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106-514: Well-designed small capitals are not simply scaled-down versions of normal capitals; they normally retain the same stroke weight as other letters and have a wider aspect ratio for readability. Typically, the height of a small capital glyph will be one ex , the same height as most lowercase characters in the font. In fonts with relatively low x-height, however, small caps may be somewhat larger than this. For example, in some Tiro Typeworks fonts, small caps glyphs are 30% larger than x-height, and 70%

212-506: A uvular trill in IPA, and ɢ a voiced uvular plosive . They should not normally be used in other contexts; rather, the basic character set should be used with suitable formatting controls as described in the preceding sections. * Superscript versions of small caps ᴀ , ᴅ , ᴇ and ᴘ have been provisionally assigned for inclusion in a future version of the Unicode Standard. Additionally,

318-537: A "pioneer" manual. According to Harvard, the origin of The Bluebook was a pamphlet for proper citation forms for articles in the Harvard Law Review written by its editor, Erwin Griswold . However, according to a 2016 study by two Yale librarians, Harvard's claim is incorrect. They trace the origin of The Bluebook to a 1920 publication by Karl N. Llewellyn at Yale on how to write law journal materials for

424-698: A "public-domain implementation of the Bluebook 's Uniform System of Citation," which his group calls BabyBlue . However, a law firm (Ropes & Gray) representing the Harvard Law Review Association (HLRA) sent him a letter stating: [W]e believe that BabyBlue may include content identical or substantially similar to content or other aspects of The Bluebook that constitute original works of authorship protected by copyright, and which are covered by various United States copyright registrations. ... [M]y client has been and remains concerned that

530-445: A 16:9 screen to avoid pillarboxing but distorts the image so subjects appear short and fat. Both PAL and NTSC have provision for some data pulses contained within the video signal used to signal the aspect ratio (See ITU-R BT.1119-1 – Widescreen signaling for broadcasting). These pulses are detected by television sets that have widescreen displays and cause the television to automatically switch to 16:9 display mode. When 4:3 material

636-453: A 5:3 (= 15:9) ratio but converted when the international standards group introduced a wider ratio of 5 + 1 ⁄ 3 to 3 (= 16:9). Many digital video cameras have the capability to record in 16:9 (= 4 :3 ), and 16:9 is the only widescreen aspect ratio natively supported by the DVD standard. DVD producers can also choose to show even wider ratios such as 1.66:1, 1.75:1, 1.77:1 and 1.78:1 within

742-679: A colon, feature tag, an equals sign and feature value, for example, EB Garamond 12:smcp=1 , and version 6.2 added a dialog to switch. Although small caps are allographs of their full size equivalents (and so not usually "semantically important"), the Unicode standard does define a number of "small capital" characters in the IPA extensions , Phonetic Extensions and Latin Extended-D ranges (0250–02AF, 1D00–1D7F, A720–A7FF). These characters are meant for use in phonetic representations. For example, ʀ represents

848-456: A different factor in the center and at the edges (as in Wide Zoom mode ). In motion picture formats, the physical size of the film area between the sprocket perforations determines the image's size. The universal standard (established by William Dickson and Thomas Edison in 1892) is a frame that is four perforations high. The film itself is 35 mm wide (1.38 in), but the area between

954-509: A digital still image having a 3:2 aspect ratio on a 16:9 projector employs 84.3% of available resolution in horizontal orientation, but only 37.5% in vertical orientation. Bluebook The Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation (commonly known as the Blue Book or Harvard Citator ) is a style guide that prescribes the most widely used legal citation system in the United States. It

1060-555: A far simpler citation system based largely on the First Edition of the Bluebook . This system, which he includes in a manual he provides for his law clerks, was reprinted in the aforementioned Yale Law Journal article. At the time of the article, his citation system was 885 words long, or about two printed pages—far shorter than the 511 pages of the Nineteenth Edition, the 640 pages of the then-current ALWD Citation Manual , or

1166-541: A few less-common Latin characters, several Greek characters, and a single Cyrillic character used in Latin-script notation (small capital Л : ᴫ), also have small capitals encoded: The Unicode Consortium has a typographical convention of using small caps for its formal names for symbols, in running text. For example, the name of U+0416 Ж CYRILLIC CAPITAL LETTER ZHE is conventionally shown as CYRILLIC CAPITAL LETTER ZHE . Small caps can be specified in

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1272-498: A mathematical abstraction used in resampling images to convert between resolutions. Non-square pixels arise often in early digital TV standards, related to digitalization of analog TV signals – whose horizontal and vertical resolutions differ and are thus best described by non-square pixels – and also in some digital videocameras and computer display modes , such as Color Graphics Adapter (CGA). Today they arise particularly in transcoding between resolutions with different SARs. DAR

1378-624: A petition supporting BabyBlue . Yale and NYU students added their separate petitions supporting BabyBlue . A posting in the Harvard Law Record commented: The intellectual property claims that the HLR Association made may or may not be spurious. But independent of that, the tactics employed by the HLR Association's counsel in dealing with Mr. Malamud and Prof. Sprigman are deplorable. The Harvard Law Review claims to be an organization that promotes knowledge and access to legal scholarship. It

