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137-485: As part of the Soviet policy of rationalization of the country, all cities were built to a general development plan . Each was divided into districts, with allotments based on the city's geography. Projects would be designed for whole districts, visibly transforming a city's architectural image. The interaction of the state with the architects would prove to be one of the features of this time. The same building could be declared

274-488: A formalist blasphemy and then receive the greatest praise the next year, as happened to Ivan Zholtovsky and his Bolshaya Kaluzhskaya in 1949–50. Authentic styles like Zholtovsky's Renaissance Revival , Ivan Fomin 's St. Petersburg Neoclassical architecture and Art Deco adaptation by Alexey Dushkin and Vladimir Shchuko coexisted with imitations and eclecticism that became characteristic of that era. The Vysotki or Stalinskie Vysotki ( Сталинские высотки ) are

411-627: A National Prize in architecture was introduced and it was won by a team of architects representing architectural schools of Moscow and Minsk, (M.Parusnikov, G.Badanov, I.Barsch, S.Botkovsky, A.Voinov, V.Korol, S.Musinsky, G.Sisoev, N.Trachtenberg, and N.Shpigelman) for the design and construction of the Nezaleznosci Avenue ensemble. The most famous Stalinist architectural ensembles in Minsk are also on Lenina Street, Kamsamolskaya Street, Kamunistychnaya Street, Pryvakzalnaya Square and others. Central Kiev

548-496: A comparable assessment of countries' fiscal policies, promoting transparency and accountability at the international level. In addition, in an econometric study published in the Economic Modelling journal, an analysis on government energy technology spending showed that spending on the renewable energy sector created five more jobs per million dollars invested than spending on fossil fuels . Since sustainable infrastructure

685-432: A complete departure from prewar atheism. To see this altar, a rider had to pass a long row of plaster banners, bronze candlesticks and assorted military imagery. Park Kultury featured true Gothic chandeliers, another departure. Metrostroy operated its own marble and carpentry factories, producing 150 solid, whole block marble columns for this short section. The second section of Ring line was a tribute to "Heroic Labor" (with

822-426: A connection between cities, transportation for people and goods, and protection for land against flooding and erosion, they only last for 50 to 100 years. Many were built within the last 50 years, which means many infrastructures need substantial maintenance to continue functioning. However, concrete is not sustainable. The production of concrete contributes up to 8% of the world's greenhouse gas emissions. A tenth of

959-484: A coordinated focus on both creating the methods of transportation themselves and providing them with networks that are equally or more efficient than existing car networks such as aging highway systems. Another solution to transition into a more sustainable infrastructure is using more sustainable materials. A material is sustainable if the needed amount can be produced without depleting non-renewable resources. It also should have low environmental impacts by not disrupting

1096-419: A drywall inside; from a quality of life consideration, these are true — and the last — Stalinist buildings. Urban planning Urban planning , also known as town planning , city planning , regional planning , or rural planning in specific contexts, is a technical and political process that is focused on the development and design of land use and the built environment, including air, water, and

1233-465: A framework for urban planning decision-making. Another debate within the urban planning field is about who is included and excluded in the urban planning decision-making process. Most urban planning processes use a top-down approach which fails to include the residents of the places where urban planners and city officials are working. Sherry Arnstein 's "ladder of citizen participation" is often used by many urban planners and city governments to determine

1370-560: A group of skyscrapers in Moscow designed in the Stalinist style. Their English-language nickname is the " Seven Sisters ". They were built officially from 1947 to 1953 (some work extended years past official completion dates) in an elaborate combination of Russian Baroque and Gothic styles and the technology used in building American skyscrapers. The seven skyscrapers are the Hotel Ukraina ,

1507-494: A higher level of relative sustainability than their traditional counterparts. In a sustainable city, urban resilience as well as infrastructure reliability must both be present. Urban resilience is defined by a city's capacity to quickly adapt or recover from infrastructure defects, and infrastructure reliability means that systems must work efficiently while continuing to maximize their output. When urban resilience and infrastructure reliability interact, cities are able to produce

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1644-519: A rating of "D+" on its infrastructure. This aging infrastructure is a result of governmental neglect and inadequate funding. As the United States presumably looks to upgrade its existing infrastructure, sustainable measures could be a consideration of the design, build, and operation plans. Public infrastructure is that owned or available for use by the public (represented by the government ). It includes: A way to embody personal infrastructure

1781-403: A record high in 2010, partially due to governments' implemented economic stimulus measures with minimal consideration of the environmental consequences. The concern is whether this same pattern will repeat itself. The post-COVID-19 period could determine whether the world meets or misses the emissions goals of the 2015 Paris Agreement and limits global warming to 1.5 degrees C to 2 degrees C. As

1918-624: A region or district would be included with infrastructure, but the private irrigation systems on individual land parcels would be considered land improvements, not infrastructure. Service connections to municipal service and public utility networks would also be considered land improvements, not infrastructure. The term " public works " includes government-owned and operated infrastructure as well as public buildings, such as schools and courthouses. Public works generally refers to physical assets needed to deliver public services . Public services include both infrastructure and services generally provided by

2055-505: A result of the COVID-19 epidemic, a host of factors could jeopardize a low-carbon recovery plan: this includes reduced attention on the global political stage (2020 UN Climate Summit has been postponed to 2021), the relaxing of environmental regulations in pursuit of economic growth, decreased oil prices preventing low-carbon technologies from being competitive, and finally, stimulus programs that take away funds that could have been used to further

2192-402: A result, they soak 30% more water than conventional gardens. Bioswales are planted in paved areas like parking lots or sidewalks and are made to allow for overflow into the sewer system by trapping silt and other pollutants, which are normally left over from impermeable surfaces. Both rain gardens and bioswales mitigate flood impacts and prevent stormwater from polluting local waterways; increase

2329-494: A sign of priority. It also demonstrates class stratification of eligible tenants of this time. Three Moscow buildings received awards: A change from Stalinist architecture to standard prefabricated concrete is usually associated with Khrushchev's reign and particularly the November 1955 decree On liquidation of excesses... (November 1955). Indeed, Khrushchev was involved in a cost-reduction campaign, but it began in 1948, while Stalin

2466-514: A specified area by using property tax increases. In order to facilitate investment of the private sector in developing countries' infrastructure markets, it is necessary to design risk-allocation mechanisms more carefully, given the higher risks of their markets. The spending money that comes from the government is less than it used to be. From the 1930s to 2019, the United States went from spending 4.2% of GDP to 2.5% of GDP on infrastructure. These under investments have accrued, in fact, according to

