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131-537: Sutanphaa also Siva Singha ( c.  ? – 14 December 1744) was the 31st king of Assam from the Ahom dynasty who reigned from (1714 to 1744 A.D.) He was the eldest son of King Rudra Singha . Siva Singha was with his dying father at Guwahati , who then proceeded to the capital Rangpur where he ascended to the throne. He is noted for his elaborate system of espionage. He had numerous temples erected and made large gifts of land to them. With his patronage, Hinduism became

262-453: A Tai prince from Mong Mao (present-day Yunnan Province , China ), it began as a mong in the upper reaches of the Brahmaputra based on wet rice agriculture. It expanded suddenly under Suhungmung in the 16th century and became multi-ethnic in character, casting a profound effect on the political and social life of the entire Brahmaputra valley. The kingdom became weaker with the rise of

393-459: A literary form of their language . Whereas the earlier state formations ( Kamarupa ) borrowed political structures from North India that led to Indo-Aryan domination, the Ahom state formation provided an alternate model built on Southeast Asian political structures, and which provided the space for the development of a distinct political, social and cultural identity. Though Brahminical myth-making

524-529: A Barsenapati and the near-end of the Paik system . The rebellion couldn't own its origin due to a impolitic deeds of some Kings and Queen. It was the consequence, the symptom of ultimate disease, that the Ahom monarchy was on decline. The massive agitation of rebels shook the foundations of Ahom state. Though the Moamaria rebellion ended in failure, it brought the breakdown of exploitive paik and Khel systems , on which

655-409: A Borpatra Gohain during her regime. On the north-eastern side of that tank, two temples, namely Bishnu Dol and Jagadhatri Dol were constructed on the bank of the tank named as Lakshmisagar Pukhuri. It was during his second wife Bar Raja Ambika's rule the 129 acres (0.52 km) Sibsagar tank, Bar Pukhuri, situated within the heart of Sivasagar town was dug. On its banks three temples were built in 1734 –

786-631: A Nat Kalita by caste, with the supreme vest, who assumed the name Pramatheswari and the title of Bar Raja. Queen Phuleswari minted coins in the joint name of her and her husband where she used Persian legend, the first of its kind in Assam. Phuleswari was more under the influence of the Brahmins, particularly the Parvatiya Gosain than the king. It is believed that this was instigated by Gosain and in her zeal for Sakta Hinduism, she attempted to make Shaktism

917-406: A change in it joined with the hands with the royalist." The discontented elements remained silent for very long, for they considered the Ahom monarchy to be unchallengeable. But this was all shattered throwing the divine origin of kingship and by putting a line of common men on the throne. "No alternative to the feudal system emerged, since no new ruling class could germinate from the peasantry which

1048-671: A contingent of British troops under the leadership of Captain Welsh was despatched to Assam. After the expulsion of Barkandazes from Guwahati , they directed their operation towards the Moamoria rebels. Captain Welsh captured Rangpur in March 1794. After this, further operation against the rebels was pleaded but was discarded by the Governor General and the contingent of British troops was recalled. Gaurinath Singha couldn't hold on Rangpur and soon

1179-569: A descendant of the first king Sukaphaa . Succession was generally by primogeniture but occasionally the great Gohains ( Dangarias ) could elect another descendant of Sukaphaa from a different line or even depose an enthroned one. Dangarias : Sukaphaa had two great Gohains to aid him in administration: Burhagohain and the Borgohain . In the 1280s, they were given independent territories, they were veritable sovereigns in their given territories called bilat or rajya . The Burhagohain 's territory

1310-592: A large contingent of troops under the Pani Phukan to the assistance of Burhagohain. Receiving reinforcement, the royalist assumed offensive but still couldn't manage to reoccupy the Ahom metropolis. In August 1788, Patkonwar (a son of Rajeswar Singha ) raised a huge army with the assistance of Nara Raja and recovered Rangpur from the Moamorias, but his victory was short lived and he was eventually killed following an internal dissension in his camp. The Burhagohain erected

1441-482: A large depopulation due to emigration as well as execution, but the conflicts were never resolved. A much-weakened kingdom fell to repeated Burmese attacks and finally after the Treaty of Yandabo in 1826, the control of the kingdom passed into British hands. The Ahom kingdom was based on the Paik system , a type of corvee labor that is neither feudal nor Asiatic . The first coins were introduced by Jayadhwaj Singha in

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1572-587: A line of ramparts from Bar Ali to Kharikatiya Ali along the Namdang river, from where he resisted further rebel incursion. The royalist finally unable to stand the rebels fell back to Gaurisagar. The rebels then laid siege to the Gaurisagar Fort, and a large number of people along with many high officials fell fighting. The Burhagohain had to ultimately retreat to Taratali thence Dichoi. From Dichoi further incursion of rebels were resisted. The rebels frequently harassed

1703-487: A process called Ahomisation . Sukaphaa befriended those among the Morans and Barahi who were amenable to join him and put to the sword those who opposed him, and in due course, many others were incorporated into Ahom clans. The Ahoms were acutely aware of their smaller numbers, and adroitly avoided confrontations with larger groups. The additions via Ahomisation enhanced the Ahom numbers significantly. This process of Ahomization

1834-628: A process of ruthless persecution of the Moamorias. Some rebels then retreated deep into jungles and continued guerilla warfare under leaders like Lephera, Parmananda and others. An initial royalist force under the Na-Phukan and the Deka-Phukan was defeated, but a later force under the Borpatrogohain was able to eliminate Lephera and Parmananda. Subsequently, the Burhagohain began systematically destroying

1965-496: A relation to the previous Mayamara abbot. He was persuaded to join them, who did it after allegedly performing a Brahmayagna (brahman–slaying sacrifice). The rebels then burnt the Satras of Garmur, Auniati and Dakhinpat (all royalist Satras in Majuli ), headed by Brahmanas. Then they executed the abbots of Bareghar and Budhbari Satras, which belonged to Kala-Samathi for collaborating with

