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75-587: The Southern Negro Youth Congress consisted of young leaders who participated in the National Negro Congress . The first gathering of the Southern Negro Youth Congress consisted of a wide range of individuals. Such individuals as representatives from almost all the black colleges in the country, Boy and Girl Scouts , young steel workers, and even members of the YMCA all joined together to form

150-416: A black community and then comparing the prices to those same items being purchased in a white community. This study showed that prices for the same goods were 20-30% higher in the black communities than they were in the white communities, which meant that the citizens who were struggling most to survive were actually paying higher prices for the items that were necessary for them to live. Prominent members of

225-525: A blueprint for subsequent generation of black activists according to Erik Geolman. Though the NNC coordinated activities with an array of groups, it forged Participants included intellectuals from Howard University, civic and civil rights leaders, labor leaders and religious groups. White participation was not excluded. Black workers affiliated with the National Negro Congress advocated for integration into

300-715: A brief stint as secretary of the western region of the Student YMCA , in 1917 he became pastor of the First Baptist Church in Charleston, West Virginia. He later founded a chapter of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP ). On June 26, 1926, at the age of 36, Johnson was unanimously elected the eleventh President of Howard University , becoming the first African American to serve as

375-400: A crucial position in the emerging struggle, as well as a vital stake in it. In 1936, there were perhaps as many as 85,000 Negro steelworkers- 20 per cent of the laborers and 6 per cents of the operators in the industry. Restricted to the worst jobs, with intense heat and noxious gases, they also encountered a wide network of racially discriminatory differential – averaged $ 3.60 per day. Through

450-586: A field representative, C. Columbus Alston. In addition to being a member of the Southern Negro Youth Congress, Alston was also a union member of the Youth Committee of the American Federation of Labor and helped organize the black workers into the Tobacco Stemmers and Laborers Industrial Union. With the help of Alston and Southern Negro Youth Congress, the Tobacco Stemmers and Laborers Industrial Union

525-526: A leadership which is uncontrolled and responsible to no one but the Negro people." With no tying to any political affiliation, Randolph wanted the National Negro Congress to be free from any biased decision regarding the African-American struggle. By being independent from any political party, he is creating space of grassroots organizing. The interest of the people should come from the people themselves and that

600-543: A letter signed by US Secretary of the Navy Frank Knox on April 1, and the next day, CBS Radio broadcast an episode of the series They Live Forever, which dramatized Miller's actions. The All-Southern Negro Youth Conference launched a signature campaign on April 17–19. On May 10, the National Negro Congress denounced Knox's recommendation against awarding Miller the Medal of Honor. (On May 11, President Roosevelt approved

675-448: A majority of Americans faced immense economic problems. Many lost their jobs and as a result, were forced to live at the margins of society. The crisis highlighted inequities for many African Americans, who were unemployed at higher rates than white. Historically, many black workers were segregated and more often than not, racially discriminated in the labor force. In order to combat racism within their respective jobs, they had to establish

750-490: A poor working-class man, to the working class that is considered diversified among its members. Moreover, Randolph believed that if the National Negro Congress were to ever be in the dependency of radical and revolutionary party, it should never be subjugated or controlled by the party for their own advantage: "Appealing to the Congress, he asked for a leadership that would be 'free from intimidation, manipulation or subordination ...

825-634: A preacher and mill worker. His mother, Carolyn Freeman, was a domestic worker for one of the prominent families in town. Johnson attended a small elementary school in his native town. Afterward, he moved to Nashville , where he studied at Roger Williams University . Later he studied at Howe Institute in Memphis. He transferred to the Atlanta Baptist College (now Morehouse College , a historically black college ), where he completed his secondary and undergraduate education. During his college career, he

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900-424: A representative from all historically black colleges was present as well and members from YMCA branches and Girl and Boy scouts across the region. Like the National Negro Congress before it the Southern Negro Youth Congress also consisted of Communist party members as well. The Southern Negro Youth Congress met on February 13 and 14, 1937 where they were divided into groups to discuss problems and to advocate ideas to

975-612: A similar struggle: a class struggle. When, after the 1939 Pact between the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany , Communist and Fascist, the Party turned again to Communist Internationale work, the NNC's broad coalition disintegrated. The foundation of the National Negro Congress was a response to the historical oppression African Americans faced in the United States, in particular in the workforce. Black workers were marginalized and exploited from