2603-792: A specified standard of service by the continuing replacement and refurbishment of its components". Civil defense planners and developmental economists generally refer to both hard and soft infrastructure, including public services such as schools and hospitals , emergency services such as police and fire fighting, and basic services in the economic sector . The notion of infrastructure-based development combining long-term infrastructure investments by government agencies at central and regional levels with public private partnerships has proven popular among economists in Asia (notably Singapore and China), mainland Europe, and Latin America. Military infrastructure

2740-508: A time when the country was in ruins. The toll of this project on real urban needs can be judged from these numbers: Similar skyscrapers were built in Warsaw , Bucharest , and Riga ; the tower in Kiev was completed without crown and steeple. The upward surge of the high-rises, publicised since 1947, was recreated by numerous smaller buildings across the country. Eight to twelve-story high towers marked

2877-449: A total of US$ 24.9 billion. In irrigation , governments represent almost all spending. In transport and energy a majority of investment is government spending. In ICT and water supply and sanitation , the private sector represents the majority of capital expenditure. Overall, between them aid, the private sector, and non- OECD financiers exceed government spending. The private sector spending alone equals state capital expenditure, though

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3014-1278: A variety of strategies that created politicized discussions without much practical result; State intervention was imminent. Stalin's personal architectural preferences and the extent of his own influence remains, for the most part, a matter of deduction, conjecture and anecdotal evidence. The facts, or their representation in public Soviet documents, largely concerns the Palace of Soviets contest of 1931–33: The architects invited to direct these workshops included traditionalists Ivan Zholtovsky, Alexey Shchusev, Ivan Fomin, Boris Iofan, Vladimir Schuko as well as practising constructivists: Ilya Golosov , Panteleimon Golosov , Nikolai Kolli , Konstantin Melnikov , Victor Vesnin , Moisei Ginzburg and Nikolai Ladovsky . This began an important trend that lasted until 1955. Stalin chose Iofan for one project, but retained all competing architects in his employ. The first years of Stalinist architecture are characterized by individual buildings, or, at most, single-block development projects. Rebuilding vast spaces of Moscow proved much more difficult than razing historical districts. The three most important Moscow buildings of this time are on

3151-611: A walk through the exhibition recreated a tour of the huge country. The central pavilion by Vladimir Schuko was based slightly on the abortive 1932 Palace of Soviets draft by Zholtovsky. Unlike the "national" buildings, it hasn't survived (central gates and major pavilions were rebuilt during the early 1950s). The surviving 1939 pavilions are the last and only example of Stalin's monumental propaganda in their original setting. Such propaganda pieces were not built to last (like Shchusev's War Trophy Hangar in Gorky Park); some were demolished during

3288-428: Is a rooftop that is partially or completely covered with growing vegetation planted over a membrane. It also includes additional layers, including a root barrier and drainage and irrigation systems. There are several categories of green roofs, including extensive (have a growing media depth ranging from two to six inches) and intensive (have a growing media with a depth greater than six inches). One benefit of green roofs

3425-538: Is an interdisciplinary field that includes civil engineering , architecture , human geography , politics , social science and design sciences . Practitioners of urban planning are concerned with research and analysis, strategic thinking, engineering architecture, urban design , public consultation , policy recommendations, implementation and management. It is closely related to the field of urban design and some urban planners provide designs for streets, parks, buildings and other urban areas. Urban planners work with

3562-438: Is defined as "those immobile, non-circulating capital goods that essentially contribute to the production of infrastructure goods and services needed to satisfy basic physical and social requirements of economic agents ". There are two distinct qualities of material infrastructures: 1) fulfillment of social needs and 2) mass production . The first characteristic deals with the basic needs of human life. The second characteristic

3699-459: Is evidence of urban planning and designed communities dating back to the Mesopotamian , Indus Valley , Minoan , and Egyptian civilizations in the third millennium BCE . Archaeologists studying the ruins of cities in these areas find paved streets that were laid out at right angles in a grid pattern. The idea of a planned out urban area evolved as different civilizations adopted it. Beginning in

3836-527: Is generally paid for by metered user fees. Major investment projects are generally financed by the issuance of long-term bonds . Government-owned and operated infrastructure may be developed and operated in the private sector or in public-private partnerships , in addition to in the public sector . As of 2008 in the United States for example, public spending on infrastructure has varied between 2.3% and 3.6% of GDP since 1950. Many financial institutions invest in infrastructure. According to researchers at

3973-484: Is more beneficial in both an economic and environmental context, it represents the future of infrastructure. Especially with increasing pressure from climate change and diminishing natural resources, infrastructure not only needs to maintain economic development and job development, and a high quality of life for residents, but also protect the environment and its natural resources. Sustainable energy infrastructure includes types of renewable energy power plants as well as

4110-430: Is necessary to maintain growth and tackle poverty. The returns to investment in infrastructure are very significant, with on average thirty to forty percent returns for telecommunications ( ICT ) investments, over forty percent for electricity generation, and eighty percent for roads . The demand for infrastructure both by consumers and by companies is much higher than the amount invested. There are severe constraints on

4247-546: Is needed, and transmission of information within and between communities." The American Society of Civil Engineers publishes an "Infrastructure Report Card" which represents the organizations opinion on the condition of various infrastructure every 2–4 years. As of 2017 they grade 16 categories, namely aviation, bridges, dams, drinking water , energy, hazardous waste , inland waterways , levees , parks and recreation , ports , rail , roads , schools, solid waste , transit and wastewater . The United States has received

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4384-409: Is that they reduce stormwater runoff because of its ability to store water in its growing media, reducing the runoff entering the sewer system and waterways, which also decreases the risk of combined sewer overflows. They reduce energy usage since the growing media provides additional insulation, reduces the amount of solar radiation on the roof's surface, and provides evaporative cooling from water in

4521-634: Is the Geographic Information System (GIS) that is used to create a model of the existing planning and then to project future impacts on the society, economy and environment. Building codes and other regulations dovetail with urban planning by governing how cities are constructed and used from the individual level. Enforcement methodologies include governmental zoning , planning permissions , and building codes , as well as private easements and restrictive covenants . With recent advances in information and communication technologies and

4658-416: Is the body of scientific concepts, definitions, behavioral relationships, and assumptions that define the body of knowledge of urban planning. There are eight procedural theories of planning that remain the principal theories of planning procedure today: the rational-comprehensive approach, the incremental approach, the transactive approach, the communicative approach, the advocacy approach, the equity approach,

