Russian Winter , sometimes personified as " General Frost " or " General Winter ", is an aspect of the climate of Russia that has contributed to military failures of several invasions of Russia and the Soviet Union . Mud is a related contributing factor that impairs military maneuvering in Russia and elsewhere, and is sometimes personified as "General Mud". Russians call these muddy conditions rasputitsa , which occur with autumnal rains and spring thaws in Russia and make transport over unimproved roads difficult.
59-674: In his study of winter warfare in Russia, author Allen F. Chew concludes that "General Winter" was a 'substantial contributing factor'—not a decisive one—in the military failures of both Napoleon's invasion of the Russian Empire and Hitler's invasion of the Soviet Union . He notes that Napoleon's army was already suffering significant attrition before winter, owing to lack of supplies, disease, desertions and casualties of war. Likewise, Hitler's Wehrmacht had already suffered 734,000 casualties and
118-564: A decisive advantage to any of the combatants. During World War II , the Wehrmacht lacked necessary supplies, such as winter uniforms, due to the many delays in the German army's movements. At the same time, Hitler 's plans for the 1941 invasion of the Soviet Union, Operation Barbarossa , actually miscarried before the onset of severe winter weather. Neither Hitler nor the General Staff anticipated
177-665: A great deal of Denmark consists of islands, it was usually safe from invasion, but in January 1658, most of the Danish waters froze. Charles X Gustav of Sweden led his army across the ice of the Belts to besiege Copenhagen . The war ended with the treaty of Roskilde , a treaty very favorable to the Swedish. During the Great Northern War , Swedish king Charles XII set off to invade Moscow, but
236-442: A lock-down of all movable parts as protection from winter storms. An example of such a summer home that needs to be winterized each fall is the scene of the movie On Golden Pond , which was filmed on Squam Lake . In the 20th century, these summer mountain homes in turn were winterized to enable winter holidays, as the popularity of skiing in the mountains increased that of summer camping . In this sense, winterization refers to
295-508: A long campaign lasting into the winter. Thus, they failed to make adequate preparations for a possible winter campaign, such as the distribution of warm clothing and winterization of vehicles and lubricants. In fact his eastern army suffered more than 734,000 casualties (about 23% of its average strength of 3,200,000) during the first five months of the invasion before the winter started in recently occupied Poland and Soviet Belarus, Ukraine, and western Russia. On 27 November 1941, Eduard Wagner ,
354-418: A narrow and pyrrhic victory almost 600 miles inside hostile territory. The sequels were his uncontested and self-defeating occupation of Moscow and his humiliating retreat, which began on 19 October, before the first severe frosts later that month and the first snow on 5 November." Lieven cites the difficulty of finding food for troops and forage for horses in winter as an important contributing factor. During
413-877: A series of manuals that covered flight, engineer, and combat arms operations in winter. Issues covered included: In his 1981 paper, Fighting the Russians in Winter: Three Case Studies , Chew draws on experiences from the Allied-Soviet War in Northern Russia during the Winter of 1918–19 , the destruction of the Soviet 44th Motorized Rifle Division, and Nazi–Soviet Warfare during World War II to derive winter warfare factors pertaining to military tactics , materiel and personnel : Operational factors encompass planning for
472-560: A significant effect on military operations for one month or more each year." It describes regions that are either severely cold or moderately cold , each comprising approximately one quarter of the Earth's land mass. The manual also delineates the principal mountain ranges of the world, which lie along broad belts which encircle the Pacific basin and then lead westward across Eurasia into North Africa. Secondarily, rugged chains of mountains lie along
531-633: Is also important to properly shrink wrap a boat to protect from moisture, snow, ice, and debris. Watercraft can be winterized and stored outdoors or in an indoor storage facility. Some fountains, such as the Ontario Science Centre FUNtain Hydraulophone and the flame fountain in Nathan Phillips Square, are designed to run year-round by virtue of heated water, whereas others require that the water be drained and that all apertures be covered to keep rainwater from entering