1050-534: A union. However, many of the unions around the depression era had exclusively white members, excluding African Americans from their protection and benefits. Black workers took initiative to unite against racism and classism. " John P. Davis and Communist Party leader James W. Ford decided to bring together meaningful organizations that would be dedicated in the ongoing fight against racial discrimination." Class does not embody one particular race, but transcends racial borders to integrate many ethnic groups alike to face

1125-667: Is what is Randolph is imploring. The very act of defiance is resisting. Although he advocated for the integration of black workers to the AFL-CIO, Randolph wanted the National Negro Congress to be a separate entity; a space where black workers from the AFL-CIO can use for their affirmation of their struggle as a black working class. In 1939, the Daughters of the American Revolution (DAR) refused permission for Marian Anderson to sing to an integrated audience in their Constitution Hall . At

1200-551: The China Aid Council and United China Relief at their sold-out concert at Washington's Uline Arena on April 24, 1941. The Washington Committee for Aid to China had booked Constitution Hall but had been blocked by the Daughters of the American Revolution owing to Robeson's race. The indignation was great enough that President Roosevelt 's wife Eleanor and Hu Shih , the Chinese ambassador, joined as sponsors. However, when

1275-569: The Navy Cross for Miller.) In 1944, Aubrey Pankey performed a concert at Carnegie Hall in New York City produced by the National Negro Congress in 1944. His encores that evening included a march popular with Soviet troops and Die Moorsoldaten , a song of the victims of the Nazi concentration camps . In 1946, the National Negro Congress set up picket lines in theaters in the big cities where

1350-833: The University of Chicago , where he received a second A.B. degree, and at the Rochester Theological Seminary in Rochester, New York , where he earned the B.D. degree. At Rochester he was profoundly influenced by the great "social gospel" advocate, Walter Rauschenbusch . His experiences there strongly influenced his thinking and his entire career. He also earned a Doctor of Divinity degree at Harvard University in 1923. Johnson married Anna Ethelyn Gardner on December 25, 1916. They had five children: Carolyn Elizabeth Johnson, Mordecai Wyatt Johnson Jr., Archer Clement Johnson, William Howard Johnson, and Anna Faith Johnson . Following

1425-536: The African-American movement during this time. Although there was much debate on where the first Southern Negro Youth Congress meeting would be held it was eventually decided that it would be held in Richmond, Virginia on February 13 and 14, 1937 at the Fifth Baptist Church. The first Southern Negro Youth Congress meeting consisted of 534 delegates that represented 250,000 young people in 23 states. Of these delegates

1500-628: The American Communist Party and their visibility from 1935 to 1939, the United States government began to take actions to suppress organizations with Communist members. From 1940 to 1952, the FBI gathered data on the Southern Negro Youth Congress through technical surveillance such as telephone and microphone taps. Besides this the FBI paid informants and paid for subscriptions to the Southern Negro Youth Congress’ publications. However,

1575-532: The Great Depression, the Party turned from doctrine to popular-front coalition method and worked in the United States to unite black and white workers and intellectuals in the fight for racial justice. This period represented the Party's peak of prestige in African-American communities. NNC was opposed to war, fascism , and discrimination , especially racial discrimination. During the Great Depression era,

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1650-400: The I. N. Vaughn & Company. At the time, the tobacco industry already had an established tobacco union, The Tobacco Workers’ International Union, which followed the policy of occupational segregation rather than racial discrimination which allowed them to ignore the rights and needs of African-American workers. In order to get the black workers organized, the Southern Negro Youth Congress sent

1725-533: The National Negro Congress is therefore a result and a product of resistance used by the oppressed to confront the national government. Self-determination was a concept that was used as agency for protection against racism as explained in the purpose during the first National Negro Congress in February 1936: "The magnitude, complexity, and danger of the Negro's present condition demands the mobilization of overwhelming mass pressure and force, which can only be achieve through

1800-479: The South, despite the poll taxes. The Southern Negro Youth Congress pushed this movement through their editorial “Citizenship Campaign” which stated that the majority of problems blacks faced in the South could be changed if they voted. Besides editorials, the Southern Negro Youth Congress also passed out pamphlets, leaflets, manuals, and buttons to encourage interest in voting. Although not always successful in their tactics,

1875-561: The Southern Conference on Human Welfare as well as many other organizations in hopes to support legislation that would make lynching a federal crime. Members of the Southern Negro Youth Congress were encouraged by members of the NAACP to send telegrams, letters and postcards to delegates in the area and more importantly, President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Since its inception, the Southern Negro Youth Congress attempted to get many blacks to vote in