4795-599: Is the buildings and permanent installations necessary for the support of military forces, whether they are stationed in bases, being deployed or engaged in operations. Examples include barracks, headquarters, airfields, communications facilities, stores of military equipment, port installations, and maintenance stations. Communications infrastructure is the informal and formal channels of communication, political and social networks , or beliefs held by members of particular groups, as well as information technology, software development tools. Still underlying these more conceptual uses

4932-405: Is the idea that infrastructure provides organizing structure and support for the system or organization it serves, whether it is a city, a nation, a corporation, or a collection of people with common interests. Examples include IT infrastructure , research infrastructure, terrorist infrastructure, employment infrastructure, and tourism infrastructure. The term "infrastructure" may be confused with

5069-812: Is the non-availability of infrastructure goods and services. Today, there are various materials that can be used to build infrastructure. The most prevalent ones are asphalt, concrete, steel, masonry, wood, polymers and composites. According to the business dictionary, economic infrastructure can be defined as "internal facilities of a country that make business activity possible, such as communication, transportation and distribution networks , financial institutions and related international markets, and energy supply systems". Economic infrastructure support productive activities and events. This includes roads, highways, bridges, airports, cycling infrastructure , water distribution networks, sewer systems , and irrigation plants. Social infrastructure can be broadly defined as

5206-746: Is the object of economic and legal policy. It compromises the growth and sets norms. It refers to the degree of fair treatment of equal economic data and determines the framework within which economic agents may formulate their own economic plans and carry them out in co-operation with others. Sustainable infrastructure refers to the processes of design and construction that take into consideration their environmental, economic, and social impact. Included in this section are several elements of sustainable schemes, including materials, water, energy, transportation, and waste management infrastructure. Although there are endless other factors of consideration, those will not be covered in this section. Material infrastructure

5343-794: Is to classify them as two distinct kinds: hard infrastructure and soft infrastructure . Hard infrastructure is the physical networks necessary for the functioning of a modern industrial society or industry . This includes roads, bridges, and railways. Soft infrastructure is all the institutions that maintain the economic , health , social , environmental , and cultural standards of a country. This includes educational programs , official statistics , parks and recreational facilities, law enforcement agencies, and emergency services . The word "infrastructure" has been used in French since 1875 and in English since 1887, originally meaning "installations that form

5480-504: Is to think of it in terms of human capital . Human capital is defined by the Encyclopædia Britannica as "intangible collective resources possessed by individuals and groups within a given population". The goal of personal infrastructure is to determine the quality of the economic agents' values. This results in three major tasks: the task of economic proxies in the economic process (teachers, unskilled and qualified labor, etc.);

5617-402: Is unnecessary, or even harmful, as it market efficiency allows for effective land use. A pluralist strain of political thinking argues in a similar vein that the government should not intrude in the political competition between different interest groups which decides how land is used. The traditional justification for urban planning has in response been that the planner does to the city what

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5754-544: The Enlightenment period , several European rulers ambitiously attempted to redesign capital cities. During the Second French Empire , Baron Georges-Eugène Haussmann , under the direction of Napoleon III , redesigned the city of Paris into a more modern capital, with long, straight, wide boulevards. Planning and architecture went through a paradigm shift at the turn of the 20th century. The industrialized cities of

5891-530: The Great Patriotic War of 1941–1945, which would interrupt the process. During 1948–1952 construction was completed. Navigation was begun June 1, 1952. The canal and its facilities were predominantly built by prisoners, who were detained in several specially organized corrective labor camps . During 1952 the number of convicts employed by construction exceeded 100,000. The first stage of Moscow Metro (1931–1935) began as an ordinary city utility. There

6028-491: The Internet of Things , an increasing number of cities are adopting technologies such as crowdsorced mobile phone sensing and machine learning to collect data and extract useful information to help make informed urban planning decisions. An urban planner is a professional who works in the field of urban planning for the purpose of optimizing the effectiveness of a community's land use and infrastructure. They formulate plans for

6165-766: The Kotelnicheskaya Embankment Building , the Kudrinskaya Square Building , the Leningradskaya Hotel , the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia main building , the main building of Moscow State University , and the Red Gate Building . In terms of construction methods, most of the structures, underneath the wet stucco walls, are simple brick masonry . Exceptions were Andrei Burov's medium-sized concrete block panel houses (such as

6302-566: The New Economic Policy began, their publicity resulted in architectural commissions. Experience was not gained quickly, and many Constructivist buildings were justly criticized for irrational floor plans , cost overruns and low quality. For a brief time in the mid-1920s, the architectural profession operated in the old-fashioned manner, with private companies, international contests, competitive bidding and disputes in professional magazines. Foreign architects were welcomed, especially towards

6439-743: The Overseas Development Institute , the lack of infrastructure in many developing countries represents one of the most significant limitations to economic growth and achievement of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) . Infrastructure investments and maintenance can be very expensive, especially in such areas as landlocked, rural and sparsely populated countries in Africa. It has been argued that infrastructure investments contributed to more than half of Africa's improved growth performance between 1990 and 2005, and increased investment

6576-499: The de-Stalinization of 1956. Post-war architecture, sometimes perceived as a uniform style, was fragmented into at least four vectors of development: Residential construction in post-war cities was segregated according to the ranks of tenants. No effort was made to conceal luxuries; sometimes they were evident, sometimes deliberately exaggerated (in contrast with Iofan's plain House on Embankment ). Country residencies of Stalin's officials

6713-780: The housing crisis in parts of the world. Infrastructure Infrastructure is the set of facilities and systems that serve a country, city, or other area, and encompasses the services and facilities necessary for its economy, households and firms to function. Infrastructure is composed of public and private physical structures such as roads , railways , bridges , airports , public transit systems , tunnels , water supply , sewers , electrical grids , and telecommunications (including Internet connectivity and broadband access ). In general, infrastructure has been defined as "the physical components of interrelated systems providing commodities and services essential to enable, sustain, or enhance societal living conditions " and maintain

6850-412: The infrastructure passing into and out of urban areas , such as transportation , communications , and distribution networks , and their accessibility . Traditionally, urban planning followed a top-down approach in master planning the physical layout of human settlements . The primary concern was the public welfare , which included considerations of efficiency, sanitation , protection and use of

6987-549: The water supply , identifying transportation patterns, recognizing food supply demands, allocating healthcare and social services, and analyzing the impact of land use. In order to predict how cities will develop and estimate the effects of their interventions, planners use various models. These models can be used to indicate relationships and patterns in demographic, geographic, and economic data. They might deal with short-term issues such as how people move through cities, or long-term issues such as land use and growth. One such model