2096-569: A section of the paiks at his command for his personal use (as opposed to the Dangariyas), the rest rendering service to the Ahom state. The Borphukan was in military and civil command over the region west of Kaliabor, and acted as the Swargadeo's viceroy in the west. Borbaruas were mostly from different Moran , Kachari, Chiring and Khamti communities, while the Borphukan of lower Assam was appointed from

2227-459: A small number, but he was supported and joined by other Tai chiefs and common followers along the way and entered Assam with approximately 9,000 persons. His destiny was Upper Assam , earlier the domain of the Kamarupa kingdom but which had since lapsed into deteriorating conditions, and his intention was not to conquer and raid but to permanently settle in fallow land and practice agriculture —and

2358-428: A small percentage of the population lived in such towns. Some important towns of Ahom time were Rangpur, Garhgoan, Guwahati and Hajo. The capital city of Rangpur , was found to be 20 miles (32.18 km) in extent and thickly populated by Capt. Welsh in 1794. The population, however, never exceeded 10 thousand souls. The Ahom kingdom was ruled by a king, called Swargadeo ( Ahom language : Chao-Pha ), who had to be

2489-473: A third Gohain, Borpatrogohain . The Borpatrogohain's territory was located between the territories of the other two Gohains. Royal officers : Pratap Singha added two offices, Borbarua and Borphukan , that were directly under the king. The Borbarua, who acted as the military as well as the judicial head, was in command of the region east of Kaliabor not under the command of the Dangarias . He could use only

2620-539: A tribute-paying but virtually independent territory. The Ahom kingdom emerged from the rebellion much weakened. About one half of the population of the kingdom perished and the economy was totally destroyed. The weakened Ahom kingdom fell to a Burmese invasion which ultimately led to colonization by the British. This rebellion was primarily among the Moamoria Paiks against the Ahom kingdom . The Moamorias were

2751-634: The Ahom name Sutanphaa and the Hindu name of Siva Singha. He gave up Rudra Singha's plan to organize a confederacy of the rajas of Hindustan and to invade Bengal ( Mughal Empire ), but obeyed his father's injunction to become a disciple of Krishnaram Bhattacharjya (Nyayavagish), the Shakta priest from nearby Nabadwip in present-day West Bengal . He gave the management of the Kamakhya Temple to Krishnaram, who came to be known as Parbatiya Gosain, as his residence

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2882-636: The Battle of Itakhuli , when the Ahoms were able to push the Mughals back to the west of the Manas river permanently. In 1657, owing to the 'War of succession' among the sons of Shah Jahan . Ahom king Jayadhwaj Singha extended his authority, occupied Kamrup , preventing the other rebellious Koch king Pran Narayan from securing his footing. He speedily extended his authority over whole of western Assam. He brought under his domain

3013-561: The Chutia community. The Borbarua and Borphukan offices were not hereditary and thus could be chosen from any families. Patra Mantris : The five positions constituted the Patra Mantris (Council of Ministers). From the time of Supimphaa (1492–1497), one of the Patra Mantris was made the Rajmantri (Prime Minister, also Borpatro ; Ahom language : Shenglung ) who enjoyed additional powers and

3144-506: The Daflas of the northern hills, who had again taken to raiding the plains people. After they had been reduced to submission, an embankment was constructed along the foot of the hills inhabited by them as protection against future raids. After the successful expedition, he had constructed embankments(Garhs) and Duars(gates)to control the maurading tribes of northern hills. Peace returned to the plains. At Biswanath Ghat Swargadeo Siva Singha rebuilt

3275-619: The Koch Hajo branch, from 1603 to prop them as a buffer against the Mughals who had extended their rule to Bengal by 1576. The collapse of the Koch Hajo power in 1614 resulted in the Mughals coming to power up to the Barnadi river. The Mughals attempted further ingress to the east in 1616 with the Battle of Samdhara which marked the beginning of the Ahom–Mughal conflicts which lasted the till 1682 in

3406-567: The Mahapuruxiya Dharma in the 16th century, a proselytizing religion that opened itself to all including the Muslims and tribesmen. The religion provided opportunities for social and economic improvements to common tribesmen, and the sattras provided a safe haven from mandatory labor under the Paik system . The Ahom rulers saw a threat and Sankardeva himself had to escape to the Koch kingdom during

3537-512: The Moamoria rebellion (1769–1805) when more than half of the population fell off. Again, during the Burmese regime , the Burmese depredations (1817-1825) further reduced the population by 1/3. It shows that only 7/8 lakh people remained, at the time of British annexation. King Pratap Singha is who, systematised the population distribution and settlement of villages. The census of adult male population of

3668-492: The Moamoria rebellion , also festering internal conflicts that tore the kingdom asunder. According to Guha (1986) Ahom Assam continued to flourish till 1770. The Tungkhungia regime witnessed a relative time of peace till first half of the 18th century, where the population increased, trade expanded, Coinage and monetization made headway. New arts and crafts, new crops and even new style of dress were introduced. Rudra Singha alias Sukhrungphaa ( r.  1696–1714 ), under whom

3799-499: The Moamoria rebellion , and subsequently fell to repeated Burmese invasions of Assam . With the defeat of the Burmese after the First Anglo-Burmese War and the Treaty of Yandabo in 1826, control of the kingdom passed into East India Company hands. Though it came to be called the Ahom kingdom in the colonial and subsequent times, it was largely multi-ethnic, with the ethnic Tai-Ahom people constituting less than 10% of