1950-499: The Southern Negro Youth Congress Community Theatre also performed across the South to reacquaint Southern African-Americans with their heritage, as well as show them that struggle was necessary to demonstrate that America should change its democratic pronouncement. Since the formation of the Southern Negro Youth Congress in 1937, there was a strong communist representation present. With the emergence of

2025-529: The Southern Negro Youth Congress also believed in the power of using the arts as an instrument to promote their causes to the youth. The two main tactics used by the Southern Negro Youth Congress were poetry and drama. The Congress helped this movement by creating a literary publication Cavalcade: The March of Southern Negro Youth and a creative association entitled the Association of Young Writers and Artists to allow blacks to spread their expressions. In addition,

2100-511: The Southern Negro Youth Congress claimed that it represented about 250,000 young black southerners but due to insufficient records these numbers could not be verified. The Southern Negro Youth Congress saw its demise in 1949 in part due to the postwar period of the United States caught in the Cold War as well as fear, hysteria, racial violence and loss of jobs that led to many difficulties for the Southern Negro Youth Congress leaders to solve. Prior to

2175-640: The Southern Negro Youth Congress did excel in being one of the first community groups to have citizenship campaigns that included voter registration clinics. A sample of the aims and projects of the Southern Negro Youth Conference can be found in Louis Burnham's organizational report at the 1942 Atlanta joint meeting of SNYC's Advisory Board and National Council. The proposals were: All the proposals in Burnham's report passed. Besides campaigning,

2250-479: The Southern Negro Youth Congress included veteran activists James Jackson, Helen Gray, Esther Cooper Jackson (at the far left of the photo with Senator Taylor ), Louis Burnham (to the left of, and holding a paper with, Senator Taylor in the photo) and Edward E. Strong. At one time or another it had the support of prominent figures that included Mary McCleod Bethune , Charlotte Hawkins Brown , Franklin D. Roosevelt and William Edward Burghardt DuBois . At its prime

2325-500: The Southern Negro Youth Congress often campaigned for the rights of black workers in the South, they also targeted lynching crimes, the poll tax, and registering African-Americans to vote. The Southern Negro Youth Congress sought to combat the lynch terror that was occurring against the youth throughout the south. The Southern Negro Youth Congress teamed up with the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP),

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2400-500: The Southern Negro Youth Congress. The Southern Negro Youth Congress felt that the major threat to democracy was not communism or socialism but rather fascism , not only to the black population but also a major threat to the white population as well. Many members of the Southern Negro Youth Congress felt that it was a great organization because it allowed people to not only settle into the Southern areas but also take action to change it for

2475-488: The Southern Negro Youth Congress. The most frequently used method for expansion was the membership drives that consisted of three different types: affiliate, club, and individual. Throughout its history, SNYC followed a four-point program that was utilized in almost all issues and campaigns. In addition to the SNYC, 100 local councils associated with the group supported this four-point program. The four-point program sought to improve

2550-430: The agency of a National Negro Congress ." Analyzing the current conditions of their experience in the United States allowed African Americans to realize the failings of government institutions. The main leader, A. Philip Randolph , was instrumental in gathering not only socialists and communists but was able to organize massive popular participation by African Americans. By struggling against not only racism but capitalism,

2625-526: The areas of the South in citizenship, education, jobs, and health. In adopting these points, the SNYC attracted acceptance not only from African-Americans but white citizens in the south, as well. The Southern Negro Youth Congress was caught in two spontaneous strikes that occurred in Richmond, Virginia in 1937. The first strike occurred on April 16, 1937 against the Carrington & Michaux Tobacco Stemming Company. The second strike occurred on May 7, 1937 against

2700-514: The better as well. The Southern Negro Youth Congress engaged in many activities during the late 1930s and 1940s such as leading boycotts against discriminatory working environments, registering African-American votes, discussed problems with government officials in Washington, D.C., organized workers into unions and assisted rural African-Americans in legal cases. The Southern Negro Youth Congress performed such studies as taking items being purchased in

2775-421: The color clause and pledge from the constitution and rituals of all trade and industrial unions' and the expulsion of all unions which maintained 'said color bar.'" The communists believed that working cooperatively could help black and white workers ease racial tensions, rather than competing against each other. among the workers would ease and if unification were to ever happen, it would be accomplished through