590-647: The Aleutian Islands in Alaska during World War II. The Battle of Chosin Reservoir was a stark example of cold affecting military operations in the Korean War . There were many cold injuries and malfunctions of materiel , both vehicles and weapons. The Sino-Indian War was a Himalayan border conflict between China and India that occurred in 1962. India initiated a Forward Policy in which it placed outposts along
649-771: The Falklands War , which was fought before the oncoming South Atlantic winter, remarked in his memoirs, "I thought then, for the first time, about the arrival of General Winter. If he had been here ten days ago, he would not have been much help to the Args [ Argentines ], dug in on the heights with no chance of their High Command getting their air forces into the skies. But I think he would’ve finished us." Winter warfare Cold-weather warfare , also known as cold-region warfare , arctic warfare or winter warfare , encompasses military operations affected by snow , ice , thawing conditions , or cold, both on land and at sea, as well as
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#1732854705070708-506: The Kawanakajima campaigns . Katsurayama castle was a strategically vital Uesugi stronghold in the contested Shinano Province and, when it was isolated from reinforcements due to late snow in early 1557, the Takeda clan used this opportunity to seize it under Baba Nobuharu , shielded from view by heavy snowfall. Sweden and Denmark fought several wars during the 16th and 17th centuries. As
767-530: The New England area, many wealthy families living in cities during the 19th century had summer homes in the mountains. This was to flee the onset of yellow fever and other epidemics which often struck in the summer months, when city plumbing problems and stagnant horse manure in the streets caused a health hazard. Winterization would take place each Fall when the families returned to the cities (often when school started). In those days, winterization just referred to
826-682: The Northern Hemisphere . Some have occurred above the Arctic Circle where snow, ice, and cold may occur throughout the year. At times, cold—or its aftermath, thaw—has been a decisive factor in the failure of a campaign, as with the French invasion of Russia in 1812, the Soviet invasion of Finland in 1939, and the German invasion of the Soviet Union during World War II . Northern and Eastern Europe were
885-779: The Northern Russian expedition of the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War in the Archangelsk region , both sides, the Allied forces and the Bolshevik Red Army knew or quickly learned the principles of winter warfare and applied them whenever possible. However both sides had their resources strained and at times one side or other suffered the severe consequences of underpreparedness, but Chew concluded that winter did not provide
944-529: The Quartermaster General of the German Army, reported that "We are at the end of our resources in both personnel and material. We are about to be confronted with the dangers of deep winter." Also of note is the fact that the unusually early winter of 1941 cut short the rasputitsa season, improving logistics in early November, with the weather still being only mildly cold. In his 1981 paper, Fighting
1003-568: The UNHCR , winterization activities include the distribution of items including blankets, quilts, kerosene, heating stoves, jerry cans, as well as thermal floor mats and insulation to make tents warmer and more resistant to harsh winter conditions. Some summer homes , also known as cabins or cottages , were built for summer use only and need to be winterized each Autumn. This entails locking them up, turning off water, electricity, and phone lines, and protecting various features from heavy snowfall. In
1062-435: The polar regions ) also undergoes a "winterization" process. Many complex devices (automobiles, electronics and radios) as well as common materials (metals, rubbers, petroleum lubricants) are not designed to operate at extremely low temperatures and must be winterized to operate without severe damage from the elements in such conditions. This might involve a chemical treatment process, additional waterproofing/insulation, or even
1121-589: The 1982 Falklands War . The Siachen conflict is a military confrontation between India and Pakistan over the disputed Siachen Glacier region in Kashmir . The conflict began in 1984 with India's successful Operation Meghdoot during which it gained control over all of the Siachen Glacier. A cease-fire went into effect in 2003. Paton offered a 2001 overview of human factors pertaining to cold in military operations. The understanding of cold injuries evolved in