3930-552: The Raidangia mel given to the chief queen. Forward governors, who were military commanders, ruled and administered forward territories. The officers were usually filled from the families that were eligible for the three great Gohains. Lesser governors were called Rajkhowas, and some of them were: The dependent kings or vassals were also called Raja . Except for the Raja of Rani, all paid an annual tribute. These Rajas were required to meet

4061-659: The Sivadol , the Vishnu Dol and the Devi Dol. Many temples were also constructed by Swargadeo Siva Singha in Kamrup including at Aswaklanta, North Guwahati on the bank of the river Brahmaputra in 1720, Siva Singha built two big temples dedicated to Lord Janardana and Lord Vishnu . Siva Singha had the land surveyed in Kamrup and Bakata . The register, or Pera Kagaz, based on this survey of Kamrup

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4192-410: The 17th century had helped the kingdom to repulse the repeated Mughal invasions, had become extremely outdated. The later phase of the rule was also marked by increasing social conflicts, leading to the Moamoria rebellion were able to capture and maintain power at the capital Rangpur for some years but were finally removed with the help of the British under Captain Welsh. The following repression led to

4323-451: The 17th century, though the system of personal service under the Paik system persisted. In the 17th century when the Ahom kingdom expanded to include erstwhile Koch and Mughal areas, it came into contact with their revenue systems and adapted accordingly. Trade was carried on usually through barter and use of circulation of money was limited. According to Shihabududdin Tailash, currency in

4454-426: The Ahom aristocracy leading to two periods in which the Ahom king lost control of the capital. Retaking the capital was accompanied by a massacre of subjects, leading to a steep depopulation of large tracts. The Ahom king failed to retake the entire kingdom; a portion in the north-east, Bengmara (modern-day Tinsukia district ), became known as Matak Rajya ruled by a newly created office called Borsenapati , became

4585-542: The Ahom domain occurred for the next two hundred years. The Ahom kingdom, for most of its history, had been closed and population movement closely monitored—nevertheless, there were two significant contacts. One was a friendly encounter with Chutia kingdom that turned into a conflict, and the other was a marriage alliance with the Kamata kingdom . At the end of the 14th century, the nascent Ahom polity faced crises of succession, two regicides, and three quick interregnum periods when

4716-400: The Ahom king to recover his country from the Burmese occupation . The first expeditionary force had to be routed off, which was sent through 'Naga Hills', in 1767 another force was despatched through the old Raha route. The second expedition was successful and achieved its objective in recovering Manipur. Kirti Chandra Borbarua who was the most influential noble in the Ahom court, had caused

4847-418: The Ahom kingdom consisted of cowries, rupees and gold coins. With the increase of external trade since the reign of Rudra Singha , there was a corresponding increase in the circulation of money. Inscriptions dating from the reign of Siva Singha , gives the price of number of commodities like rice, ghee, oil, pulses, goat, pigeon in connection with worship in different temples of the kingdom. This concludes that

4978-604: The Ahom kingdom. It was this formation of the Ahom kingdom that met the aggression from Bengal under Turbak in 1532 and it was able to eliminate the aggressive leadership (with significant loss to itself) and pursue the retreating invaders to the Karatoya river . In 1536, after the series of contacts with the Kachari kingdom , the Ahom rule extended up to the Kolong River in Nagaon; and by

5109-533: The Ahom kings among the new subjects Suhungmung assumed the title Swarganarayana ( Swargadeo ), though nothing like the Rajputisation process occurred with the Ahoms. The nature of the kings institutional relationship to the ministers changed with the creation of a new position, the Borpatrogohain , named after a Chutia office; and the creation of the offices of Sadiyakhowa Gohain (territories acquired from

5240-474: The Ahom kings into Hinduism did not occur till 1648. The Assamese language entered the Ahoms court for the first time and briefly coexisted and eventually replaced the Ahom language. No more major restructuring of the state structure was attempted until the end of the kingdom. After the division of the Koch kingdom between two branches of the Koch dynasty in 1581, the Ahoms allied with their immediate western neighbor,

5371-407: The Ahoms to create a standing army of mostly paid Hindustani sepoys to replace the paik based militia. One chief rebel leader, Phopai was killed in 1796 and the rebel king of Rangpur , Bhrarath in 1799. Sadiya fell to the royalists in 1800 from the grip of Khamtis . The Moamoria fugitives living as refuge in the neighbouring Dimasa and Jaintia Kingdoms, regrouped themselves and began harassing

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5502-433: The Ahoms were primarily responsible for converting the undulating alluvial forest and marshy plains in upper Assam to flat rice fields able to hold plain water for rice cultivation via a network of embankments. The Tai- Shans had with them the basic political structures for state-building, surplus producing technologies such as sedentary wet-rice cultivation and hydrology, a patriarchal social organisation based on chiefs, and

5633-503: The Borgohain made a hair breath escape. The rebels advanced toward Rangpur and they were met at Thowra by the forces of the Burhagohain, the new Borpatrogohain, the Borgohain and a detachment cavalry from the Manipur king. In this battle the rebels were defeated; Govinda Gaoburha was captured and executed. Under the pressure of Premier Ghanashyam Burhagohain , king Lakshmi Singha initiated

5764-575: The Brahmans which enabled them to gain goodwill with the Indo-Aryanized tribal groups and consolidate power. The Ahom kingdom transitioned into a full state rather dramatically in a short period during the reign of Suhungmung Dihingia Raja ( r.  1497–1539 ). It began first with a consolidation of the militia in 1510, followed by an expansion into the Bhuyan region at Habung in 1512 (probably with

5895-628: The Chutia kingdom) and the Marangikhowa Gohain (territories acquired from the Kachari kingdom), both of which were reserved for the Borgohain and Burhagohain lineages. The traditional nobles ( Chao ) now aligned with the Brahmin literati and an expanded ruling class developed. And when the Ahoms under Ton Kham Borgohain pursued the invaders and reached the Karatoya river they began to see themselves as