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7124-511: The 19th century grew at a tremendous rate. The evils of urban life for the working poor were becoming increasingly evident as a matter of public concern. The laissez-faire style of government management of the economy, in fashion for most of the Victorian era , was starting to give way to a New Liberalism that championed intervention on the part of the poor and disadvantaged. Around 1900, theorists began developing urban planning models to mitigate

7261-435: The 2017 ASCE Infrastructure Report Card, from 2016 to 2025, infrastructure will be underinvested by $ 2 trillion. Compared to the global GDP percentages, The United States is tied for second-to-last place, with an average percentage of 2.4%. This means that the government spends less money on repairing old infrastructure and or on infrastructure as a whole. In Sub-Saharan Africa , governments spend around US$ 9.4 billion out of

7398-578: The 4–5 story high ensembles of post-war regional centers. The Central Pavilion of the All-Russia Exhibition Centre , reopened in 1954, is 90 meters high, has a cathedral -like main hall, 35 meters high, 25 meters wide with Stalinist sculpture and murals. The urban architectural ensemble of Nezalezhnastci Avenue in Minsk is an example of the integrated approach in organizing a city's environment by harmoniously combining its architectural monuments,

7535-454: The 8th century BCE, Greek city states primarily used orthogonal (or grid-like) plans. Hippodamus of Miletus (498–408 BC), the ancient Greek architect and urban planner, is considered to be "the father of European urban planning", and the namesake of the "Hippodamian plan" (grid plan) of city layout. The ancient Romans also used orthogonal plans for their cities. City planning in the Roman world

7672-649: The French word structure . The army use of the term achieved currency in the United States after the formation of NATO in the 1940s, and by 1970 was adopted by urban planners in its modern civilian sense. A 1987 US National Research Council panel adopted the term " public works infrastructure", referring to: "... both specific functional modes – highways, streets, roads, and bridges; mass transit ; airports and airways; water supply and water resources ; wastewater management ; solid-waste treatment and disposal; electric power generation and transmission; telecommunications; and hazardous waste management – and

7809-555: The G20 COVID-19 related fiscal measures was found to be climate friendly. Although it is readily apparent that much effort is needed to repair the economic damage inflicted by the Coronavirus epidemic, an immediate return to business as usual could be environmentally harmful, as shown by the 2007-08 financial crisis in the United States. While the ensuing economic slowdown reduced global greenhouse gas emissions in 2009, emissions reached

7946-750: The Lace building, 1939–41) and large buildings like the Seven Sisters , which necessitated the use of concrete. The masonry naturally dictated narrow windows, thus leaving a large wall area to be decorated. Fireproof terracotta finishes were introduced during the early 1950s, although this was rarely used outside of Moscow. Most of the roofing was traditional wooden trusses covered with metallic sheets. About 1948, construction technology improved – at least in Moscow – as faster and cheaper processes became available. Houses also became safer by eliminating wooden ceilings and partitions. The standardized buildings of 1948–1955 had

8083-768: The Moscow Canal, the Volga–Don Canal , and the latter stages of the Moscow Metro. Before 1917, the Russian architectural scene was divided between Russky Modern (a local interpretation of Art Nouveau , stronger in Moscow), and Neoclassical Revival (stronger in Saint Petersburg ). The Neoclassical school produced mature architects like Alexey Shchusev , Ivan Zholtovsky , Ivan Fomin , Vladimir Shchuko and Alexander Tamanian ; by

8220-702: The Multiple Nuclei Model among others. Participatory planning is an urban planning approach that involves the entire community in the planning process. Participatory planning in the United States emerged during the 1960s and 1970s. Technical aspects of urban planning involve the application of scientific, technical processes, considerations and features that are involved in planning for land use , urban design , natural resources , transportation , and infrastructure . Urban planning includes techniques such as: predicting population growth , zoning , geographic mapping and analysis, analyzing park space, surveying

8357-484: The Nezalezhnastci Avenue ensemble is a good example. The layout provided for the main features of the town-planning ensemble – the length of the buildings facades, their silhouettes, the main divisions, and the general architectural pattern. The integrated building plan was based on the accommodation of innovative ideas with classical architecture. The survived pre-war buildings and park zones were incorporated into

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8494-553: The Peschanaya Square development (a territory north from the 1948 Posokhin-Lagutenko block). Using the 'flow methode' of moving crews through a sequence of buildings in different completion stages and a moderate application of prefabricated concrete on otherwise traditional masonry, builders managed to complete typical 7-storey buildings in five to six months. Instead of wet stucco (which caused at least two months of delay), these buildings are finished with open brickwork outside and

8631-552: The Republic and the union to develop a new project for a complete reconstruction of the central city. Stalin Prize for the year 1949, announced in March 1950, showed a clear and present division of Stalinist architecture – extravagant, expensive buildings are still praised, but so are attempts to make Stalinist style affordable. The 1949 prize was given exclusively for completed apartment buildings,

8768-418: The United States. The United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs predicted in 2018 that around 2.5 billion more people occupy urban areas by 2050 according to population elements of global migration. New planning theories have adopted non-traditional concepts such as Blue Zones and Innovation Districts to incorporate geographic areas within the city that allow for novel business development and

8905-410: The amount of greenhouse gases. There are a variety of types of bioretention and infiltration practices, including rain gardens and bioswales. A rain garden is planted in a small depression or natural slope and includes native shrubs and flowers. They temporarily hold and absorb rain water and are effective in removing up to 90% of nutrients and chemicals and up to 80% of sediments from the runoff. As

9042-428: The appropriate built environments for these ecologically preferable modes of transportation. Cities will need to invest in public transportation networks, as well as bike path networks among other sustainable solutions that incentivize citizens to use these alternate transit options. Reducing the urban dependency on cars is a fundamental goal of developing sustainable transportation, and this cannot be accomplished without

9179-549: The architectural ensemble. At present buildings which form the Nezalezhnastci Avenue ensemble are inscribed on the State List of Historical and Cultural Values of the Republic of Belarus . The architectural ensemble itself, with its buildings and structures, the layout and the landscape is protected by the state and inscribed on the List as a complex of historical and cultural values. In 1968

9316-467: The basis for any operation or system". It is a loanword from French, where it was already used for establishing a roadbed of substrate material, required before railroad tracks or constructed pavement could be laid on top of it. The word is a combination of the Latin prefix infra- , meaning "below", as many of these constructions are underground (for example, tunnels, water and gas systems, and railways), and

9453-401: The board. However, they must also scale up public investment to ensure successful reopening, boost growth and employment, and green their economies. The unusually large scale of the packages needed for COVID-19 was accompanied by widespread calls for "greening" them to meet the dual goals of economic recovery and environmental sustainability . However, as of March 2021, only a small fraction of