1484-479: A slightly larger area APS-H (not to be confused with the APS-H film format), while Nikon developed its own APS-C standard, which it calls DX . Regardless of the different flavors of sensors, and their varying sizes, they are close enough to the original APS-C image size, and maintain the classic 3:2 image proportions that these sensors are generally known as an "APS-C" sized sensor. The reason for DSLR's image sensors being

1590-486: A slightly similar 18.5:9 format. The Apple iPhone X also has a similar screen ratio of 19.5:9 (2.16:1). Anamorphic format is the cinematography technique of shooting a widescreen picture on standard 35 mm film or other visual recording media with a non-widescreen native aspect ratio. When projected the image is then stretched back into the original proportions. Often, screen specifications are given by their diagonal length. The following formulae can be used to find

1696-454: A smaller area (25.1 mm × 16.7 mm) but retaining the same "classic" 3:2 proportions as full frame 35 mm film cameras. When discussing DSLRs and their non-SLR derivatives, the term APS-C has become an almost generic term. The two major camera manufacturers Canon and Nikon each developed and established sensor standards for their own versions of APS-C sized and proportioned sensors. Canon actually developed two standards, APS-C and

1802-415: A style guide that is designed to supplement The Bluebook . This guide focuses on citation for practitioners, so as an example, only two typefaces are used for law reviews, normal and italics. Other changes are also minor, such as moving supra from before the page referenced to after the page number. The guide does state that unless explicitly specified otherwise, The Bluebook rule takes precedence in

1908-443: A value of 1 to the image's height; an anamorphic frame (since 1970, approximately 2.39:1) is often incorrectly described (rounded) as either 2.4:1 or 2.40:1. After 1952, a number of aspect ratios were experimented with for anamorphic productions, including 2.66:1 and 2.55:1. A SMPTE specification for anamorphic projection from 1957 (PH22.106-1957) finally standardized the aperture to 2.35:1. An update in 1970 (PH22.106-1971) changed

2014-444: A wider higher resolution image. In either case the image was squeezed horizontally to fit the film's frame size and avoid any unused film area. The development of various film camera systems must ultimately cater to the placement of the frame in relation to the lateral constraints of the perforations and the optical soundtrack area. One clever wide screen alternative, VistaVision , used standard 35 mm film running sideways through

2120-410: A widescreen film to be presented in an altered format ( cropped , letterboxed or expanded beyond the original aspect ratio). It is also not uncommon for windowboxing to occur (when letterbox and pillarbox happen simultaneously). For instance, a 16:9 broadcast could embed a 4:3 commercial within the 16:9 image area. A viewer watching on a standard 4:3 (non-widescreen) television would see a 4:3 image of

2226-519: Is Don Quixote de La Mancha . In the 21st century, the practice is gaining traction in scientific publications. In many versions of the Old Testament of the Bible , the word " Lord " is set in small caps. Typically, an ordinary "Lord" corresponds to the use of the word Adonai in the original Hebrew, but the small caps " Lord " corresponds to the use of Yahweh in the original; in some versions

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2332-538: Is a more appropriate term, but is rarely used. Modified Aspect Ratio (MAR) is a home cinema term for the aspect ratio or dimensions in which a film was modified to fit a specific type of screen, as opposed to original aspect ratio. Modified aspect ratios are usually either 1.33:1 (historically), or (with the advent of widescreen television sets) 1.43:1 aspect ratio. 1.33:1 was the modified aspect ratio used historically on 4:3 broadcast television and home videotape formats such as VHS and Beta. A modified aspect ratio transfer

2438-579: Is a venerated part of the traditions of Harvard Law School. But these actions by the Harvard Law Review speak of competition and not of justice. The posting also suggested that HLRA should "redirect the money it spends on legal fees ($ 185,664 in 2013)" to a more worthy purpose. David Post commented: "It's copyright nonsense, and Harvard should be ashamed of itself for loosing its legal hounds to dispense it in order to protect its (apparently fairly lucrative) publication monopoly." On March 31, 2016, it

2544-445: Is achieved by enlarging the original image to fill the receiving format's display area and cutting off any excess picture information ( zooming and cropping ), by adding horizontal mattes ( letterboxing ) or vertical mattes ( pillarboxing ) to retain the original format's aspect ratio, by stretching (hence distorting) the image to fill the receiving format's ratio, or by scaling by different factors in both directions, possibly scaling by

2650-445: Is achieved by means of pan and scan or EAR (Expanded Aspect Ratio)/ open matte , the latter meaning removing the cinematic matte from a 2.40:1 film to open up the full 1.33:1 frame or from 2.40:1 to 1.43:1 in IMAX . Another name for it is rescaled aspect ratio. Multiple aspect ratios create additional burdens on directors and the public, and confusion among TV broadcasters. It is common for

2756-562: Is again because small caps were normally only used in body text and cutting bold and italic small caps was thought unnecessary. An isolated early appearance was in the Enschedé type foundry specimen of 1768, which featured a set cut by Joan Michaël Fleischman , and in 1837 Thomas Adams commented that in the United States "small capitals are in general only cast to roman fonts" but that "some founders in England cast italic small capitals to most, if not

2862-414: Is also known as image aspect ratio and picture aspect ratio , though the latter can be confused with pixel aspect ratio; PAR is also known as sample aspect ratio , though it can also be confused with storage aspect ratio. Original Aspect Ratio (OAR) is a home cinema term for the aspect ratio or dimensions in which a film or visual production was produced, as envisioned by the people involved in