2850-408: The commodification of black workers, industry and unions treated them as bodies that produce profit. The exclusion of black workers from white-dominated unions was used to dehumanize black workers. The National Negro Congress validated the struggle and existence of Black Americans in the United States. Noticing that the National Negro Congress was drifting into left-wing sectionalism, Randolph reinforced

2925-520: The creation of the Southern Negro Youth Congress, many African-Americans during the first 30 years of the twentieth century struggled with financial hardships and often were near the bottom of the American economic and political life. The National Negro Congress was held in Chicago in 1936---although the young were present felt the need to create their own congress in hopes of not being hampered by elder members of

3000-403: The effects of the Southern Negro Youth Congress efforts were not lost in that instilled an essence and spirit into the people for the further Civil Rights Movement that would occur a decade later. National Negro Congress The National Negro Congress (NNC) (1936–ca. 1946) was an American organization formed in 1936 at Howard University as a broadly based coalition organization with

3075-549: The end of the eighth Southern Negro Youth Congress and the resigning of the president the Congress began to lose rapid popularity in the south and north as membership declined drastically. The opposing powers against the Congress were too much to withstand as well as the times that occurred post World War II. The United States was undergoing what later became known as the Cold War and this led to heightened racial tension and encouraged local and national law enforcement agencies to increase

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3150-770: The enrollment at Howard University increased from 2,000 in 1926 to more than 10,000 in 1960. Johnson was an annual speaker for the Education Night at the National Baptist Convention, a speaker at the Ford Hall Forum in Boston, and spoke alongside Martin Luther King Jr. and others at the 1957 Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom . He traveled 25,000 miles a year throughout the country speaking principally on topics such as racism, segregation, and discrimination. In 1951 he

3225-570: The establishment of the infrastructure of the Southern Negro Youth Congress in the National Office located in Richmond. The Congress looked to make officers consisting of young people who lived and worked in the South. The national officers elected to serve a one-year term were as follows: William F. Richardson as National Chairman, Edward Strong as Executive Secretary, C. Columbus Alston as National Field Representative, and James A. Cox as Treasurer. National officers were responsible for recruitment for

3300-505: The film played, with its protesters holding signs that read " Song of the South is an insult to the Negro people" and, lampooning "Jingle Bells", chanted: "Disney tells, Disney tells/lies about the South." On April 2, 1947, a group of protesters marched around Paramount Theatre (Oakland, California) with picket signs reading, "We want films on Democracy not Slavery" and "Don't prejudice children's minds with films like this". Jewish newspaper B'nai B'rith Messenger of Los Angeles considered

3375-552: The film to be "tall[ying] with the reputation that Disney is making for himself as an arch-reactionary". Members of the NNC included: Around 1946, the NNC merged with the International Labor Defense (ILD) and National Federation for Constitutional Liberties (NFCL) to form the Civil Rights Congress (CRC) (1946–1956). Mordecai Johnson Mordecai Wyatt Johnson (January 4, 1890 – September 10, 1976)

3450-521: The general body for approval, modification or rejection. Prominent adult leaders such as John P Davis , executive secretary of the National Negro Congress, as well as many other leaders from the Christian Youth Council of North America , members of the YMCA and teachers from the black colleges around the area assisted the divided groups of the SNYC. The key components of the first Congress were noted by

3525-586: The goal of fighting for Black liberation; it subsumed the League of Struggle for Negro Rights . Although an idea which came out of the American Communist Party, the Congress organization and model stressed broad coalition of different ideologies and groups in "an unprecedented confluence of civic, civil rights, labor, and religious groups from across the nation," united, not by any theory, but for practical advances in African American civil and employment rights. During

3600-537: The imminent perception of the Southern Negro Youth Congress as a Communist Party dominated the mass, which subsequently led to the downfall of many Southern Negro Youth Congress campaigns and its popularity. Sallye Davis, mother of communist scholar and activist Angela Y. Davis , was active in the Southern Negro Youth Congress in Birmingham, Alabama. The Southern Negro Youth Conference in 1948 held their eighth Southern Negro Youth Congress Conference that also happened to be

3675-664: The implementation of the New Deal, many African Americans in the North believed they had elected a new leader whose ideas seemed radical. However most of these programs did not have any say or input of the African-American community. Therefore, most of the struggles that were faced for being black in the United States were neglected: On a whim, Davis attended President Franklin Delano Roosevelt's first National Recovery Administration hearing and noticed, in disbelief, that no one represented