6026-592: The Deka Phukan in 1805 to retake the Bengmara region, then under the control of Sarbananda. The first skirmish took place at on the banks of the Dibru river at Bhutiating. The royalist forces were able to defeat Sarbananda's forces which then took shelter at Holongaguri, and a section of the forces submitted eventually to the Ahom king who were settled at Ghilamara. Nevertheless, both Purnananda and Sarbananda understood that this

6157-642: The Duliya Barua, who was in charge of the royal palanquins; the Chaudang Barua who superintended executions; Khanikar Barua was the chief artificer; Sonadar Barua was the mint master and chief jeweler; the Bez Barua was the physician to the royal family, Hati Barua, Ghora Barua, etc. Other officials included twelve Rajkhowas, and a number of Katakis, Kakatis, and Dolais. The Rajkhowas were governors of given territories and commanders of three thousand paiks . They were

6288-545: The Indian state of Assam came to be known by this name. The kingdom maintained close political ties with other Tai-states especially with Mong Kwang (Nara) till the end of its rule in the 19th century. The Ahom kingdom was established in 1228 when Sukaphaa , a Tai prince, entered the Brahmaputra valley having crossed the rugged Patkai mountain range from Mong Mao . Sukaphaa probably started his journey from his homeland with

6419-651: The King. But somehow the King managed to escape and took shelter in the underground chambers of Kareng Ghar . The rebels then advanced towards Rangpur , overcame the resistance offered by the city-guards and occupied it. In the meantime, a strong body of royalist under the head of Ghanashyam Burhagohain wrested the rebels out of Rangpur. This was followed by an indiscriminate massacre of the Moamorias , rejecting any kind of conciliatory policy. Several thousands of people along with innocents were killed and many escaped and sought refuge in

6550-572: The Kingdom attained its zenith. He subdued the kingdoms of Dimasa and Jaintia . He had made extensive preparations to extend the boundary west–towards, attempted to make a confederacy of Hindu kings of eastern India against Mughals . But he died right before he could execute his plans in 1714. Rudra Singha had re–instated the Vaisnava Satras, he himself had taken initiation of the Auniati Gosain (

6681-505: The Moamorias to wreak terrible vengeance on to the Borbarua. On September 15, 1769, Raghav Moran(Ragh Neog), a leading disciple of the Satra, was flogged by Ahom officials for not supplying the required number of elephants. This acted as the transgressing point and blessed by their spiritual head, the Morans raised the standard of revolt after collecting an army of about seven thousand. By November,

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6812-579: The Morans and Mohanmala Gohain was executed for his alleged conspiracy with the royalist. The Ahom king, Lakshmi Singha , was captured and kept a prisoner. All high officers were executed and three common Morans became the three great Gohains. Ragh Neog became the Borbarua , a kanri paik became the Borphukan and two common Ahoms became the Gohains at Sadiya and Marangi. The rebel leaders went to pay homage to

6943-471: The Morans led by Ragh Neog, Naharkhora Saikia and his two wives Radha and Rukmini, promised the throne to three exiled Ahom princes (Mohanmala Gohain, and two sons of Rajeswar Singha ) and with their help liberated the territory north of the Burhidihing river. On November 21, 1769 the rebels occupied the Ahom capital and placed Ramakanta, son of Naharkhora, on the throne. All high offices were thrown open to

7074-548: The Shiva temple, Biswanath Doul originally built during reign of Swargadeo Pratap Singha, near the location of the legendary Gupta Kashi. Swargadeo Siva Singha also built the Purvashankar and Umadevi temples in 1741 C. E. Siba Singha was a staunch Shakta and was greatly influenced by the Brahmin priests and astrologers. In 1722, his spiritual guides and astrologers predicted that his rule would shortly come to end in near future, due to

7205-645: The State religion. With this objective, she ordered the Vaishnava Gosains to worship the goddess Durga. She then forbade the worship of other deities and personally supervised the act of desecration of the Sonarijan camp. Learning that the Sudra Mahantas were strong Vaishnavites and opposed animal sacrifice, she held a Durga puja in the capital Rangpur and forced Moamoria and several other Gosains to offer oblations to

7336-442: The abbot of Mayamara Satra, which was the source of unity among the rebels. Heavy penalty was imposed on the royalist satras, also they were forced to pay homage to the Mayamara abbot. The rebels, inexperienced in statecraft, failed to usher in a new order. Instead, they began imitating the unpopular practices of their erstwhile leaders. Raghav Moran seized the wives and daughters of many nobles and kept them in his harem. As some of

7467-400: The arbitrator who settled local disputes and supervised public works. The Katakis were envoys who dealt with foreign countries and hill tribes. The Kakatis were writers of official documents. The Dolais expounded astrology and determined auspicious time and dates for any important event and undertaking. Members of the royal families ruled certain areas, and they were called Raja . Members of

7598-406: The barter economy was in the process of being replaced by the money economy, which was the outcome of Assam's developing economic ties both with feudal India and the neighbouring countries of the north east. Due to trade with Tibet, a coin of Jayadhwaj Singha carries a single Chinese character on each side reading Zang Bao. This had been translated as 'treasury of your honour'. Nicholas Rodhes read

7729-446: The burning of Buranjis . Rajeswar Singha's reign marked the end of Ahom supremacy and glory, the signs were decay was already visible during his reign. He was succeeded by his younger brother Lakshmi Singha alias Sunyeophaa ( r.  1769–1780 ). The Ahom kingdom by the mid-18th century was indeed an over-burdened hierarchical structure, supported by a weak institutional base and meagre economic surplus. The Paik system which in

7860-470: The changing economy and the emerging social classes. The rise of the sattras was one of the reason for the leakage of manpower from the Paik system, and as a result the Ahom kingdom and the sattras came into increasing conflict. Moamara sattra belonged to the non-conformist Kala-samhati sect that competed against the royalist sattras belonging to other sects. The Ahom kingdom watched the growth of this sattra with discomfort and heaped insult and repression on