2968-412: Is displayed with square pixels , then these ratios agree. If, instead, non-square ("rectangular") pixels are used, then these ratios differ. The aspect ratio of the pixels themselves is known as the pixel aspect ratio (PAR) – for square pixels this is 1:1 – and these are related by the identity: Rearranging (solving for PAR) yields: For example: However, because standard definition digital video

3074-450: Is followed in the legal citation as the most widely accepted citation style, called the "Bible", the "final arbiter", even the legal citation " Kama Sutra ". Some states have adopted The Bluebook in full, while others have partially adopted The Bluebook . States such as Texas have supplements, such as The Greenbook , that merely address citation issues unique to Texas and otherwise follow The Bluebook . The Solicitor General issues

3180-449: Is implemented depends on the typesetting system; some can use true small caps glyphs that are included in modern professional typefaces ; but less complex computer fonts do not have small-caps glyphs, so the typesetting system simply reduces the uppercase letters by a fraction (often 1.5 to 2 points less than the base scale). However, this will make the characters look somewhat out of proportion. A work-around to simulate real small capitals

3286-442: Is included (such as the aforementioned commercial), the television switches to a 4:3 display mode to correctly display the material. Where a video signal is transmitted via a European SCART connection, one of the status lines is used to signal 16:9 material as well. Common aspect ratios in still photography include: Many digital still cameras offer user options for selecting multiple image aspect ratios. Some achieve this through

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3392-709: Is intended for a federal or state court. California has allowed citations in Bluebook as well as the state's own style manual, but many practitioners and courts continue recommending the California Style Manual . An online-subscription version of The Bluebook was launched in 2008. A mobile version was launched in 2012 within the Rulebook app, which enables access for legal professionals to federal or state court rules, codes, and style manuals on iPad , and other mobile devices. The 21st edition of The Bluebook governs

3498-549: Is similar to the 1.90:1 standard acquisition formats mandated by these content platforms and is not necessarily a creative choice. Moreover, some mobile devices, such as the LG G6 , LG V30 , Huawei Mate 10 Pro , Google Pixel 2 XL , OnePlus 5T and Sony Xperia XZ3 , are embracing the 2.00:1 format (advertised as 18:9), as well as the Samsung Galaxy S8 , Samsung Galaxy Note 8 , Samsung Galaxy S9 and Samsung Galaxy Note 9 with

3604-553: Is sometimes used for feature films. Square displays are rarely used in devices and monitors. Nonetheless, video consumption on social apps has grown rapidly and led to the emergence of new video formats more suited to mobile devices that can be held in horizontal and vertical orientations. In that sense, square video was popularized by mobile apps such as Instagram and Vine and has since been supported by other major social platforms including Facebook and X . It can fill nearly twice as much screen space compared to 16:9 format (when

3710-440: Is tall, in the classic "panorama" style. Common print sizes in the United States (in inches ) include 4×6 (1.5), 5×7 (1.4), 4×5 and 8×10 (1.25), and 11×14 (1.27); large format cameras typically use one of these aspect ratios. Medium-format cameras typically have format designated by nominal sizes in centimeters (6×6, 6×7, 6×9, 6×4.5), but these numbers should not be interpreted as exact in computing aspect ratios. For example,

3816-673: Is taught and used at a majority of U.S. law schools and is also used in a majority of federal courts . Legal publishers also use several "house" citation styles in their works. The Bluebook is compiled by the Harvard Law Review Association, the Columbia Law Review , the Yale Law Journal , and the University of Pennsylvania Law Review . Currently, it is in its 21st edition (published July   2020). Its name

3922-401: Is the ratio of its width to its height. It is expressed as two numbers separated by a colon, width:height . Common aspect ratios are 1.85:1 and 2.40:1 in cinematography , 4:3 and 16:9 in television , and 3:2 in still photography . The common film aspect ratios used in cinemas are 1.85:1 and 2.40:1. Two common videographic aspect ratios are 4:3 (1. 3 :1), the universal video format of

4028-499: Is the recommended way, or font-feature-settings : 'smcp' , which is the most widely used method As of May 2014. If the font does not have small-cap glyphs, lowercase letters are displayed. renders as As of June 2023, CSS3 can specify petite caps by using font-variant : petite-caps or font-feature-settings : 'pcap' . If the font does not have petite cap glyphs, lowercase letters are displayed. Aspect ratio (image) The aspect ratio of an image

4134-465: Is therefore easier to work with fonts that have true small caps as a completely separate style, similar to bold or italic. Few free and open-source fonts have this feature; an exception is Georg Duffner's EB Garamond , in open beta. LibreOffice Writer started allowing true small caps for OpenType fonts since version 5.3, they can be enabled via a syntax used in the Font Name input box, including font name,

4240-407: Is to use a bolder version of the small caps generated by such systems, to match well with the normal weights of capitals and lowercase, especially when such small caps are extended about 5% or letter-spaced a half point or a point. Small caps are often used in sections of text that are unremarkable and thus a run of uppercase capital letters might imply an emphasis that is not intended. For example,

