10 days. The first true leaves develop as a pair of single blades . Subsequent to this first pair, mature nodes form compound leaves with three blades. Mature trifoliolate leaves, having three to four leaflets per leaf, are often between 6 and 15 cm ( 2 + 1 ⁄ 2 and 6 in) long and 2 and 7 cm (1 and 3 in) broad. Under ideal conditions, stem growth continues, producing new nodes every four days. Before flowering, roots can grow 2 cm ( 3 ⁄ 4 in) per day. If rhizobia are present, root nodulation begins by
8050-645: The first few years of their lives deriving energy from the fungi and do not produce green leaves. At up to 55 pounds (25 kilograms) the largest seed is the coco de mer (Lodoicea maldivica). This indicates a 25 Billion fold difference in seed weight. Plants that produce smaller seeds can generate many more seeds per flower, while plants with larger seeds invest more resources into those seeds and normally produce fewer seeds. Small seeds are quicker to ripen and can be dispersed sooner, so autumn all blooming plants often have small seeds. Many annual plants produce great quantities of smaller seeds; this helps to ensure at least
8165-450: The food chain that would better use pulse-based proteins, further global production of pulses, better use crop rotations and address challenges in the global trade of pulses. Seed In botany , a seed is a plant embryo and nutrient reserve enclosed in a seed coat, a protective outer covering called a testa. More generally, the term "seed" means anything that can be sown , which may include seed and husk or tuber . Seeds are
8280-507: The fruits achenes , caryopses , nuts , samaras , and utricles . Other seeds are enclosed in fruit structures that aid wind dispersal in similar ways: Myrmecochory is the dispersal of seeds by ants . Foraging ants disperse seeds which have appendages called elaiosomes (e.g. bloodroot , trilliums , acacias , and many species of Proteaceae ). Elaiosomes are soft, fleshy structures that contain nutrients for animals that eat them. The ants carry such seeds back to their nest, where
8395-408: The fusion of two male gametes with the egg cell and the central cell to form the primary endosperm and the zygote. Right after fertilization, the zygote is mostly inactive, but the primary endosperm divides rapidly to form the endosperm tissue. This tissue becomes the food the young plant will consume until the roots have developed after germination . After fertilization, the ovules develop into
8510-446: The grasses, are not distinct structures, but are fused with the fruit wall to form a pericarp .) The testae of both monocots and dicots are often marked with patterns and textured markings, or have wings or tufts of hair. When the seed coat forms from only one layer, it is also called the testa, though not all such testae are homologous from one species to the next. The funiculus abscisses (detaches at fixed point – abscission zone),
8625-431: The growing parts. Embryo descriptors include small, straight, bent, curved, and curled. Within the seed, there usually is a store of nutrients for the seedling that will grow from the embryo. The form of the stored nutrition varies depending on the kind of plant. In angiosperms, the stored food begins as a tissue called the endosperm , which is derived from the mother plant and the pollen via double fertilization . It
8740-508: The hilum is the micropyle , or small opening in the seed coat which can allow the absorption of water for sprouting. Some seeds such as soybeans containing very high levels of protein can undergo desiccation , yet survive and revive after water absorption. A. Carl Leopold began studying this capability at the Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research at Cornell University in the mid-1980s. He found soybeans and corn to have
8855-434: The inner epidermis may remain a single layer, it may also divide to produce two to three layers and accumulates starch, and is referred to as the colourless layer. By contrast, the outer epidermis becomes tanniferous . The inner integument may consist of eight to fifteen layers. As the cells enlarge, and starch is deposited in the outer layers of the pigmented zone below the outer epidermis, this zone begins to lignify, while
8970-444: The innermost layer is known as the fringe layer. In gymnosperms, which do not form ovaries, the ovules and hence the seeds are exposed. This is the basis for their nomenclature – naked seeded plants. Two sperm cells transferred from the pollen do not develop the seed by double fertilization, but one sperm nucleus unites with the egg nucleus and the other sperm is not used. Sometimes each sperm fertilizes an egg cell and one zygote
9085-424: The latter example these hairs are the source of the textile crop cotton . Other seed appendages include the raphe (a ridge), wings, caruncles (a soft spongy outgrowth from the outer integument in the vicinity of the micropyle), spines, or tubercles. A scar also may remain on the seed coat, called the hilum , where the seed was attached to the ovary wall by the funicle. Just below it is a small pore, representing