1180-579: The 19th and 20th centuries; understanding of the causes and treatment of frostbite and trench foot improved. In the Sino-Japanese War, the Japanese learned the importance of foot care, keeping feet dry and warm with replacement socks. In World War I, doctors realized that trench foot was a prolonged exposure to cold, wet conditions on the feet, which were exacerbated by the use of tight puttees, bandage-like leg wrappings. The Soviet invasion of Finland during
1239-672: The Arctic environment. Subsequently, the Petsamo-Kirkenes Operation conducted by the Soviet Army against the Wehrmacht in 1944 in northern Finland and Norway drove the Germans out. In late 1944, Finland turned against its former cobelligerents of Nazi Germany under Soviet pressure and pressured the Germans to withdraw in the ensuing Lapland War . While use of ski infantry was common in
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#17328547050701298-513: The Atlantic margins of the Americas and Europe. Temperature, wind, snow, and thaw are the primary conditions that affect the winter battlescape. The U.S. Army groups cold temperatures using categories. The temperature categories are (with quoted summaries): The combined cooling effect of ambient temperature and wind ( wind chill ) is an important factor that affects troops. For military purposes,
1357-678: The Dolomites. The Finnish Army used ski troops during the Winter War and the Second World War in which the numerically-superior but road-bound Soviet forces were vulnerable to attack by mobile, white-clad ski troops, approaching from untracked, frozen terrain. The Wehrmacht maintained elite mountain troops, Gebirgsjäger . They were organized in small, specialized units, which relied on pack animals. Typical weapons were light machine guns, mortars, and anti-tank guns. Control of ridge lines
1416-675: The Finns, it was at the cost of 200,000 fatalities against 25,000 on the Finnish side. The German invasion of the Soviet Union induced more than 250,000 cold injuries in one year. The French Army occupying the Maginot Line experienced 12,000 cold injuries. Experiences from the disastrous 1941 German advance on Moscow in winter conditions led to the 1942 Taschenbuch für den Winterkrieg ("Pocket book for Winter War"), which highlighted ideal approaches to handling winter, but acknowledged that improvisation in
1475-520: The French Army in 1812?", wherein he demonstrated that the French suffered casualties in battles during relatively mild weather and outlined multiple causes for their defeat. He drew on both his direct observations and on those of foreign commentators, including French authors. According to Chew in 1981, the main body of Napoleon's Grande Armée , initially at least 378,000 strong, "diminished by half during
1534-584: The Parliamentarian stronghold of Aylesbury England. 500 men are reported to have frozen to death on 21 January. On 25 January a sudden thaw caused a bridge to collapse over the River Weaver, splitting Royalist cavalry forces at the Battle of Nantwich resulting in their defeat. The 1557 Siege of Katsurayama was fought between the forces of the Japanese daimyō Takeda Shingen and Uesugi Kenshin as part of
1593-413: The Russians in Winter: Three Case Studies , Chew draws on experiences from the Allied intervention in northern Russia during the winter of 1918–19 , the destruction of the Soviet 44th Motorized Rifle Division , and German–Soviet war during World War II to derive winter warfare factors pertaining to military tactics , materiel and personnel : Sandy Woodward , Royal Navy task force commander during
1652-691: The Soviet Army, Germany formed only one division for movement on skis. From June 1942 to August 1943, the United States and Canada fought the Japanese in the Aleutian Islands Campaign in the Alaska Territory . The following actions were fought in the Arctic by land and naval forces in World War II between 1941 and 1945 in the following theaters of operations: Finland – The Winter War
1711-480: The Swedish shore within 70 kilometres (43 mi) from the Swedish capital, Stockholm . This daring maneuvre decided the outcome of the war. Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812 resulted in retreat in the face of winter with the majority of the French army succumbing to frostbite and starvation, rather than combat injuries. The Battle of Weihaiwei was a battle of the First Sino-Japanese War in