7991-419: The clan allegiances that held the Ahom polity together earlier replacing it with political authority of the king, and introduced the tradition of the singarigharutha ceremony, the state coronation of the Ahom kings that symbolised royal Ahom sovereignty, authority and legitimacy. Sudangphaa settled Habung brahmins close his capital, settled the sons of his adopted Brahmin family in frontier areas, dismantled

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8122-400: The conflict with a treaty that fixed the boundary between the two polities at Patkai . This event was significant since it moved the Ahom polity from implicit subordination to explicit sovereignty, and this was accompanied by the transition of the name of the polity from Mong-Dun-Sun-Kham to "Assam", a derivative from Shan / Shyam . Sudangphaa established a new capital at Charagua, broke

8253-415: The consequences of chatra-bhanga-yoga . That he not only made many lavish presents to various temples and the Brahmins, in hope of conciliating the gods and averting the calamity but also endeavor to satisfy the alleged decree of fate by a subterfuge that greatly diminished his prestige in the eyes of his people. Therefore at the suggestion of Parvatiya Gosain, consented to endow his chief queen Phuleshwari ,

8384-413: The country was depopulated... The scattered rebels and Dafla-Bahatias organised themselves and placed them under the leadership of one Harihar Tanti and rose to revolt at Japaribhita. The rebels were joined by several hill tribes. They broke out in rebellion in 1786, from the foot of Daphla Hills . The rebels defeated the royalist force at Garaimari bil and other places. The rebels then freed Pitambar,

8515-447: The economic state of Ahoms was based. This compelled the state to move on money-economy. The rebellion ended indecisively with both the sides completely ruined, the country was fanatically depopulated. The population came down to one-half of what it was before and economic life was totally disrupted. Swarnalata Baruah (1985) states: The Moamariya rebellion was a rebellion of the people against the existing government and those who disfavoured

8646-402: The end of Suhungmung's reign, the size of the kingdom had effectively doubled. These expansions created significant changes in the kingdom—the Assamese-speaking Hinduized subjects outnumbered the Ahoms themselves; and the absorption of the Chutia kingdom meant a wide range of artisan skills became available to it increasing the scope for division of labour. To provide legitimacy to the rule of

8777-413: The end of the Battle of Saraighat , the Ahoms not only fended off a major Mughal invasion but extended their boundaries west, up to the Manas river . The western border was fixed at Manas river after the Battle of Itakhuli , which remained the same till the annexation by the British. Following the Battle of Saraighat , the kingdom fell straight under ten years of political disorder. During this period

8908-572: The erection of many temples and made numerous grants to the religious sites and brahmanas. He died in 1744, and his younger brother Pramatta Singha was set up on the throne setting aside the claims of Siva Singha's son. Pramatta Singha alias Sunenphaa ( r.  1744–1751 ), nothing of importance is recorded during his reign. He had erected the Rang Ghar with masonry and built the Sukreswar and Rudreswar temples in North–Guwahati. During his reign, Kirti Chandra Borbarua gained much of his political influence. In 1744, he received an ambassador from

9039-467: The first wife of king Siva Singha built three temples – Shiva Dol, Vishnu Dol and Devi Dol – on the bank of a big tank covering an area of 293 acres (1.19 km) including the banks. This big tank was dedicated in the name of 'Gauri' or ' Durga ', thus it is known as Gaurisagar tank and the entire place is now known as Gaurisagar. She also had dug the Borpatra tank at Kalugaon beside the historical Jerenga Pathar in memory of her brother who happened to be

9170-408: The followers of the Moamaria sattra that was predominantly Morans (the mainstay of the Ahom militia), but there were also the Sonowal Kacharis (gold-washers), Chutias (expert archers and matchlockmen), professional castes such as Hiras (potters), Tantis (weavers), Kaibartas (fishermen), Bania (artisans) and Ahom nobles and officers. The rising popularity of Moamoria sattra had siphoned off

9301-463: The followers of this sattra. The Moamoria Rebellion started during the reign of Swargadeo Lakshmi Singha and ended during the reign of Swargadeo Kamaleswar Singha . It continued up to 36 years, from 1769 to 1805. In the course of time, the Moamoria guru compromised with the Ahom rulers and the rebels drew inspiration from magico-religious cult of night worshipers, a mixture of tribal fertility rites and Tantrism . Srimanta Sankardeva established

9432-483: The goddess and smeared sacrificial blood on their foreheads. The Moamarias never forgave this insult to their spiritual leader and it became one of the prime reasons that they broke out in an open rebellion about half a century later, which came to be known as the Moamoria rebellion . Phuleshwari in 1731 died while giving birth. The king then married her sister Draupadi, and made her the Bar Raja, after which she assumed

9563-478: The growing power of Vaisnava Satras . Alongside he made support, provisions of Paiks , and land grants to the Brahman Satras as well. During Siba Singha's reign, the chief public works were the construction of Dhai Ali and the tanks and temples at Gaurisagar, Sibsagar and Kalugaon. About 8 miles (13 km) southwest of Sivasagar town by the side of what is now National Highway-37, Bar Raja Phuleswari Konwari,

9694-488: The help of the descendants of the Habungia Brahmans settled during Sudangpha's time ). The Indo-Aryan Bhuyans were relocated to the capital and absorbed into the lower echelons of the growing state as scribes and warriors. They in turn helped in the elimination of the royalty of the advanced Chutia kingdom in 1523; and that kingdom's nobility, commanders, professional classes, warriors and technologies were absorbed into