9590-399: The canal is 128 km. It was constructed from the year 1932 to the year 1937 by gulag prisoners during the early-to-mid Stalin era. During the late 1930s, the construction industry was experienced enough to build large, multi-block urban redevelopments – although all of these were in Moscow. The three most important Moscow projects were: In 1936, the annual Agricultural Exhibition

9727-530: The cognate fields of civil engineering, landscape architecture , architecture, and public administration to achieve strategic, policy and sustainability goals. Early urban planners were often members of these cognate fields though today, urban planning is a separate, independent professional discipline. The discipline of urban planning is the broader category that includes different sub-fields such as land-use planning , zoning , economic development , environmental planning , and transportation planning . Creating

9864-461: The combined system these modal elements comprise. A comprehension of infrastructure spans not only these public works facilities, but also the operating procedures, management practices, and development policies that interact together with societal demand and the physical world to facilitate the transport of people and goods, provision of water for drinking and a variety of other uses, safe disposal of society's waste products, provision of energy where it

10001-545: The coming of the Renaissance many new cities were enlarged with newly planned extensions. From the 15th century on, much more is recorded of urban design and the people that were involved. In this period, theoretical treatises on architecture and urban planning start to appear in which theoretical questions around planning the main lines, ensuring plans meet the needs of the given population and so forth are addressed and designs of towns and cities are described and depicted. During

10138-453: The consequences of the industrial age , by providing citizens, especially factory workers, with healthier environments. The following century would therefore be globally dominated by a central planning approach to urban planning, not representing an increment in the overall quality of the urban realm. At the beginning of the 20th century, urban planning began to be recognized as a separate profession. The Town and Country Planning Association

10275-613: The construction and maintenance of facilities that support social services . Social infrastructures are created to increase social comfort and promote economic activity. These include schools, parks and playgrounds , structures for public safety , waste disposal plants, hospitals, and sports areas. Core assets provide essential services and have monopolistic characteristics. Investors seeking core infrastructure look for five different characteristics: income, low volatility of returns, diversification, inflation protection, and long-term liability matching. Core infrastructure incorporates all

10412-418: The country. This was still an experiment, not backed by industrial capacity or fast-track project schedules. Posokhin also devised various pseudo-Stalinist configurations of the same building blocks, with decorative excesses ; these were not implemented. Concrete frames became common for industrial construction, but too expensive for mass housing. It is not known for sure which Party leader personally initiated

10549-469: The degree of inclusivity or exclusivity of their urban planning. One main source of engagement between city officials and residents are city council meetings that are open to the residents and that welcome public comments. Additionally, in US there are some federal requirements for citizen participation in government-funded infrastructure projects. Participatory urban planning has been criticized for contributing to

10686-553: The development and management of urban and suburban areas. They typically analyze land use compatibility as well as economic, environmental, and social trends. In developing any plan for a community (whether commercial, residential, agricultural, natural or recreational), urban planners must consider a wide array of issues including sustainability , existing and potential pollution , transport including potential congestion , crime , land values, economic development, social equity, zoning codes, and other legislation. The importance of

10823-698: The drive to reduce costs. The need was imminent. What is known is that in January 1951, Khrushchev – then City of Moscow party boss – hosted a professional conference on construction problems. The conference decreed a transition to plant-made, large-sized concrete parts, building new plants for prefabricated concrete and other materials, and replacement of wet masonry technology with fast assembly of prefabricated elements. The industry still had to decide – should they use big, story-high panels, or smaller ones, or maybe two-story panels, as Lagutenko tried in Kuzminki ? Basic technology

10960-530: The economy. This has serious impacts on households, businesses, and federal, state and local governments. This is especially detrimental to infrastructure because it is so dependent on funding from government agencies – with state and local governments accounting for approximately 75% of spending on public infrastructure in the United States. Governments are facing enormous decreases in revenue, economic downturns, overworked health systems, and hesitant workforces, resulting in huge budget deficits across

11097-718: The efficient transportation of goods, resources, people, and waste; the distribution of basic necessities such as water and electricity; a sense of inclusion and opportunity for people of all kinds, culture and needs; economic growth or business development; improving health and conserving areas of natural environmental significance that actively contributes to reduction in CO 2 emissions as well as protecting heritage structures and built environments. Since most urban planning teams consist of highly educated individuals that work for city governments, recent debates focus on how to involve more community members in city planning processes. Urban planning

11234-494: The end of this period, when the Great Depression reduced their jobs at home. Among these were Ernst May , Albert Kahn , Le Corbusier , Bruno Taut and Mart Stam . The difference between traditionalists and constructivists was not well defined. Zholtovsky and Shchusev hired modernists as junior partners for their projects, and at the same time incorporated constructivist novelties in their own designs. In 1930 Gosproektstroi

11371-400: The engineer or architect does to the home, that is, make it more amenable to the needs and preferences of its inhabitants. The widely adopted consensus-building model of planning, which seeks to accommodate different preferences within the community has been criticized for being based upon, rather than challenging, the power structures of the community. Instead, agonism has been proposed as

11508-420: The environment, as well as effects of the master plans on the social and economic activities. Over time, urban planning has adopted a focus on the social and environmental bottom lines that focus on planning as a tool to improve the health and well-being of people, maintaining sustainability standards. Similarly, in the early 21st century, Jane Jacobs 's writings on legal and political perspectives to emphasize

11645-446: The established steady-state equilibrium of it. The materials should also be resilient, renewable, reusable, and recyclable. Today, concrete is one of the most common materials used in infrastructure. There is twice as much concrete used in construction than all other building materials combined. It is the backbone of industrialization, as it is used in bridges, piers, pipelines, pavements, and buildings. However, while they do serve as

11782-411: The exception of Shchusev's Komsomolskaya , set up as a retelling of Stalin's speech of November 7, 1941). On April 4, 1953, the public learn that a 1935 stretch from Alexandrovsky Sad , then Kalininskaya , to Kievskaya is closed for good and replaced with a brand-new, deep-alignment line. No official explanation of this expensive change exists; all speculations concern a bomb shelter function. One of

11919-485: The experimental Industrial Construction Bureau, with an objective to study and design the low-cost technology suitable for fast mass construction. Lagutenko emphasized large prefabricated concrete panes. He joined architects Mikhail Posokhin and Ashot Mndoyants, and in 1948 this team built their first concrete frame-and-panel building near present-day Polezhaevskaya metro station. Four identical buildings followed nearby; similar buildings were built during 1949–1952 across