1770-571: The U.S. Army categorizes snow as light, moderate, or heavy. Each classification affects visibility and ground movement due to accumulation and is quoted below: Snow and snowdrifts can create advantages on the battlefield by filling in ditches and vehicle tracks and flattening the terrain. It also creates hollows on the downwind side of obstacles, such as trees, buildings, and bushes, which provide observation points or firing positions. Snowdrifts may provide cover for soldiers to approach an objective. Soviet Army doctrine cited 30 centimetres (12 in) as
1829-464: The Winter War showed the power of asymmetric warfare on the Finnish side, where small units were able to cut the road-bound Soviet invading troops into segments, like firewood, and vanquish each segment. The small units arrived silently on skis or with light artillery pulled by reindeer over frozen, untracked terrain, using winter conditions as an advantage. Although the Soviet Union gained territory from
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1888-411: The addition of modern amenities such as heating and insulation , often entailing a complete rebuild of the cottage. In real estate, winterization refers to securing or preparing vacant properties to withstand or survive the harsh impacts of winter weather: this is similar to winterizing a home before the cold season arrives. Equipment designed for use in particularly extreme cold conditions (such as
1947-524: The autumn of 1812 and also the German attempt to take Moscow in the autumn of 1941. The 1942 Taschenbuch für den Winterkrieg acknowledges that neither tracked nor wheeled vehicles can maneuver during conditions of thaw and that aircraft operations must be constrained to concrete runways. It addresses minimizing the use of roads during this period and dismantling bridges that are likely to be taken out by ice floes. It emphasizes how positions in frozen soil must be improved to avoid deterioration from thaw and
2006-576: The border in 1961. China launched simultaneous offensives in Ladakh and across the McMahon Line on 20 October 1962. Chinese troops advanced over Indian forces in both theaters. Much of the fighting took place in harsh mountain conditions , entailing large-scale combat at altitudes of over 4,000 metres (14,000 feet). Many troops on both sides succumbed to the freezing cold temperatures. Argentine troops suffered from cold-wet conditions, holding positions in
2065-580: The climate and weather in which military operations are required with snow, ice, mud and cold being the primary considerations. Military tactics , materiel , combat engineering and military medicine all require specialized adaptations to the conditions encountered in cold weather. In its 2016 "Mountain Warfare and Cold Weather Operations" manual, the United States Army defines cold regions as "where cold temperatures, unique terrain, and snowfall have
2124-517: The enemy their use. Napoleon's army was ultimately reduced to 100,000. His army suffered further, even more disastrous losses on the retreat from Moscow, which started in October. Multiple sources concur that winter and its aftermath was only a contributing factor to Napoleon's defeat and retreat. To counter claims that the French defeat resulted from winter weather, Denis Davydov published a military historical analysis, titled "Was it Frost that Devastated
2183-629: The enemy. The threat of Finnish snipers, whom the Russians called "cuckoos", further demoralized the Soviets. The Finns mined ice routes over lakes to sink Soviet equipment. The Lapland War was fought between Finland and Germany from September 1944 to April 1945 in Finland's northernmost Lapland Province . It included: Norway – The liberation of Finnmark was a military operation, lasting from 23 October 1944 until 26 April 1945, in which Soviet and Norwegian forces wrestled away control of Finnmark ,
2242-417: The field would be necessary when supplies were lacking. The Soviet troops in that period had felt-lined boots and quilted uniforms, but the Germans continued fighting in their summer uniforms. The Taschenbuch für den Winterkrieg manual contains sections on the influence and duration of winter, the seasons of mud and thaw, preparation for winter warfare, winter combat methods and maintaining morale, including
2301-512: The first eight weeks of his invasion, before the major battle of the campaign. This decrease was partly due to garrisoning supply centres, but disease, desertions, and casualties sustained in various minor actions caused thousands of losses. At the Battle of Borodino , about 110 km from Moscow, on 7 September 1812—the only major engagement fought in Russia—Napoleon could muster no more than 135,000 troops and he lost at least 30,000 of them to gain
2360-427: The fountain and freezing inside. Fountains and other water features are often drained and sealed up so that water inside does not freeze or cause breakage of the pipes in the fountain. Fish ponds require several additional steps to ensure that the fish are well taken care of. A properly maintained water feature containing fish can operate even in freezing temperatures. Steps should be taken to ensure adequate cleaning of