9825-399: The hills and neighbouring Kingdoms, this had an adverse effect on the production system and the economy was on the verge of collapse . The massacres were finally suspended at the request of the courtiers The waters of the rivers could not be drunk and people could not walk along the roads. Even the water and fish of the Brahmaputra became tainted with the stinking smell of corpses. Half of

9956-417: The inhabitants of Darrang as a result of entry of refugees from Eastern Assam and their plundering activities caused them to protest. This was supported by the inhabitants of Kamrup who had been subjected to humiliation. Gaurinath Singha from Guwahati sailed down to Nagaon due to the underlying rebellious activities of Darrangi prince Krishnananrayan. Here the exploitation of the local inhabitants by

10087-410: The initiation of Parvatiya Gosain and established him 'Nilachal mountain' with extensive land grants and paiks. Siva Singha was very much under the influence of Brahmanas and astrologers, 1722 it was predicted by the astrologers that his reign would soon come to a end owing to the evil influence of Chatra–bhanga–yoga . Therefore, he transferred the royal umbrella and throne to his wife Phuleshwari who

10218-580: The inscription as 'Currency of Tibet', Also these two characters were used by the Chinese in Lhasa between 1792 and 1836 with the meaning 'Tibetan currency. Furthermore, there was a significant contact between China and Tibet in the mid-seventeen century, so it is not unlikely that the Assamese would have thought have thought that a Chinese character was an appropriate for Assamese-Tibetan trade coin. This piece evidently

10349-700: The institution of Buranji writing, a practice of historiography rare in India. In the late medieval era, the Ahom kingdom was known to be a kaghazi raj (a kingdom with records) just as the Mughal Empire was. At the time of their advent, the Ahoms came with advanced technologies of rice cultivation, and it was their belief that they were divinely ordained to turn fallow land to agriculture and also to absorb stateless and shifting agriculturists to their own ways. The shifting people were called kha and many such kha people were ceremonially adopted into different Ahom clans,

10480-473: The king again. This movement too had the signs of a popular uprising. The main weapons used by the rebels were bamboo staves and clubs, and their slogan was praja-oi joroiroa, chekani-oi sopai dhora ("Ye oppressed subjects, hold your stave close"), and this uprising was called chekani kubua ron ("The war of the staves"). In one of the engagements, the Borpatrogohain and the Dhekial Phukan were killed, and

10611-407: The king and the two counsellors held each other in check and balance. These institutions of checks and balances thus seeded held fast for six hundred years—in the 18th century John Peter Wade, a British officer, observed these unique institutions and novel system of government. Sukaphaa had instructed that events during his rule be chronicled, a practice sustained by his successors; and there emerged

10742-545: The king of Twipra . He died in 1751. Rajeswar Singha alias Supremphaa ( r.  1751–1759 ), he was put on the throne by Kirti Chandra Borbarua by setting aside the claims of seniority of his elder brother Barjana Gohain . Rajeswar Singha had erected the most number of temples among the Ahom Kings, he was an orthodox Hindu and took initiation of Nati–Gosian (a relative of Pravatiya Gosain). In 1765, he sent an expedition to Manipur whose king Jay Singha made an appeal to

10873-503: The kingdom was without a king. Sudangphaa Bamuni Konwar ( r.  1397–1407 ), born and raised in a Brahmin household in Habung , was identified as a descendant of a past king and installed on the throne by the Burhaohain and Borgohain to end the period of crisis. He established Brahmin officers, advisors and communities near the capital and the Brahmin influence, though negligible,

11004-569: The most influential Brahmana Sattradhikar ) but later in his life he got inclined towards Shaktism , considering it to be more suitable for a monarch, he invited a famous Sakta Brahmana from Bengal–Krishnaram Bhattacharya alias Pravatiya Gosain. From his death bed he expressed his will that, all his five sons to be kings in an executive manner and advised them to take initiation of Parvatiya Gosain Siva Singha alias Sutanphaa ( r.  1714–1744 ), he dropped his father's plan to invade Benagal. He took

11135-506: The most notable under Bor Roja Phuleshwari Kunwonri during the reign of Siva Singha . This unresolved conflict finally exploded into the Moamoria rebellion in the 18th century that so weakened the Ahom kingdom that it collapsed in the 19th century. Kirti Chandra Borbarua , a prominent noble, heaped insults and indignities upon the Mayamra abbot Astabhuj and particularly his son Gagini Deka, goaded

11266-487: The name of Ambika . Ambika had constructed the famous Sivasagar Siva doul , at her patronage, the famous manuscript on elephantry Hastividyarnava was composed. She died in 1738. Then Siva Singha then married Endari or Akari-Gabharu, whom he made the Bar Raja, with the name of Sarbeswari . The two successors of Phuleshwari , Ambika and Sarbeswri wielded the same authority and power as her, but were however not as energetic as their predecessor in patronizing Saktism . It

11397-541: The needs for resources and paiks when the need arose, as during the time of war. There were in total 15 vassal states. Moamoria rebellion The Moamoria rebellion (1769–1805) was an 18th-century uprising in Ahom kingdom of present-day Assam that began as power struggle between the Moamorias ( Mataks ), the adherents of the Mayamara Sattra , and the Ahom kings . This uprising spread widely to other sections of Ahom kingdom including disgruntled elements of

11528-411: The nobles exercised immense power, and seven kings were put on the throne and deposed. In the meantime, Kamrup went back in the hands of Mughals for a few years. Gadadhar Singha ( r.  1682–1696 ) established the 'Tungkhungia rule' in Assam, which continued to remain in power till the end of the kingdom. In 1682, the Mughals were defeated in the Battle of Itakhul , and Manas river was fixed as