12056-574: The first post-war metro line (a 6.4 km section of the Ring Line ). These stations were dedicated to "Victory". No more Comintern (the Comintern metro station was renamed Kalininskaya in December 1946), no more World revolution , but a statement of victorious, nationalist Stalinism. Oktyabrskaya station by Leonid Polyakov was built like a Classicist temple, with a shiny white-blue altar behind iron gates –

12193-458: The following overlapping or related concepts. Land improvement and land development are general terms that in some contexts may include infrastructure, but in the context of a discussion of infrastructure would refer only to smaller-scale systems or works that are not included in infrastructure, because they are typically limited to a single parcel of land , and are owned and operated by the landowner. For example, an irrigation canal that serves

12330-428: The form of a large network; in other words, hard infrastructure . Efforts to devise more generic definitions of infrastructures have typically referred to the network aspects of most of the structures, and to the accumulated value of investments in the networks as assets. One such definition from 1998 defined infrastructure as the network of assets "where the system as a whole is intended to be maintained indefinitely at

12467-452: The general layout of the former Sovietskaya Street began in 1944, soon after the liberation of Minsk from the Nazi troops. The main architects from Moscow and Minsk were involved with the project. In 1947, as a result of the competition, the project which had been developed with the supervision of the academician of architecture M. Parusnikov, was selected for the implementation. The project plan of

12604-473: The government. Infrastructure may be owned and managed by governments or by privately held companies, such as sole public utility or railway companies. Generally, most roads, major airports and other ports, water distribution systems, and sewage networks are publicly owned, whereas most energy and telecommunications networks are privately owned. Publicly owned infrastructure may be paid for from taxes, tolls, or metered user fees, whereas private infrastructure

12741-472: The holistic and effective management of water resources. Increasingly, policy makers and regulators are incorporating Nature-based solutions (NBS or NbS) into attempts to achieve sustainable water infrastructure. Sustainable waste management systems aim to minimize the amount of waste products produced by individuals and corporations. Commercial waste management plans have transitioned from simple waste removal plans into comprehensive plans focused on reducing

12878-448: The ideas of modernism in urban planning led to higher crime rates and social problems. In the second half of the 20th century, urban planners gradually shifted their focus to individualism and diversity in urban centers. Urban planners studying the effects of increasing congestion in urban areas began to address the externalities, the negative impacts caused by induced demand from larger highway systems in western countries such as in

13015-480: The impact of raindrops on barren surfaces, minimize soil moisture through transpiration, and they help reduce stormwater runoff. Additionally, trees contribute to recharging local aquifers and improve the health of watershed systems. Trees also reduce energy usage by providing shade and releasing water into the atmosphere which cools the air and reduces the amount of heat absorbed by buildings. Finally, trees improve air quality by absorbing harmful air pollutants reducing

13152-451: The importance of personal infrastructure for an individual (short and long-term consumption of education); and the social relevance of personal infrastructure. Essentially, personal infrastructure maps the human impact on infrastructure as it is related to the economy, individual growth, and social impact. Institutional infrastructure branches from the term "economic constitution". According to Gianpiero Torrisi , institutional infrastructure

13289-481: The interests of residents, businesses and communities effectively influenced urban planners to take into broader consideration of resident experiences and needs while planning. Urban planning answers questions about how people will live, work, and play in a given area and thus, guides orderly development in urban, suburban and rural areas . Although predominantly concerned with the planning of settlements and communities, urban planners are also responsible for planning

13426-522: The last of these stations opened, marks the end of all late Stalinist construction. Stalin's 1946 idea of building many skyscrapers in Moscow resulted in a decree of January 1947 that started a six-year-long publicity campaign. By the time of official groundbreaking, September 1947, eight construction sites were identified (the Eighth Sister , in Zaryadye , would be cancelled). Eight design teams, directed by

13563-416: The little parts of the engineering world that make life more convenient and efficient. They are needed to ensure successful usage and marketing of an already finished product, like in the case of road bridges . Other examples are lights on sidewalks, landscaping around buildings, and benches where pedestrians can rest. Engineers generally limit the term "infrastructure" to describe fixed assets that are in

13700-635: The main types of infrastructure, such as roads, highways, railways, public transportation , water, and gas supply. Basic infrastructure refers to main railways, roads, canals, harbors and docks, the electromagnetic telegraph, drainage, dikes, and land reclamation. It consist of the more well-known and common features of infrastructure that we come across in our daily lives (buildings, roads, docks). Complementary infrastructure refers to things like light railways, tramways, and gas/electricity/water supply. To complement something means to bring it to perfection or complete it. Complementary infrastructure deals with

13837-487: The majority is focused on ICT infrastructure investments. External financing increased in the 2000s (decade) and in Africa alone external infrastructure investments increased from US$ 7 billion in 2002 to US$ 27 billion in 2009. China, in particular, has emerged as an important investor. The 2020 COVID-19 pandemic has only exacerbated the underfunding of infrastructure globally that has been accumulating for decades. The pandemic has increased unemployment and has widely disrupted

13974-556: The market by prevailing non renewable energy sources. Sustainable water infrastructure is focused on a community's sufficient access to clean, safe drinking water. Water is a public good along with electricity, which means that sustainable water catchment and distribution systems must remain affordable to all members of a population. "Sustainable Water" may refer to a nation or community's ability to be self-sustainable, with enough water to meet multiple needs including agriculture, industry, sanitation, and drinking water. It can also refer to

14111-601: The means of exchange from the plant to the homes and businesses that use that energy. Renewable energy includes well researched and widely implemented methods such as wind, solar, and hydraulic power, as well as newer and less commonly used types of power creation such as fusion energy. Sustainable energy infrastructure must maintain a strong supply relative to demand, and must also maintain sufficiently low prices for consumers so as not to decrease demand. Any type of renewable energy infrastructure that fails to meet these consumption and price requirements will ultimately be forced out of

14248-627: The natural processes needed to manage water, reduce the effects of disasters such as flooding, and create healthier urban environments. In a more practical sense, it refers to a decentralized network of stormwater management practices, which includes green roofs, trees, bioretention and infiltration, and permeable pavement. Green infrastructure has become an increasingly popular strategy in recent years due to its effectiveness in providing ecological, economic, and social benefits – including positively impacting energy consumption, air quality, and carbon reduction and sequestration. A green roof

14385-413: The needs of mass construction. This inefficiency largely ended Stalinist architecture and resulted in mass construction methods which began while Stalin was still alive. Although Stalin rejected Constructivism , completion of constructivist buildings extended through the 1930s. Industrial construction, endorsed by Albert Kahn and later supervised by Viktor Vesnin , was influenced by modernist ideas. It