9200-461: The life of the seed will last longer if the storage temperature is reduced by 5 degree Celsius. Secondly, the storage moisture content will decrease if temperature is reduced by 1 degree Celsius. Cultivated legumes encompass a diverse range of agricultural classifications, spanning forage , grain , flowering, pharmaceutical/industrial, fallow/green manure, and timber categories. A notable characteristic of many commercially cultivated legume species
9315-402: The main area of growth of the embryo, while the lower or micropylar pole produces the stalk-like suspensor that attaches to the micropyle. The suspensor absorbs and manufactures nutrients from the endosperm that are used during the embryo's growth. The main components of the embryo are: Monocotyledonous plants have two additional structures in the form of sheaths. The plumule is covered with
9430-432: The main crop and the planting of the next crop. Legume species grown for their flowers include lupins , which are farmed commercially for their blooms as well as being popular in gardens worldwide. Industrially farmed legumes include Indigofera and Acacia species, which are cultivated for dye and natural gum production, respectively. Fallow or green manure legume species are cultivated to be tilled back into
9545-422: The mature seed can be a paper-thin layer (e.g. peanut ) or something more substantial (e.g. thick and hard in honey locust and coconut ), or fleshy as in the sarcotesta of pomegranate . The seed coat helps protect the embryo from mechanical injury, predators, and drying out. Depending on its development, the seed coat is either bitegmic or unitegmic . Bitegmic seeds form a testa from the outer integument and
9660-509: The mechanical layer is the endotegmen, then the seed is endotestal. The exotesta may consist of one or more rows of cells that are elongated and pallisade like (e.g. Fabaceae ), hence 'palisade exotesta'. In addition to the three basic seed parts, some seeds have an appendage, an aril , a fleshy outgrowth of the funicle ( funiculus ), (as in yew and nutmeg ) or an oily appendage, an elaiosome (as in Corydalis ), or hairs (trichomes). In
9775-456: The micropyle of the ovule. Seeds are very diverse in size. The dust-like orchid seeds are the smallest, with about one million seeds per gram; they are often embryonic seeds with immature embryos and no significant energy reserves. Orchids and a few other groups of plants are mycoheterotrophs which depend on mycorrhizal fungi for nutrition during germination and the early growth of the seedling. Some terrestrial orchid seedlings, in fact, spend
9890-399: The monocotyledons, ten in the dicotyledons, and two in the gymnosperms (linear and spatulate). This classification is based on three characteristics: embryo morphology, amount of endosperm and the position of the embryo relative to the endosperm. In endospermic seeds, there are two distinct regions inside the seed coat, an upper and larger endosperm and a lower smaller embryo. The embryo is
10005-510: The nitrogen available to other plants, thereby serving as fertilizer for future crops. In many traditional and organic farming practices, crop rotation or polyculture involving legumes is common. By alternating between legumes and non-legumes, or by growing both together for part of the growing season, the field can receive a sufficient amount of nitrogenous compounds to produce a good result without adding nitrogenous fertilizer. Legumes are often used as green manure . Sri Lanka developed
10120-403: The optimal conditions for survival of the resulting seedling; the second is spreading germination of a batch of seeds over time so a catastrophe (e.g. late frosts, drought, herbivory ) does not result in the death of all offspring of a plant ( bet-hedging ). Seed dormancy is defined as a seed failing to germinate under environmental conditions optimal for germination, normally when the environment
10235-472: The other. In South Africa , the Argentine ant ( Linepithema humile ) has invaded and displaced native species of ants. Unlike the native ant species, Argentine ants do not collect the seeds of Mimetes cucullatus or eat the elaiosomes. In areas where these ants have invaded, the numbers of Mimetes seedlings have dropped. Seed dormancy has two main functions: the first is synchronizing germination with
10350-410: The parent. The large, heavy root allows the seed to penetrate into the ground when it falls. Many garden plant seeds will germinate readily as soon as they have water and are warm enough; though their wild ancestors may have had dormancy, these cultivated plants lack it. After many generations of selective pressure by plant breeders and gardeners, dormancy has been selected out. For annuals , seeds are
10465-455: The plumule and radicle, acting as a protective covering. The maturing ovule undergoes marked changes in the integuments, generally a reduction and disorganization but occasionally a thickening. The seed coat forms from the two integuments or outer layers of cells of the ovule, which derive from tissue from the mother plant, the inner integument forms the tegmen and the outer forms the testa . (The seed coats of some monocotyledon plants, such as
10580-617: The product of the ripened ovule , after the embryo sac is fertilized by sperm from pollen , forming a zygote . The embryo within a seed develops from the zygote and grows within the mother plant to a certain size before growth is halted. The formation of the seed is the defining part of the process of reproduction in seed plants ( spermatophytes ). Other plants such as ferns , mosses and liverworts , do not have seeds and use water-dependent means to propagate themselves. Seed plants now dominate biological niches on land, from forests to grasslands both in hot and cold climates . In