3750-486: The interests of African-Americans. He contacted his friend Robert C. Weaver, another Harvard University graduate, and formed the two-man Joint Committee on National Recovery in 1933, challenging Roosevelt's New Deal programs. The two were determined to become the first full-time lobbyists for civil-rights in American history. They traveled the back roads of the deep and dangerous - for a black man - South investigating lynchings , voting rights violations of black Americans, and

3825-447: The interests of Negroes first". The interests of numerous radical parties were not founded in the principles of race. As a matter of fact, they only saw class struggle as a problem for Americans. The negligence of race further deprived many African-Americans from amplifying their voice about their experience in the labor-work force. It was something that can be seen as divisive because generally black workers who belonged, if not lower than

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3900-490: The larger and better funded unions such as the CIO. Although the CIO supported the foundation of the National Negro Congress to fight for civil rights and against racism, the communist aspect of the Congress deprived both organizations from having strong ties to each other. There developed a division between those who supported communism, including its fight on behalf of African Americans, and those who only supported civil rights. With

3975-559: The last conference. The meeting was held on April 23, 24, and 25, 1948 in Birmingham, Alabama where the headquarters was located. The eighth conference attracted national news headlines as well as showed the extent of control over the lives of citizens that lived in the South. During this time the Police Commissioner was Bull Connor who used everything in his power to prevent the Southern Negro Youth Congress from gathering stating that

4050-430: The leadership under Randolph was able to forge relationships with white workers and intellectuals. Bridging race gaps among black and white workers, the notion of segregation was often challenged. Issues such as class was a way for ethnic groups to bridge some differences; what was at stake was the root of the economic and political turmoil they were placed in: capital and capitalism. But in order to cultivate change within

4125-420: The loss of support from the CIO and AFL, African Americans were excluded from major unions. With the emergence of the National Negro Congress, the African-American community found refuge with activists identifying as communist. Even with having a safe space to discuss about class struggle, Black workers did not have any radical union that took a stand against capital within the race framework. In spite of not having

4200-493: The meeting would violate the state of Alabama’s laws. Three black churches turned down the Southern Negro Youth Congress before Reverend H. Douglas Oliver allowed the meeting to be held in his pastor of the Alliance Gospel Tabernacle. The meeting was held on May 1, 1948 and upon arrival all white members were arrested and charged for breaking the segregation laws. Despite this occurrence the meeting still commenced with

4275-412: The organizers offered tickets on generous terms to the National Negro Congress to help fill the larger venue, these sponsors withdrew, in objection to the NNC's Communist ties. Details of the withdrawal of support may be found in the testimony of a House Un-American Activities Committee informant. In 1942, Doris Miller received recognition as one of the "first US heroes of World War II," commended by

4350-569: The patriotic song "Chee Lai!" ("Arise!" also known as the March of the Volunteers ) from the Chinese progressive activist, Liu Liangmo . Robeson premiered the song at a large concert in New York City's Lewisohn Stadium and recorded it in both English and Chinese for Keynote Records in early 1941. Its 3- disc album included a booklet whose preface was written by Soong Ching-ling , widow of Sun Yat-sen , Robeson gave further performances at benefits for

4425-641: The permanent head of that institution. Prior to his appointment Johnson had served as Professor of Economics and History at Morehouse College . He had also served as Pastor of the First Baptist Church in Charleston, West Virginia . During his tenure, Johnson appointed Charles Hamilton Houston as dean of the law school, who played a significant role in dismantling the Jim Crow laws . Johnson raised millions of dollars for new buildings and for upgrading all of

4500-480: The remaining black members under the segregated conditions. At the meeting the Southern Negro Youth Congress passed resolutions condemning the segregation laws and denying any affiliation with the Communist Party. The contentions of the party were not accepted by the U.S. Department of Justice and shortly after the meeting Edward K. Weaver ; president of the Southern Negro Youth Congress was forced to resign. With

4575-444: The schools. National honor societies, including Phi Beta Kappa , were established on the campus of Howard. During his administration, it was said that Howard had the greatest collection of African American scholars to be found anywhere. Notable scholars at Howard included: Johnson brought Howard University into national prominence and served as president of Howard for 34 years, since 1926 until his retirement in 1960. In this time

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4650-618: The seminar on “The Role of the Negro Church in Solving Social and Economic Problems of the Negro Youth,” as well as the keynote address delivered by Dr. Mordecai Johnson , the first black president of Howard University Dean Herbert M. Smith spearheaded the seminar stating that Negro ministers had to interest themselves in matters with church members if they wanted the church to remain the greatest instrument of social enlightenment. Following