14522-832: The new generation of main architects (37 to 62 years old), produced numerous drafts; there was not any open contest or evaluation commission, which is an indicator of Stalin's personal management. All major architects were awarded Stalin prizes in April 1949 for preliminary drafts; corrections and amendments followed until very late completion stages. All the buildings had overengineered steel frames with concrete ceilings and masonry infill, based on concrete slab foundations (which sometimes required ingenious water retention technology). Skyscraper projects required new materials (especially ceramics) and technologies; solving these problems contributed to later housing and infrastructure development. However, it came at cost of slowing down regular construction, at

14659-445: The old city and "first-rate" streets, as well as single-family homebuilding. Low-cost development proceeded in remote areas, but most funds were diverted to new, expensive "ensemble" projects which valued façades and grandeur more than the needs of overcrowded cities. The Moscow Master Plan also included maintaining old city cores as administrative areas while building industry on city peripheries with green space and residences between

14796-453: The planning structure, the landscape and the natural or man-made places of vegetation. The Ensemble was constructed during the fifteen years after World War II. Its length was 2900 metres, although now it stretches to the outskirts of the city totaling nearly 16 km (which makes it one of the longest in Europe). The width of the road including side-walks varies from 42 to 48 metres. The work on

14933-879: The plans requires a thorough understanding of penal codes and zonal codes of planning. Another important aspect of urban planning is that the range of urban planning projects include the large-scale master planning of empty sites or Greenfield projects as well as small-scale interventions and refurbishments of existing structures, buildings and public spaces. Pierre Charles L'Enfant in Washington, D.C., Daniel Burnham in Chicago, Lúcio Costa in Brasília and Georges-Eugene Haussmann in Paris planned cities from scratch, and Robert Moses and Le Corbusier refurbished and transformed cities and neighborhoods to meet their ideas of urban planning. There

15070-492: The plants, which reduce the roof surface temperatures and heat influx. Green roofs also reduce atmospheric carbon dioxide since the vegetation sequesters carbon and, since they reduce energy usage and the urban heat island by reducing the roof temperature, they also lower carbon dioxide emissions from electricity generation. Tree planting provides a host of ecological, social, and economic benefits. Trees can intercept rain, support infiltration and water storage in soil, diminish

15207-476: The prioritization of infrastructure that would assist with improving the quality of life of citizens by extending their potential lifespan. Planning practices have incorporated policy changes to help address anthropogenic (human caused) climate change . London began to charge a congestion charge for cars trying to access already crowded places in the city. Cities nowadays stress the importance of public transit and cycling by adopting such policies. Planning theory

15344-615: The process of decarbonization . Research suggests that a recovery plan based on lower-carbon emissions could not only make significant emissions reductions needed to battle climate change, but also create more economic growth and jobs than a high-carbon recovery plan would. A study published in the Oxford Review of Economic Policy, more than 200 economists and economic officials reported that "green" economic-recovery initiatives performed at least as well as less "green" initiatives. There have also been calls for an independent body could provide

15481-652: The radical approach, and the humanist or phenomenological approach. Some other conceptual planning theories include Ebenezer Howard 's The Three Magnets theory that he envisioned for the future of British settlement, also his Garden Cities , the Concentric Model Zone also called the Burgess Model by sociologist Ernest Burgess , the Radburn Superblock that encourages pedestrian movement, the Sector Model and

15618-413: The relative rank and occupation of tenants is represented by ornaments, sometimes by memorial plaques. Note that these are all Moscow features. In smaller cities, the social elite usually comprised just one or two classes; St. Petersburg always had a supply of pre-revolutionary luxury space. The construction of the present Volga–Don Canal , designed by Sergey Zhuk's Hydroproject Institute, began prior to

15755-470: The same housing quality as the Stalinist classics and are classified as such by real estate agents, but are excluded from the scope of Stalinist architecture. Ideologically they belong to mass housing, an intermediate phase before Nikita Khrushchev 's standardized buildings known as Khrushchyovka . Stalinist architecture does not equate to everything built during Stalin's era. It relied on labor-intensive and time-consuming masonry, and could not be scaled to

15892-566: The same square, all built between 1931 and 1935, yet each draft evolved independently, with little thought given to overall ensemble (see prewar movie stills 1936 1938 1939 ). Each set its own vector of development for the next two decades. А separate type of development, known as "early Stalinism" or Postconstructivism , evolved from 1932 to 1938. It can be traced both to simplified Art Deco (through Schuko and Iofan), and to indigenous Constructivism, being converted slowly to Neoclassicism (Ilya Golosov, Vladimir Vladimirov). These buildings retain

16029-546: The simple rectangular shapes and large glass surfaces of Constructivism, but with ornate balconies , porticos and columns (usually rectangular and very lightweight). By 1938, it became disused. In July 1935 the State evaluated the results and finally issued a decree on the Moscow Master Plan. The Plan, among other things, included Stalin's urban development ideas: These rules effectively banned low-cost mass construction in

16166-591: The stations, Arbatskaya (2) by Leonid Polyakov, became the longest station in the system, 250 meters instead of the standard 160, and probably the most extravagant. "To some extent, it is Moscow Petrine baroque, yet despite citations from historical legacy, this station is hyperbolic, ethereal and unreal". Stalinist canon was officially condemned when two more sections, to Luzhniki and VDNKh , were being built. These stations, completed in 1957 and 1958, were mostly stripped of excesses , but architecturally they still belong to Stalin's lineage. The date of May 1, 1958 when

16303-472: The supply side of the provision of infrastructure in Asia. The infrastructure financing gap between what is invested in Asia-Pacific (around US$ 48 billion) and what is needed (US$ 228 billion) is around US$ 180 billion every year. In Latin America, three percent of GDP (around US$ 71 billion) would need to be invested in infrastructure in order to satisfy demand, yet in 2005, for example, only around two percent

16440-636: The surrounding environment. Especially in light of the massive societal transformations needed to mitigate and adapt to climate change, contemporary infrastructure conversations frequently focus on sustainable development and green infrastructure . Acknowledging this importance, the international community has created policy focused on sustainable infrastructure through the Sustainable Development Goals , especially Sustainable Development Goal 9 " Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure ". One way to describe different types of infrastructure