10695-405: The rate of germination. This is given as a percent of germination over a certain amount of time, 90% germination in 20 days, for example. 'Dormancy' is covered above; many plants produce seeds with varying degrees of dormancy, and different seeds from the same fruit can have different degrees of dormancy. It's possible to have seeds with no dormancy if they are dispersed right away and do not dry (if
10810-565: The region through the Dutch East India Company (VOC). While the origins and history of Soybean cultivation in the Eastern Himalayas is debated, it was potentially introduced from southern China , more specifically Yunnan province. Alternatively, it could have reached here through traders from Indonesia via Myanmar . Northeast India is viewed as a passive micro-centre within the soybean secondary gene centre. Central India
10925-415: The scar forming an oval depression, the hilum . Anatropous ovules have a portion of the funiculus that is adnate (fused to the seed coat), and which forms a longitudinal ridge, or raphe , just above the hilum. In bitegmic ovules (e.g. Gossypium described here) both inner and outer integuments contribute to the seed coat formation. With continuing maturation the cells enlarge in the outer integument. While
11040-413: The seed affects its health and germination ability: since the seed has a living embryo, over time cells die and cannot be replaced. Some seeds can live for a long time before germination, while others can only survive for a short period after dispersal before they die. Seed vigor is a measure of the quality of seed, and involves the viability of the seed, the germination percentage, germination rate, and
11155-405: The seeds. The ovule consists of a number of components: The shape of the ovules as they develop often affects the final shape of the seeds. Plants generally produce ovules of four shapes: the most common shape is called anatropous , with a curved shape. Orthotropous ovules are straight with all the parts of the ovule lined up in a long row producing an uncurved seed. Campylotropous ovules have
11270-500: The seeds. They arose during the late Devonian period (416 million to 358 million years ago). From these early gymnosperms, seed ferns evolved during the Carboniferous period (359 to 299 million years ago); they had ovules that were borne in a cupule, which consisted of groups of enclosing branches likely used to protect the developing seed. Published literature about seed storage, viability and its hygrometric dependence began in
11385-467: The soil in order to exploit the high levels of captured atmospheric nitrogen found in the roots of most legumes. Numerous legumes farmed for this purpose include Leucaena , Cyamopsis , and Sesbania species. Various legume species are farmed for timber production worldwide, including numerous Acacia species and Castanospermum australe . Some legume trees, like the honey locust ( Gleditsia ) can be used in agroforestry . Others, including
11500-420: The soil surface is the next phase of the plant's growth and is called seedling establishment. Three fundamental conditions must exist before germination can occur. (1) The embryo must be alive, called seed viability. (2) Any dormancy requirements that prevent germination must be overcome. (3) The proper environmental conditions must exist for germination. Far red light can prevent germination. Seed viability
11615-455: The soybean crop. Soybean is a common protein source in feed for farm animals that in turn yield animal protein for human consumption. The word "soy" derives from the Japanese soi , a regional variant of shōyu , meaning "soy sauce". The name of the genus, Glycine , comes from Linnaeus . When naming the genus, Linnaeus observed that one of the species within the genus had a sweet root. Based on
11730-560: The soybean is Glycine soja (previously called G. ussuriensis ), a legume native to central China. There is evidence for soybean domestication between 7000 and 6600 BC in China, between 5000 and 3000 BC in Japan and 1000 BC in Korea. The first unambiguously domesticated, cultigen -sized soybean was discovered in Korea at the Mumun -period Daundong site. Prior to fermented products such as fermented black soybeans ( douchi ), jiang (Chinese miso), soy sauce , tempeh , nattō , and miso , soy
11845-411: The soybean plant. The Japanese beetle ( Popillia japonica ) poses a significant threat to agricultural crops, including soybeans, due to its voracious feeding habits. Found commonly in both urban and suburban areas, these beetles are frequently observed in agricultural landscapes where they can cause considerable damage to crops like corn, soybeans, and various fruits. Soybean cyst nematode (SCN)
11960-452: The special ability of fixing nitrogen from atmospheric, molecular nitrogen (N 2 ) into ammonia (NH 3 ). The chemical reaction is: Ammonia is converted to another form, ammonium ( NH + 4 ), usable by (some) plants by the following reaction: This arrangement means that the root nodules are sources of nitrogen for legumes, making them relatively rich in plant proteins . All proteins contain nitrogenous amino acids . Nitrogen