2419-402: The necessity of changing uniforms from ones for cold to those for wet conditions. The dominant tactical concern in cold conditions is the ability to maneuver in vehicles or on foot. Additionally, during winter, night operations become the norm at higher latitudes with their long periods of darkness. Snow enhances night vision because of high reflectivity and the visibility of combatants against
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2478-443: The northernmost county of Norway, from Germany . It started with a major Soviet offensive that liberated Kirkenes . Northern Russia – Operation Silver Fox was a joint German –Finnish military operation offensive during World War II . It failed to achieve its main goal to cut off and ultimately capture the key Soviet port at Murmansk through attacks from Finnish and Norwegian territory. Spitsbergen – Operation Gauntlet
2537-558: The spring of 1709 only 19,000 were left. The Battle of Poltava in the Ukrainian Cossack Hetmanate in late June 1709 sealed the end of the Swedish Empire . Napoleon's Grande Armée of 610,000 men invaded Russia , heading through territory of today's Belarus towards Moscow , in the beginning of summer on 24 June 1812. The Russian army retreated before the French and again burnt their crops and villages, denying
2596-528: The strategies and tactics used by military forces in these situations and environments. Cold-weather conditions occur year-round at high elevation or latitudes, and elsewhere materialize seasonally during the winter period. Mountain warfare often takes place in cold weather or on terrain that is affected by ice and snow, such as the Alps and the Himalayas . Historically, most such operations have been during winter in
2655-612: The threshold snow depth that impairs mobility for troops, cavalry and vehicles, except tanks for which the threshold was 50 centimetres (20 in). Thawing conditions can impair mobility and put soldiers at risk of trench foot by turning soil to mud; it can also weaken and break up ice cover on bodies of water. Maintaining roads becomes more difficult during spring-thaw run-off periods and requires mud removal by heavy equipment. Slushy and muddy ground causes clothing and equipment to become wet, damp and dirty. Muddy conditions greatly inhibited Napoleon's ability to maneuver in Russia in
2714-406: The total substitution of new parts. An example would be the internal combustion engine of an automobile; the installation of heaters on the engine block and battery as well as the substitution of winter-grade coolants and lubricants allows the vehicle to start and run in sub-freezing conditions where a non-winterized engine would quickly break down. Winterization of equipment can be thought of as
2773-399: The use of reading material, lectures, movies, and "strength through joy" exercises. Other sections cover marches, the maintenance of roads, winter bivouacs and shelter, construction of winter positions, camouflage and concealment, identification of the enemy, clothing, rations, evacuation of the wounded, care and use of weapons and equipment, signal communication, and winter mobility. The manual
2832-660: The venues for some well-documented winter campaigns. During World War II several actions took place above the Arctic Circle. Recent cold-weather conflicts have occurred in the Himalayas. In 1242, the Teutonic Order lost the Battle on the Ice on Lake Peipus to Novgorod. In 1520, the decisive Battle of Bogesund between Sweden and Denmark occurred on the ice of lake Åsunden . In 1643 or 1644, Prince Rupert made an abortive attack on
2891-523: The white background. The German Taschenbuch für den Winterkrieg emphasizes reconnaissance to ascertain the conditions and capacity of the roads to be used. It describes snow clearing from roads and recovery of bogged-down vehicles. Winterization Winterization is the process of preparing something for the winter , and is a form of ruggedization . Equipment suitable for year-round use can be said to have "built-in" winterization. In emergency or disaster response situations, such as managed by
2950-724: The winter of 1895 in Weihai , Shandong, China between the forces of the Japan and Qing China . Through a well coordinated offensive of both naval and land forces, hampered by snow and cold, the Japanese destroyed the forts on shore and sank much of the Chinese fleet. During the First World War , soldiers on the Western front involved in trench warfare were forced to deal with freezing conditions, trench foot , frostbite, and disease. The winter of 1916-17