16577-833: The time of the 1917 Revolution they were established professionals, with their own companies, schools and followers. These people would eventually become Stalinism's architectural elders and produce the best examples of the period. Another school that began after the Revolution is now known as Constructivism . Some of the Constructivists (like the Vesnin brothers ) were young professionals who had established themselves before 1917, while others had just completed their professional education (like Konstantin Melnikov ) or didn't have any. They associated themselves with groups of modern artists, compensating for lack of experience with public exposure. When

16714-471: The total amount of waste produced before removal. Sustainable waste management is beneficial environmentally, and can also cut costs for businesses that reduce their amount of disposed goods. Sustainable transportation includes a shift away from private, greenhouse gas emitting cars in favor of adopting methods of transportation that are either carbon neutral or reduce carbon emissions such as bikes or electric bus systems. Additionally, cities must invest in

16851-810: The two. The canal connects the Moskva River with the main transportation artery of European Russia , the Volga River . It is located in Moscow itself and in the Moscow Oblast . The canal connects to the Moskva River 191 kilometers from its estuary in Tushino (an area in the north-west of Moscow), and to the Volga River in the town of Dubna , just upstream of the dam of the Ivankovo Reservoir . Length of

16988-602: The urban planner is increasing in the 21st century, as modern society begins to face issues of increased population growth, climate change and unsustainable development. An urban planner could be considered a green collar professional. Some researchers suggest that urban planners, globally, work in different " planning cultures ", adapted to their cities and cultures. However, professionals have identified skills, abilities, and basic knowledge sets that are common to urban planners across regional and national boundaries. The school of neoclassical economics argues that planning

17125-442: The usable water supply by reducing the amount of water needed for outdoor irrigation; improve air quality by minimizing the amount of water going into treatment facilities, which also reduces energy usage and, as a result, reduces air pollution since less greenhouse gases are emitted. Smart cities use innovative methods of design and implementation in various sectors of infrastructure and planning to create communities that operate at

17262-460: The world's industrial water usage is from producing concrete. Even transporting the raw materials to concrete production sites adds to airborne pollution. Furthermore, the production sites and the infrastructures themselves all strip away agricultural land that could have been fertile soil or habitats vital to the ecosystem. Green infrastructure is a type of sustainable infrastructure. Green infrastructure uses plant or soil systems to restore some of

17399-408: Was alive. A conversion to mass construction is evident in economy Stalinist buildings like Zholtovsky's Bolshaya Kaluzhskaya, 7. Based on masonry, they provided only a marginal gain; there had to be new technology. During 1948–1955, various architectural offices conducted an enormous feasibility study , devising and testing new technologies. In 1947, engineer Vitaly Lagutenko was appointed to direct

17536-641: Was destroyed during World War II when the Red Army abandoned the city and employed remote explosives to detonate bombs, and deny it to German forces. After Kiev's liberation, the streets and squares of the city were cleared of the ruins. Symbolically (as commemoration of Operation Barbarossa , the German invasion of the USSR) on 22 June 1944 the City Soviet organized a competition for architects from Kiev as well as other places from

17673-573: Was developed for military defense and public convenience. The spread of the Roman Empire subsequently spread the ideas of urban planning. As the Roman Empire declined, these ideas slowly disappeared. However, many cities in Europe still held onto the planned Roman city center. Cities in Europe from the 9th to 14th centuries, often grew organically and sometimes chaotically. But in the following centuries with

17810-466: Was established as part of the Building Commission of Vesenkha with the help of Albert Kahn Inc. It employed 3,000 designers with a budget of 417 million  Rbls . Urban planning developed separately. Housing crises in big cities and the industrialization of remote areas required mass housing construction, development of new territories and reconstruction of old cities. Theorists devised

17947-617: Was founded in 1899 and the first academic course in Great Britain on urban planning was offered by the University of Liverpool in 1909. In the 1920s, the ideas of modernism and uniformity began to surface in urban planning, and lasted until the 1970s. In 1933, Le Corbusier presented the Radiant City, a city that grows up in the form of towers, as a solution to the problem of pollution and over-crowding. But many planners started to believe that

18084-768: Was invested leaving a financing gap of approximately US$ 24 billion. In Africa, in order to reach the seven percent annual growth calculated to be required to meet the MDGs by 2015 would require infrastructure investments of about fifteen percent of GDP, or around US$ 93 billion a year. In fragile states , over thirty-seven percent of GDP would be required. The source of financing for infrastructure varies significantly across sectors. Some sectors are dominated by government spending , others by overseas development aid (ODA) , and yet others by private investors. In California, infrastructure financing districts are established by local governments to pay for physical facilities and services within

18221-528: Was much propaganda about building it, but the subway itself wasn't perceived as propaganda. "Unlike other projects, Moscow Metro was never named Stalin's metro ". Old architects avoided Metro commissions. Attitudes changed when the second stage work started in 1935. This time, the subway was a political statement and enjoyed much better funding. The second stage produced such different examples of Stalinist style as Mayakovskaya (1938), Elektrozavodskaya and Partizanskaya (1944). It required six years to complete

18358-628: Was not as important to Stalin's urban plans, so most industrial buildings (excluding megaprojects like the Moscow Canal ) are not part of the Stalinist category. Even the first stage of the Moscow Metro , completed during 1935, was not scrutinized by Stalin, and so included substantial constructivist influence. Thus, the scope of Stalinist architecture is generally limited to urban public and residential buildings of good and middle quality, excluding mass housing, and selected infrastructure projects like

18495-576: Was on the top level; so was the 1945 House of Lions by Ivan Zholtovsky (House of Lions was designed by Nikolai Gaigarov and M.M. Dzisko of Zholtovsky Workshop. Zholtovsky supervised and promoted the project), a luxurious downtown residence for Red Army Marshals . 1947 Marshals Apartments by Lev Rudnev , on the same block, has a less extravagant exterior package. There was a type of building for every rank of Stalin's hierarchy. High-class buildings can be identified easily by tell-tale details like spacing between windows, penthouses and bay windows . Sometimes,

18632-552: Was relocated to an empty field north of Moscow. By August 1, 1939, more than 250 pavilions were built on 136 hectares (340 acres). A 1937 statue by Vera Mukhina , Worker and Kolkhoz Woman , atop the USSR pavilion of the Exposition Internationale des Arts et Techniques dans la Vie Moderne (1937) (Paris Expo of 1937), was rebuilt at the entrance gates. Pavilions were created in the national styles of Soviet republics and regions;

18769-471: Was set, feasibility studies continued. A year later, this line of action – establishing prefabricated concrete plants – was made a law by the XIX Party Congress, Stalin attending. Major public buildings and elite housing were not affected yet. A different type of experiment concerned the improvement of project management, switching from a single-building to a multi-block project scale. This was tested in

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