11659-732: The nobles tended to him on his deathbed. He was succeeded by Charing Raja, who assumed the name of Pramatta Singha and the Ahom name of Sunenphaa after ascending to the throne. Ahom kingdom The Ahom kingdom ( Ahom : 𑜒𑜑𑜪𑜨, ahüm ; Assamese : আহোম), or the Kingdom of Assam ( / ˈ ɑː h ɔː m / , 1228–1826) was a late medieval kingdom in the Brahmaputra Valley (present-day Assam ) that retained its independence for nearly 600 years despite encountering Mughal expansion in Northeast India . Established by Sukaphaa ,

11790-425: The north bank (Uttarkul), the south bank (Dakhinkul), and the island of Majuli . The north bank (Uttarkul) was more populated and fertile but the Ahom kings set up their capital on the south bank (Dakinkul) because it had more inaccessible strongholds and defensible central places. From 1500 to 1770 A.D., one comes across definite signs of demographic growth in the region. There was terrible depopulation In course of

11921-532: The old nobility in disguise killed Ragha on April 14, 1770 with the help of Kuranganayani , an Ahom queen from Manipur , and retook the capital. In the purge that followed, Ramakanta the rebel king, Naharkhora, Radha, Rukmini, Astabhujdev, the Moamara sattradhikar and his son Saptabhuj were all executed. After the capital was recaptured the remaining rebel forces in Sagunmuri under Govinda Gaoburha attempted to overthrow

12052-421: The people, living under the tract controlled by Burhagohain. The Upper Assam razed by continuous battles and disorder, cultivation suffered, there occurred a very terrible famine– the severest in Assam's history . The rebels gradually extended their control up to Dergaon , they couldn't capture the strongholds of royalist at Dichoi fort. The rebels extended their control over large tracts of areas, but no attempt

12183-442: The people. The peasants of Rangpur and Garhgaon secretly began organizing themselves. They planned to launch a surprise attack owing to their less strength. In one night of April 1782, in the festive atmosphere of bohag bihu , when the new King Gaurinath Singha had also completed his coronation celebrations. The rebels mixed with the royal attendants and torch bearers and under the veil of darkness launched their quest for killing

12314-497: The population toward the end. People from different ethnic groups became a part of the Ahom population due to the process known as Ahomisation . The identity of the Ahom people in this kingdom was fluid, with the king controlling who belonged to it and who did not. The Ahoms initially called their kingdom Mong Dun Shun Kham till 1401 ( Assamese : xunor-xophura ; English: casket of gold ), but adopted Assam in later times. The British-controlled province after 1838 and later

12445-554: The power of Mong Mao faded to be replaced the power of Mong Kwang, at which point the Ahoms stopped the tributes. The Ahoms began to call their domain Mong Dun Sun Kham ("a country of golden gardens"). Though Sukaphaa had avoided the Namdang region mindful of the numerically small Ahom contingent, but his son Suteuphaa made the Kacharis withdraw on their own via a stratagem and the Ahoms expanded into it; but no further expansions of

12576-407: The power of orthodox Hindu groups and Shakti sect which supported the Ahom kings. The sattras provided refuge for those seeking to escape the Paik system under which, any able-bodied person who was not a Brahmin or a noble could be used for labour, services or conscripted into the army. The Ahom kingdom was entering a crisis, as the Paik system on which the state was based was unable to adapt to

12707-426: The pre-dominant religion of the Ahoms. The king was also a patron of music and literature and music and himself composed Sanskrit songs and learnt songs. His reign coincided with the arrival of the first Europeans traders into Assam. As per the death bed injunction of Rudra Singha , he was succeeded by his eldest son Siva Singha (reigned 1714–1744). Siva Singha ascended the throne on the 20th day of Magh, and assumed

12838-445: The rebel officers took on the airs of the old nobility, many rebels were dissatisfied and, led by Govinda Gaoburha, left the capital and reached Sagunmuri. After four months of rebel regime, there came the spring festival ( bohag bihu ). The peasant soldiers who were voluntarily guarding the capital left their posts to visit their villages, so the defense of the capital got weakened and thus vulnerable. Taking advantage of this, some of

12969-569: The rebels. The rebels after many prolonged battles, marching along the Jhanji River appeared at the capital gates and surrounded Rangpur in January 1788. At this sight King Gaurinath Singha accompanied by most of his officers left for Guwahati , leaving Purnananda Burhagohain in charge. The Burhagohain too deserted Rangpur after resisting the rebels for a few days. Failed attempts were made to capture Rangpur. From Guwahati, Gaurinath Singha sent

13100-662: The reign of Siva Singha led to the Moamoria rebellion and ultimately to the eclipse of the kingdom. Sukaphaa (1228–1268) spent a couple of decades moving from place to place establishing colonies and finally settled down in Charaideo in 1253. He established the offices of the Dangarias—; the Burhagohain ( Chao-Phrungmung ) and the Borgohain ( Chao-Thaonmung ). In the 1280s, these two offices were given independent regions of control; partly hereditary and partly elected,

13231-455: The reign of Suklenmung to avoid persecution. A later king, Prataap Singha , demolished the Kalabari and Kuruabahi sattras and his successors followed a similar policy of oppression. Jayadhwaj Singha reversed this policy and his successors up to Sulikphaa Lora Roja tried to come to terms with the sattras. This policy was again reversed during the reign of Gadadhar Singha , who began persecuting

13362-467: The rightful heir of the erstwhile Kamarupa kingdom . The Ahom kingdom became more broad-based and took many features of its mature form under Pratap Singha ( r.  1603–1641 ), primarily to meet the sustained attacks from the Mughals. The Paik system was reorganized in 1609 under the professional khel system, replacing the kinship-based phoid system; and paiks could be permanently alienated to non-royal institutions via royal grants. Under

13493-805: The royal boats, the Bhitarual Phukan, the Na Phukan, the Dihingia Phukan, the Deka Phukan, and the Neog Phukan formed the council of Phukan. The Borphukan also had a similar council of six subordinate Phukans whom he was bound to consult in all matters of importance. This council included Pani Phukan, who commanded six thousand paiks , Deka Phukan who commanded four thousand paiks , the Dihingia Phukan, Nek Phukan and two Chutiya Phukans. The superintending officers were called Barua s. The Baruas of whom there were twenty or more included Bhandari Barua or treasurer;