4346-438: Is used by classic 35 mm film cameras using a 36 mm × 24 mm image size, and their digital derivatives represented by DSLRs . Typical DSLRs come in two flavors, the so-called professional "full frame" (36 mm × 24 mm) sensors and variations of smaller, so called "APS-C" sensors. The term "APS" is derived from another film format known as APS and the "-C" refers to "Classic" mode, which exposed images over

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4452-446: Is used for academic articles. By 2011, The Bluebook was "the main guide and source of authority" on legal references for the past 90 years. It is recognized as the "gold standard" for legal references in the United States, even though it was originally designed only to help teach law students how to cite cases and other legal material. Although other citation systems exist, they have limited acceptance, and in general, The Bluebook

4558-457: Is yet another format that can find its roots in the APS film camera. Known as APS-P (30.2 × 9.5 mm), with the -P" denoting "Panorama", the 3:1 format was used for panorama photography. The APS-P panorama standard is the least adhered to any APS standard, and panoramic implementation varies with by manufacturer on different cameras, with the only commonality being that the image is much longer than it

4664-471: The Yale Law Journal . The authors point out that some of the material in the 1926 first edition of The Bluebook (as well as that in a 1922 Harvard precursor to it published as Instructions for Editorial Work ) duplicate material in the 1920 Llewellen booklet and its 1921 successor, a blue pamphlet that the Yale Law Journal published as Abbreviations and Form of Citation . For several years before

4770-400: The 5th-generation MacBook Pro switched to a taller aspect ratio of approximately 1.54:1. The MacBook Air continues to use 16:10 as of 2022. 16:9 (1.77:1) (generally named as Sixteen-by-Nine, Sixteen-Nine, and Sixteen-to-Nine) is the international standard format of HDTV , non-HD digital television and analog widescreen television PALplus . Japan's Hi-Vision originally started with

4876-525: The BLUEBOOK Marks as to be likely, to cause confusion, mistake, and/or deception…Accordingly, and to avoid any risk of consumer confusion, my client respectfully demands that you agree (i) not to use the title or name BabyBlue , or any other title or name including the word "blue", for your work. In response to the HLRA letter to Sprigman, over 150 students, faculty, staff, and alumni of Harvard Law School signed

4982-611: The French and Spanish languages render Roman numerals in small caps to denote centuries, e.g. xviii siècle and siglo xviii for "18th century"; the numerals are cardinally postpositive in Spanish alone. Research by Margaret M. Smith concluded that the use of small caps was probably popularised by Johann Froben in the early 16th century, who used them extensively from 1516. Froben may have been influenced by Aldus Manutius , who used very small capitals with printing Greek and at

5088-713: The parts of speech in a sentence; e.g., She 3SG . F . NOM love-s love- 3SG . PRS . IND you. 2 She love-s you. 3SG.F.NOM love-3SG.PRS.IND 2 Linguists also use small caps to refer to the keywords in lexical sets for particular languages or dialects; e.g. the fleece and trap vowels in English. The Bluebook prescribes small caps for some titles and names in United States legal citations. The practice precedes World War I , with Harvard Law Review using it while referring to itself. By 1915, small caps were used for all titles of journals and books. In many books, mention of another part of

5194-482: The silent era . It is also very close to the 1.375:1 Academy ratio , defined by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences as a standard after the advent of optical sound-on-film . By having TV match this aspect ratio, movies originally photographed on 35 mm film could be satisfactorily viewed on TV in the early days of the medium (i.e. the 1940s and the 1950s). With the adoption of high-definition television ,

5300-403: The "-H" denoting "High Definition", the 16:9 format is also the standard image aspect ratio for HDTV. 16:9 is gaining popularity as a format in all classes of consumer still cameras which also shoot High Definition ( HD ) video . When still cameras have an HD video capability, some can also record stills in the 16:9 format, ideal for display on HD televisions and widescreen computer displays. 3:1

5406-475: The 1470s, but apparently was not copied at the time. Small capitals are not found in all font designs, as traditionally in printing they were primarily used within the body text of books and so are often not found in fonts that are not intended for this purpose, such as sans-serif types which historically were not preferred for book printing. Fonts in Use reports that Gert Wunderlich 's Maxima (1970), for Typoart ,

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5512-521: The 16:9 DVD frame by hard matting or adding black bars within the image itself. The 16:9 aspect ratio was used often in British TVs in the United Kingdom in the 1990s, and is also used in smartphones, laptops, and desktops. Equivalent to integer ratio of 37:20. When cinema attendance dropped, Hollywood created widescreen aspect ratios in order to differentiate the film industry from TV, with one of

5618-513: The 19th edition, The Bluebook is significantly more complicated than the citation systems used by most other fields. Legal scholars have called for its replacement with a simpler system. The University of Chicago uses the simplified " Maroonbook ", and even simpler systems are in use by other parties. Judge Richard Posner is "one of the founding fathers of Bluebook abolitionism, having advocated it for almost twenty-five years, ever since his 1986 University of Chicago Law Review article on

5724-559: The 20th century, and 16:9 (1. 7 :1), universal for high-definition television and European digital television . Other cinematic and video aspect ratios exist, but are used infrequently. In still camera photography, the most common aspect ratios are 4:3, 3:2 (1.5:1), and more recently found in consumer cameras, 16:9. Other aspect ratios, such as 5:3, 5:4, and 1:1 (square format), are used in photography as well, particularly in medium format and large format . With television, DVD and Blu-ray Disc , converting formats of unequal ratios