12075-507: The strength of the seedlings produced. The germination percentage is simply the proportion of seeds that germinate from all seeds subject to the right conditions for growth. The germination rate is the length of time it takes for the seeds to germinate. Germination percentages and rates are affected by seed viability, dormancy and environmental effects that impact on the seed and seedling. In agriculture and horticulture quality seeds have high viability, measured by germination percentage plus
12190-465: The sweetness, the Greek word for sweet, glykós , was Latinized. The genus name is not related to the amino acid glycine . Like most plants, soybeans grow in distinct morphological stages as they develop from seeds into fully mature plant. The first stage of growth is germination , a method which first becomes apparent as a seed's radicle emerges. This is the first stage of root growth and occurs within
12305-501: The third-largest land plant family in terms of number of species, behind only the Orchidaceae and Asteraceae , with about 751 genera and some 19,000 known species, constituting about seven percent of flowering plant species. Many legumes contain symbiotic bacteria called Rhizobia within root nodules of their root systems (plants belonging to the genus Styphnolobium are one exception to this rule). These bacteria have
12420-458: The time the third node appears. Nodulation typically continues for 8 weeks before the symbiotic infection process stabilizes. The final characteristics of a soybean plant are variable, with factors such as genetics, soil quality , and climate affecting its form; however, fully mature soybean plants are generally between 50 and 125 cm (20 and 50 in) in height and have rooting depths between 75 and 150 cm (30 and 60 in). Flowering
12535-410: The tropical and subtropical Asia, Africa, Australia and Oceania are minuscule flies that belong to the family Agromyzidae , dubbed "bean flies". They are considered to be the most destructive. The host range of these flies is very wide amongst cultivated legumes. Infestation of plants starts from germination through to harvest, and they can destroy an entire crop in early stage. Black bean aphids are
12650-535: The varieties used for dried pulses are also used for green vegetables, with their beans in pods while young. Some Fabaceae, such as Scotch broom and other Genisteae , are leguminous but are usually not called legumes by farmers, who tend to restrict that term to food crops. The FAO recognizes 11 primary pulses, excluding green vegetable legumes (e.g. green peas) and legumes used mainly for oil extraction (e.g., soybeans and groundnuts) or used only as seed (e.g., clover and alfalfa). Legumes are widely distributed as
12765-543: Was considered sacred for its beneficial effects in crop rotation , and it was eaten by itself, and as bean curd and soy milk . Soybeans were introduced to Java in Malay Archipelago circa 13th century or probably earlier. By the 17th century through their trade with Far East, soybeans and its products were traded by European traders (Portuguese, Spanish, and Dutch) in Asia, and reached Indian Subcontinent by this period. By
12880-690: Was declared by the Sixty-eighth session of the United Nations General Assembly . The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations was nominated to facilitate the implementation of the year in collaboration with governments, relevant organizations, non-governmental organizations and other relevant stakeholders. Its aim was to heighten public awareness of the nutritional benefits of pulses as part of sustainable food production aimed towards food security and nutrition . The year created an opportunity to encourage connections throughout
12995-542: Was introduced into North America in 1765, for the next 155 years, the crop was grown primarily for forage . In 1831, the first soy product "a few dozen India Soy" [sauce] arrived in Canada. Soybeans were probably first cultivated in Canada by 1855, and definitely in 1895 at Ontario Agricultural College . It was not until Lafayette Mendel and Thomas Burr Osborne showed that the nutritional value of soybean seeds could be increased by cooking, moisture or heat, that soy went from
13110-576: Was over 353 million tonnes, led by Brazil and the United States combined with 66% of the total (table). Production has dramatically increased across the globe since the 1960s, but particularly in South America after a cultivar that grew well in low latitudes was developed in the 1980s. The rapid growth of the industry has been primarily fueled by large increases in worldwide demand for meat products, particularly in developing countries like China, which alone accounts for more than 60% of imports. In spite of
13225-426: Was referred to as albumen , and the inner endosperm layer as vitellus. Although misleading, the term began to be applied to all the nutrient matter. This terminology persists in referring to endospermic seeds as "albuminous". The nature of this material is used in both describing and classifying seeds, in addition to the embryo to endosperm size ratio. The endosperm may be considered to be farinaceous (or mealy) in which
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