3009-415: The winter-weather extension of ruggedization . Boats, boat lifts, personal watercraft, and other watercraft need to be properly winterized. This includes draining water from the hull, and the cooling system, inspect stern drive to remove plant life, add fuel, add oil to the engine, and clean the bilges. Thoroughly cleaning the interiors, draining any refrigerators, lock all drawers, and remove valuables. It
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#17328547050703068-625: Was a Combined Operations raid by Canadian troops, with British Army logistics support and Free Norwegian Forces servicemen on the Norwegian island of Spitsbergen , 600 miles (970 km) south of the North Pole, from 25 August to 3 September 1941. Operation Fritham was a Norwegian military operation , based from British soil, that had the goal of securing the rich coal mines on the island of Spitsbergen (a part of Svalbard ) and denying their use to Nazi Germany . Operation Zitronella (Citronella)
3127-866: Was a military conflict between the Soviet Union (USSR) and Finland . It began with a Soviet invasion of Finland on 30 November 1939, three months after the outbreak of World War II , and ended three and a half months later with the Moscow Peace Treaty on 13 March 1940. In the Battle of Suomussalmi , Finns leveraged cold weather to disadvantage the Soviet enemy troops by targeting field kitchens and campfires for their attacks, thereby denying those troops warmth and nutrition. The Finns rotated their troops so that they could regularly return to warm shelters to recuperate after an attack or patrol. Heavy Soviet equipment and their associated troops were restricted to roads, while Finnish ski troops had broad mobility to outflank
3186-509: Was an eight-hour German raid on Spitzbergen on 8 September 1943. This marks the highest latitude at which a land battle has ever been fought. However, given the extreme conditions, the German and Allied troops were at times compelled to assist each other to survive. United States – The Aleutian Islands Campaign was a campaign conducted by both the United States and Imperial Japan from 3 June 1942 to 15 August 1943 in Attu and Kiska , part of
3245-571: Was designed to provide information at the officer level for indoctrination of troops via the non-commissioned officer ranks. The scope of the manual is to train troops in the following areas: Some highlights include addressing: The Soviet Army learned from its 1939–40 Winter War experiences and the 1941 German advance on Moscow. The high command realized that it must prepare entire divisions for winter warfare in 1942, beginning with warm uniforms, winter equipment (skis, etc.), and training for winter operations. Analysis of previous experiences resulted in
3304-645: Was eventually defeated at the Battle of Poltava after being weakened by cold weather and scorched earth tactics. Sweden suffered more casualties during the same war as Carl Gustaf Armfeldt with 6,000 men tried to invade Trondheim . Three thousand of them died of exposure in the snow during the Carolean Death March . During the Finnish War , the Russian army unexpectedly crossed the frozen Gulf of Bothnia from Finland to Åland and, by 19 March 1809, reached
3363-506: Was exceptionally cold, which caused great hardship and deaths among the soldiers. Equipment and vehicles also were not suited for the freezing conditions. At the Battle of Sarikamish , Ottoman troops were unprepared for winter fighting and suffered major losses, with 25,000 freezing to death before the battle even began. On the Italian front , fighting bogged down in trench warfare but at mountain elevations. On White Friday , thousands of troops from both sides were killed in avalanches in
3422-400: Was paramount, using a limited number of outposts. They operated on the principles of fewer arms, but more ammunition per weapon and the economical use thereof. In Operation Barbarossa in 1941, both Russian and German soldiers had to endure terrible conditions during the Russian winter . The German-Finnish joint offensive against Murmansk (Operation Silver Fox) in 1941 saw heavy fighting in
3481-449: Was running low on supplies in November 1941, before the arrival of winter. In the Great Northern War , Charles XII of Sweden invaded the Russian Empire, crossing the Vistula on 1 January 1708. The Russians retreated, adopting a scorched-earth policy. The winter of 1708–1709 was the most brutal of the 18th century, so severe that the seaport of Venice froze during the Great Frost of 1709 . Charles' 35,000 troops were crippled, and by
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