5830-399: The 3:2 aspect ratio of a DSLR/35 mm, since 6/2=3 and 4/2=2. For analog projection of photographic slides, projector and screen use a 1:1 aspect ratio, supporting horizontal and vertical orientation equally well. In contrast, digital projection technology typically supports vertically oriented images only at a fraction of the resolution of landscape-oriented images. For example, projecting

5936-556: The Michigan Supreme Court. The primary difference is that the Michigan system "omits all periods in citations, uses italics somewhat differently, and does not use 'small caps.'" As noted, Texas merely supplements The Bluebook with items that are unique to Texas courts, such as citing cases when Texas was an independent republic, petition and writ history, Attorney General Opinions, and similar issues. At over 500 pages for

6042-635: The University of Pennsylvania Law Review, the law review's endowments total $ 59.4 million. The Bluebook has also been affected by the disruptions to the legal industry due to legal technology . In 2017, the startup company LegalEase launched a legal citation generator that enables its users to create citations in the Bluebook format. LawStar.io offers a similar product with the addition of 1-click citations. Bluebook 1 (1926) has approximately 30 sentences in common with Yale Law Journal ’s Abbreviations and Form of Citation (1921), as well as many of

6148-412: The aspect ratio mainly used when the 4:3 programs are cropped. 16:10 (8:5) is an aspect ratio mostly used for computer displays and tablet computers . The width of the display is 1.6 times its height. This ratio is close to the golden ratio " φ {\displaystyle \varphi } " which is approximately 1.618. LCD computer displays using the 16:10 ratio started to appear in

6254-411: The aspect ratio to 2.40:1 in order to make splices less noticeable. This aspect ratio of 2.40:1 was confirmed by the most recent revision from August 1993 (SMPTE 195-1993). In American cinemas, the common projection ratios are 1.85:1 and 2.40:1. Some European countries have 1. 6 :1 as the wide screen standard. The "Academy ratio" of 1.375:1 was used for all cinema films in the sound era until 1953 (with

6360-467: The camera gate, so that the sprocket holes were above and below frame, allowing a larger horizontal negative size per frame as only the vertical size was now restricted by the perforations. There were even a limited number of projectors constructed to also run the print-film horizontally. Generally, however, the 1.50:1 ratio of the initial VistaVision image was optically converted to a vertical print (on standard four-perforation 35 mm movie film ) to show with

6466-420: The commercial with 2 sets of black stripes, vertical and horizontal (windowboxing or the postage stamp effect). A similar scenario may also occur for a widescreen set owner when viewing 16:9 material embedded in a 4:3 frame, and then watching that in 16:9. Active Format Description is a mechanism used in digital broadcasting to avoid this problem. It is also common that a 4:3 image is stretched horizontally to fit

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6572-414: The common print paper size of 8 in × 10 in (20.3 cm × 25.4 cm) without cropping and is still in common use for prints from digital cameras. 4:3 is used by most digital point-and-shoot cameras , Four Thirds system , Micro Four Thirds system cameras and medium format 645 cameras. The 4:3 digital format popularity was developed to match the then prevailing digital displays of

6678-472: The compound "Lord God " represents the Hebrew compound Adonai Yahweh . In zoological and botanical nomenclature, the small caps are occasionally used for genera and families. In computational complexity theory , a sub-field of computer science , the formal names of algorithmic problem, e.g. MᴀxSAT, are sometimes set in small caps. Linguists use small caps to analyze the morphology and tag ( gloss )

6784-470: The cover of the book was changed from brown to a "more patriotic blue", allegedly to avoid comparison with a color associated with Nazi Germany . The eleventh edition, published in 1967, was actually white with a blue border. The cover color returned to blue in the twelfth edition of 1976. The full text of the first (1926) through the fifteenth (1991) editions is available on the official website. The Bluebook uses two different styles. Practitioners use

6890-551: The creation of the work. As an example, the film Gladiator was released to theaters in the 2.40:1 aspect ratio. It was filmed in Super 35 and, in addition to being presented in cinemas and television in the Original Aspect Ratio (OAR) of 2.40:1, it was also broadcast without the matte , altering the aspect ratio to the television standard of 1.33:1. Because of the varied ways in which films are shot, IAR (Intended Aspect Ratio)

6996-400: The device is held differently while viewing from how video was recorded). 4:3 (1.33:1) (generally read as Four-Three, Four-by-Three, or Four-to-Three) for standard television for fullscreen aspect ratio 1.33:1 has been in use since the invention of moving picture cameras , and many computer monitors used to employ the same aspect ratio. 4:3 was the aspect ratio used for 35 mm films in

7102-580: The digital period, such as in Hoefler Text and FF Scala . The OpenType font standard provides support for transformations from normal letters to small caps by two feature tags, smcp and c2sc . A font may use the tag smcp to indicate how to transform lower-case letters to small caps, and the tag c2sc to indicate how to transform upper-case letters to small caps. OpenType provides support for transformations from normal letters to petite caps by two feature tags, pcap and c2pc . A font may use