4725-436: The seminar, Dr. Johnson addressed the delegates with his keynote urging the audience to refrain from the status quo and to take a role in abolishing injustice caused by the American system against African-Americans. Dr. Johnson’s keynote addresses was received with great enthusiasm and applause from the delegates and observers, as it mainly was filled with advice for the young and criticized the old. The first conference also saw

4800-462: The separation of races was required and that any action that disobeyed this law was to be reinforced by the police. The Southern Negro Youth Congress looked for churches to hold the meetings but upon securing a location to use Bull Connor would often intervene and call the Minister of the church facilities being used and state that since the Southern Negro Youth Congress was an interracial organization that

4875-507: The squalid working conditions of black agricultural, textile and factory workers" Because of extensive disenfranchisement of African Americans in the South, the powerful Southern Block in Congress represented only their white constituents. The black community from different sectors of the community began to form their own institution to address issues that pertain within the black experience. The National Negro Congress consisted mainly of Blacks , but not exclusively. The foundation of

4950-479: The struggle of black and white workers. In addition to the racial division that existed among larger, powerful union was the wage black workers were earning in contrast to the white workers. For example, in the book the National Negro Congress: A Reassessment by Lawrence S. Wittner, the author explains the miserable conditions suffered by African-Americans workers and their generally low wages. Blacks had

5025-445: The support of the AFL or the CIO, they relied upon the militancy and communist-led organization of the NNC. Aside from challenging the concept of racism, members of the National Negro Congress advocated against the fascism abroad and the new deal in the United States. The election of Franklin D. Roosevelt resulted in a huge economic, political and social reform over the succeeding years. With

5100-489: The surveillance of radical and subversive organization. According to the United States Attorney General, Tom Clark, the Southern Negro Youth Congress appeared as a subversive organization. The Southern Negro Youth Congress was based on two fundamental objectives which were to democratize the South and to provide equal opportunities to its residents and although the Southern Negro Youth Congress disbanded by 1949

5175-444: The time when they were enslaved, and the National Negro Congress advocated for black liberation through many sectors of the African-American life. The NNC launched a broad and multifaceted assault on racism and economic exploitation. Forging alliances with organized labor, the Communist Party, and even mainstream civil rights groups, the NNC not only drew on the talents and resources of a cross section of organizations but also established

5250-411: The time, Washington, D.C., was a segregated city and black patrons were upset that they had to sit at the back of Constitution Hall. Constitution Hall also did not have the segregated public bathrooms required by DC law at the time for such events. The District of Columbia Board of Education also declined a request to use the auditorium of a white public high school. In 1940, Paul Robeson learned

5325-524: The tradition of prioritizing the black community first above organizations and ideologies: "sensing the drift of the Congress toward left-wing sectarianism, A. Philip Randolph fought back in behalf of its traditional aims of racial integrity and black unity ... He rejected Congress affiliation with both major parties, the Communist Party, the Socialist Party and with the Soviet Union: none, he noted, placed

5400-468: The workforce, A. Philip Randolph had to cultivate change through the regulations of the National Negro Congress: "As part of its attempt to bring blacks into the labor movement, the Congress became a leading force for ending the racial restrictions on membership in many unions. In 1934, A. Philip Randolph had urged delegates at the American Federation of Labor convention to order 'the elimination of

5475-497: Was a member of the debating team and the Glee Club , a star athlete in three sports, and quarterback of the football team. Offered a faculty position at the college upon graduation, he taught English and economics and served a year as acting dean. He maintained a profound interest in economics throughout his career, an interest that was apparent in some of his major speeches. After one year of teaching, he continued his education at

5550-539: Was able to draft a list of demands aimed at the Tobacco companies. Some of the demands listed by the black tobacco workers consisted of having higher wages, shorter working-hours and better working conditions. Within 48 hours of the union’s committee presenting its case to the management of the company, an agreement was reached with Frank Kruch of the State Labor Department and the owners of the companies. Although

5625-474: Was an American educator and pastor. He served as the first African-American president of Howard University , from 1926 until 1960. Johnson has been considered one of the three leading African-American preachers of the early 20th-century, along with Vernon Johns and Howard Thurman . Johnson was born on January 12, 1890, in Paris, Tennessee , to parents who were former slaves. His father was Reverend Wyatt J. Johnson,

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