7208-591: The event of conflict. California used to require use of the California Style Manual . In 2008, the California Supreme Court issued a rule giving an option of using either the California Style Manual or The Bluebook . The two styles are significantly different in citing cases, in use of ibid. or id. (for idem ), and in citing books and journals. Michigan uses a separate official citation system issued as an administrative order of

7314-525: The first edition of The Bluebook appeared, Yale, Columbia, and several other law journals "worked out a tentative citation plan", but Harvard initially opposed it "because of skepticism as to the results to be attained and in part because of a desire not to deviate from our forms especially at the solicitation of other Reviews". Eventually, Harvard "reversed course" and joined the coalition by 1926. According to Judge Henry J. Friendly , "Attorney General [Herbert] Brownell, whom I had known ever since law school—he

7420-422: The first eleven editions, estimated to total $ 20,000 per year. After they threatened to sue, and considerable wrangling, Harvard agreed with them to split the revenue: 40 percent for Harvard, 20 percent each for Columbia, Pennsylvania, and Yale; Harvard would continue to provide the production and distribution services. The law reviews have not disclosed the revenues of the Bluebook themselves, but revenues from

7526-443: The first in preparing court documents and memoranda, while the second is used primarily in academic settings, such as law reviews and journals. The latter uses specific formatting to identify types of references, such as the use of small caps for books, newspapers, and law reviews. A rule of thumb used by many is to see if the formatting can be reproduced on a typewriter —if so, practitioners use it, if it requires typesetting, it

7632-447: The flatter 3:2 versus the taller point-and-shoot 4:3 is that DSLRs were designed to match the legacy 35 mm SLR film, whereas the majority of digital cameras were designed to match the predominant computer displays of the time, with VGA, SVGA, XGA and UXGA all being 4:3. Widescreen computer monitors did not become popular until the advent of HDTV , which uses a 16:9 image aspect ratio. Known as APS-H (30.2 mm × 16.7 mm), with

7738-513: The formula, specifically 12:11 for PAL and 10:11 for NTSC. For consistency, the same effective pixel aspect ratios are used even for standard definition digital video originated in digital form rather than converted from analog. For more details refer to the main article . In analog images such as film there is no notion of pixel, nor notion of SAR or PAR, and "aspect ratio" refers unambiguously to DAR. Actual displays do not generally have non-square pixels, though digital sensors might; they are rather

7844-654: The guide for documents filed with those courts. Some of the local rules are simple modifications to The Bluebook system. Delaware 's Supreme Court has promulgated rules of citation for unreported cases markedly different from its standards, and custom in that state as to the citation format of the Delaware Uniform Citation code also differs from it. In other states, the local rules differ from The Bluebook in that they use their own style guides. Attorneys in those states must be able to switch seamlessly between citation styles depending upon whether their work product

7950-433: The height ( h ), width ( w ) and area ( A ), where r stands for ratio, written as a fraction of x by y , and d for diagonal length. This article primarily addresses the aspect ratio of images as displayed, which is more formally referred to as the display aspect ratio (DAR) . In digital images , there is a distinction with the storage aspect ratio (SAR) , which is the ratio of numbers of pixels . If an image

8056-629: The height of full capitals. To differentiate between these two alternatives, the x-height form is sometimes called petite caps , preserving the name "small caps" for the larger variant. OpenType fonts can define both forms via the "small caps" and the "petite caps" features. When the support for the petite caps feature is absent from a desktop publishing program, x-height small caps are often substituted. Many word processors and text formatting systems include an option to format text in caps and small caps, which leaves uppercase letters as they are, but converts lowercase letters to small caps. How this

8162-401: The majority of modern televisions are now produced with 16:9 displays instead. Apple's iPad series of tablets continue to use 4:3 displays (despite other Apple products typically using widescreen aspect ratios) to better suit use as an e-reader ; however, the 2018 iPad Pro 11-inch uses a 1.43:1 aspect ratio. 14:9 (generally named as Fourteen-by-Nine, Fourteen-Nine, and Fourteen-to-Nine) is

8268-405: The mass market from 2003. By 2008, 16:10 had become the most common aspect ratio for LCD monitors and laptop displays. Since 2010, however, 16:9 has become the mainstream standard, driven by the 1080p standard for high definition television and lower manufacturing costs. In 2005–2008, 16:10 (1.6:1) overtook 4:3 as the most sold aspect ratio for LCD monitors. At the time, 16:10 also had 90% of

8374-532: The most common being the 1.85:1 ratio. The 2.00:1 aspect ratio was first used in the 1950s for the RKO Superscope format. Since 1998, cinematographer Vittorio Storaro has advocated for a format named " Univisium " that uses a 2.00:1 format. Univisium has gained little traction in the theatrical film market, but has recently been used by Netflix and Amazon Video for productions such as House of Cards and Transparent , respectively. This aspect ratio

8480-454: The most common cinema projection standards in the United States and elsewhere. The goal of these various lenses and aspect ratios was to capture as much of the frame as possible, onto as large an area of the film as possible, in order to fully utilize the film being used. Some of the aspect ratios were chosen to utilize smaller film sizes in order to save film costs while other aspect ratios were chosen to use larger film sizes in order to produce

8586-515: The notebook market and was the most commonly used aspect ratio for laptops. However, 16:10 had a short reign as the most common aspect ratio. Around 2008–2010, there was a rapid shift by computer display manufacturers to the 16:9 aspect ratio and by 2011 16:10 had almost disappeared from new mass market products. According to Net Applications , by October 2012 the market share of 16:10 displays had dropped to less than 23 percent. Notably, Apple used 16:10 for all of its MacBook models until 2021, when

8692-567: The over 1,000 pages of the Chicago Manual of Style . Another dispute is over the copyright status of The Bluebook . Open-source advocates claim that The Bluebook is not protected under copyright because it is a critical piece of legal infrastructure. Lawyers who represent the Bluebook publishing consortium claim that the "carefully curated examples, explanations and other textual materials" are protected by copyright. A group led by Professor Christopher J. Sprigman at NYU Law School prepared

8798-434: The perforations is 24.89 mm × 18.67 mm (0.980 in × 0.735 in), leaving the de facto ratio of 1.33:1. With a space designated for the standard optical soundtrack , and the frame size reduced to maintain an image that is wider than tall; this resulted in the Academy aperture of 22 mm × 16 mm (0.866 in × 0.630 in) or 1.375:1 aspect ratio. The motion picture industry convention assigns

8904-533: The publication and promotion of such a work may infringe the Reviews' copyright rights in The Bluebook and The Bluebook Online, and may cause substantial, irreparable harm to the Reviews and their rights and interests in those works. ... [I]t is our client's position that the title BabyBlue , or any title consisting of or comprising the word "Blue", when used on or in connection with your work, would so resemble

9010-470: The release of George Stevens' Shane in 1. 6 :1). During that time, television, which had a similar aspect ratio of 1. 3 :1, became a perceived threat to movie studios. Hollywood responded by creating a large number of wide-screen formats: CinemaScope (up to 2. 6 :1), Todd-AO (2.20:1), and VistaVision (up to 2.00:1) to name just a few. The flat 1.85:1 aspect ratio was introduced in May 1953, and became one of

9116-441: The sale of the Bluebook have been estimated "in the millions of dollars". A 2022 review of the Harvard Law Review's non-profit disclosures found that the Bluebook had made $ 1.2 million in profits in 2020, with The Harvard Law Review taking an 8.5% cut of profits for administrative services and the remainder split equally among the four law reviews. Profits from the Bluebook totaled $ 16 million between 2011 and 2020. Excluding

9222-512: The same book or mentions the work as a whole will be set in small caps. For example, articles in The World Book Encyclopedia refer to the encyclopedia as a whole and to the encyclopedia's other articles in small caps, as in the "Insurance" article's direction, at one point, to "See No-Fault Insurance ", "No-Fault Insurance" being another of the encyclopedia's articles. Among Romance languages , as an orthographic tradition, only

9328-435: The sample citations, all of the proofreading signs, and virtually all of the items in the long list of abbreviations. They both begin with the same sentence: “This pamphlet does not pretend to include a complete list of abbreviations or all the necessary data as to form.” The subtitle of the Bluebook is “Abbreviations and Form of Citation.” The Jones v. Smith Connecticut citation that is the basic case citation example used by

9434-609: The standard projectors available at theaters, and was then masked in the projector to the United States standard of 1.85:1. The format was briefly revived by Lucasfilm in the late 1970s for special effects work that required a larger negative size (due to image degradation from the optical printing steps necessary to make multi-layer composites). It went into obsolescence largely due to better cameras, lenses, and film stocks available for standard four-perforation formats, in addition to increased lab costs for making prints in comparison to more standard vertical processes. (The horizontal process

9540-480: The start of lines of italic, copying a style common in manuscripts at the time, and sometimes used these capitals to set headings in his printing; as a result these headings were in all caps, but in capitals from a smaller font than the body text type. The idea caught on in France, where small capitals were used by Simon de Colines , Robert Estienne and Claude Garamond . Johannes Philippus de Lignamine used small caps in

9646-585: The style and formatting of various references and elements of a legal publication, including: While the legal citation manuals go as far back as 15th century ( Modus Legendi Abbreviaturas in Utroque Iure , c.  1475 ), there were very few examples prior to the 20th century; law professor Byron D. Cooper mentions only few short articles "Rules for Citation" ( The American Law Review , 1896) and "Methods of Citing Statute Law" (Ruppenthal, Law Library Journal , 1919). The Uniform System of Citations thus became

9752-519: The style of some publications, like The New Yorker and The Economist , is to use small caps for acronyms and initialisms longer than three letters—thus "U.S." and "W.H.O." in normal caps but " nato " in small caps. The initialisms ad , ce , am , and pm are sometimes typeset in small caps. In printed plays small caps are used for stage directions and the names of characters before their lines. Some publications use small caps to indicate surnames. An elementary example

9858-554: The subject." In a 2011 Yale Law Journal article, he wrote: The Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation exemplifies hypertrophy in the anthropological sense. It is a monstrous growth, remote from the functional need for legal citation forms, that serves obscure needs of the legal culture and its student subculture. He wrote that a cursory look at the Nineteenth Edition "put [him] in mind of Mr. Kurtz 's dying words in Heart of Darkness —'The horror! The horror!'" Posner personally uses

9964-736: The tag pcap to indicate how to transform lower-case letters to petite caps, and the tag c2pc to indicate how to transform upper-case letters to petite caps. Desktop publishing applications, as well as web browsers, can use these features to display petite caps. However, only a few currently do so. LibreOffice can use the fontname:pcap=1 method. Professional desktop publishing applications supporting genuine small caps include Quark XPress, and Adobe Creative Suite applications. Most word processing applications, including Microsoft Word and Pages , do not automatically substitute true small caps when working with OpenType fonts that include them, instead generating scaled ones. For these applications it

10070-501: The time, 4:3 computer monitors. This aspect ratio is also wider than the popular 16:9, thus being very popular among different E-Sports tournaments. The next several formats have their roots in classic film photography image sizes, both the classic 35 mm film camera, and the multiple format Advanced Photo System ( APS ) film camera. The APS camera was capable of selecting any of three image formats, APS-H ("High Definition" mode), APS-C ("Classic" mode) and APS-P ("Panoramic" mode). 3:2

10176-430: The usable height of 120-format roll film is 56mm, so a width of 70mm (as in 6×7) yields an aspect ratio of 4:5 — ideal for enlarging to make an 8×10" portrait. Print sizes are usually defined by their portrait dimensions (tall) while equipment aspect ratios are defined by their landscape dimensions (wide, flipped sideways). A good example of this a 4×6 print (6 inch wide by 4 inch tall landscape) perfectly matches

10282-480: The use of multi-aspect sensors (notably Panasonic ), while others simply crop their native image format to have the output match the desired image aspect ratio. 1:1 is the classic Kodak image, and is available as a choice in some digital still cameras, and hearkens back to the days of film cameras when the square image was popular with photographers using twin lens reflex cameras. These medium format cameras used 120 film rolled onto spools. The 6 × 6 cm image size

10388-531: The web page presentation language CSS using font-variant : small-caps . For example, the HTML renders as Since CSS styles the text, and no actual case transformation is applied, readers are still able to copy the normally-capitalized plain text from the web page as rendered by a browser. CSS3 can specify OpenType small caps (given the smcp feature in the font replaces glyphs with proper small caps glyphs) by using font-variant-caps : small-caps , which

10494-520: The whole of their fonts." (Bold type did not appear until the nineteenth century.) In 1956, Hugh Williamson 's textbook Methods of Book Design noted that "one of the most conspicuous defects" of contemporary book faces was that they did not generally feature italic small capitals: "these would certainly be widely used if they were generally available". Exceptions available at the time were Linotype's Pilgrim , Janson and their release of Monotype Garamond , and from Monotype Romulus . More have appeared in

10600-579: Was "maybe the first sans serif to feature small caps and optional oldstyle numerals across all weights." (Some caps-only typefaces intended for printing stationery, for instance Copperplate Gothic and Bank Gothic , were intended to be used with smaller sizes serving as small capitals, and had no lower case as a result.) Italic small capitals were historically rarer than roman small caps. Some digital font families, sometimes digitisations of older metal type designs, still only have small caps in roman style and do not have small caps in bold or italic styles. This

10706-494: Was Editor-in-Chief of the Yale Law Journal the year I was at the Harvard Law Review and he and I and two others [from Columbia and Pennsylvania] were the authors of the first edition of the Bluebook ." The cover of the 1926 A Uniform System of Citation was green. The color was "brown from the second (1928) edition through the fifth (1936) edition. It was only with the sixth (1939) edition that it became blue." In 1939,

10812-509: Was also adapted to 70 mm film by IMAX , which was first shown at the Osaka '70 Worlds Fair.) Super 16 mm film was frequently used for television production due to its lower cost, lack of need for soundtrack space on the film itself (as it is not projected but rather transferred to video), and aspect ratio similar to 16:9 (the native ratio of Super 16 mm is 15:9). It also can be blown up to 35 mm for theatrical release and therefore

10918-527: Was announced that the project had changed its name to the Indigo Book . For the first 50 years of the Bluebook 's history, the Harvard Law Review kept 100 percent of the revenues. In 1974, the editors of the Columbia and University of Pennsylvania Law Reviews and the Yale Law Journal apparently discovered this, due to an indiscretion. They complained that Harvard was illegally keeping all profits from

11024-454: Was first used for the 6th edition (1939). Opinions have differed regarding its origins at Yale and Harvard Law Schools, with the latter long claiming credit. The Supreme Court uses its own unique citation style in its opinions, even though most of the justices and their law clerks obtained their legal education at law schools that use The Bluebook . Furthermore, many state courts have their own citation rules that take precedence over

11130-415: Was originally based on digitally sampling analog television, the 720 horizontal pixels actually capture a slightly wider image to avoid loss of the original analog picture. In actual images, these extra pixels are often partly or entirely black, as only the center 704 horizontal pixels carry actual 4:3 or 16:9 image. Hence, the actual pixel aspect ratio PAR for PAL video is a little different from that given by

11236-519: Was the classic 1:1 format in the recent past. 120 film can still be found and used today. Many Polaroid instant films were designed as square formats. Furthermore, up until August 2015, photo-sharing site Instagram only allowed users to upload images in 1:1 format. In 2017, Fujifilm added the 1:1 Instax Square format to their lineup of instant film cameras. Common in large and medium format photography ('6x7' cameras, actual size 56 mm × 70 mm (2.2 in × 2.8 in)), which fits

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