13624-399: The royal families who occupy lower positions are given regions called mel s, and were called meldangia or melkhowa raja . Meldangia Gohain s were princes of an even lesser grade, of which there were two: Majumelia Gohain and Sarumelia Gohain . Royal ladies were given individual mel s, and by the time of Rajeshwar Singha, there were twelve of them. The most important of these was

13755-536: The royal officers caused dissension among the Nagayans and they surrounded King's camp. They demanded the dismissal of those officers whom they held for their oppression. Soon after, one Bairagi besieged on King's camp, forcing Gaurinath to flee. Gaurinath Singha appealed for foreign help, envoys were sent to neighboring countries seeking military help. Excluding the king of Manipur , all pleaded on their inability to send troops. Similarly, British help could be acquired and

13886-497: The royalist villagers of Nagaon . Five companies of royalist sepoys were dispatched, but they were somehow lured to the jungles and slaughtered. Following this year, the Ahom force defeated the combined force of Moamoria rebels and Dimasa King Krishnachandra. In 1803, a plot of revolt by the people belonging to a secret sect of the night–worshippers ( Ratikhowa ) was detected and the leading conspirators were put to death in time. Purnanada Burhagohain dispatched five companies under

14017-468: The royalist. At Pahumara they routed the troops sent by the vassal states of Rani, Luki, Beltola and Topakuchi. The rebels gradually advanced and defeated the Burhagohain at Sagunmuri, making him eventually retreat to Rangpur . The rebels got momentum to pillage villages in the vicinity of Rangpur. Attempt was made by the abbot of Dihing Satra with his disciples to repulse them but went to vain. The Ahom priests too collected bands of soldiers and fought with

14148-603: The same king, the offices of the Borphukan (viceroy of territories acquired from the Koches and the Mughals), and the Borbarua (the "secretary" of the royal government) were established to increase the number of Patra Mantris to five, along with other smaller offices. The practices of using Brahmins solely for diplomatic missions, the Ahom kings adopting a Hindu name in addition to their Ahom names, and patronising Hindu establishments began with Pratap Singha, though formal initiation of

14279-497: The sattras. His son, Rudra Singha tried to isolate the more liberal—and thus most threatening to the Ahom state—of the non-Brahmin sattras by encouraging the Brahmin sattras. When he realized this policy was not bearing fruit, he initiated a policy to accord state support to saktism, the historical and theological bete noire of the Mahapuruxiya dharma, to contain further sattra influence. This led to more persecutions,

14410-506: The service of a thousand additional paiks from the Jakaichuk village. The Borbarua and the Borphukan had military and judicial responsibilities, and they were aided by two separate councils ( sora ) of Phukans . The Borphukan's sora sat at Guwahati and the Borbarua's sora at the capital. Six of them formed the council of the Borbarua with each having his separate duties. The Naubaicha Phukan, who had an allotment of thousand men managed

14541-484: The silver earned from these trading activities. Another point by which we can understand the trade relation of Ahoms with other nations is through the use of Silver coins. It is to be noted that there are no silver mines in the northeast or in the rest of India, so the metal entered as a result of trade. In extent the kingdom's length was about 500 miles (800 km) and with an average breadth of 60 miles (96 km). The kingdom can be divided into three major regions:

14672-532: The state was taken very strictly so that every working man would be registered for the state service. The census were properly recorded in registers called paikar piyalar kakat . The following table estimates the population composition of classes, during the reign of king Rajeswar Singha (1751-1769). According to the population estimates computed by Gunabhiram Barua . population by Guha (1978) population by Bhuyan (1949) population by NPB population by Dutt (1958) There were towns, but only

14803-591: The support of the Brahmins and temples with all generosity. His court poets like Ananta Acharyya composed the Ananda Lahari and Kavichandra, the Kam-Kumar Haran Haran and the Dharma Puran at the instance of the king and his first chief queen Phuleshwari . According to Tungkhungia Buranji, Siva Singha died on Friday, the tenth of Aghon, 1666 Saka (14 December 1744). His son Tipam Raja, his four brothers, and

14934-448: The tribal allegiances that held the polity together earlier and brought the Ahom kingdom very close to a full-fledged state. The next hundred years saw the kingdom mostly suppressing rebellious Naga groups, but a conflict with the Dimasa kingdom in 1490 saw the Ahoms, not strong enough to take them on frontally, suing for peace. The Ahom royalty continuously improved their relationship with

15065-426: The villages and killing the remaining leaders; in a siege many rebels and their families died of starvation. The remaining people were then separated and settled at different places. One of the last holdouts, Nomal, was finally captured and executed. The whole process of suppression almost took one year. The purge of Moamorias that followed after the reinstatement of royalist couldn't put up flames of revenge among

15196-615: The western boundary. Gadadhar Singha came in conflict with the Vaisnava Satras who began commencing immense power and influence over the state and people, and started a wide–spread persecution of the Vaisnavites. The rule of Tungkhungia Ahom kings was marked by achievements in the Arts and engineering constructions, the Tungkhungia reigme witnessed a relative time of peace and stability till

15327-438: The whole Brahmaputra Valley, from Sadiya in the east and Sherpur on the south. Thus, the Ahom state attained the greatest territorial zenith. In 1662, Aurangzeb to bring the lost tracts and to punish the rebels elements in that quarter, launched an invasion under his chief lieutenant Mir Jumla II , in this invasion the Ahoms could not resist up well, and the Mughals occupied the capital, Garhgaon. Unable to keep it, and in at

15458-447: Was a common feature that all ancient and medieval kingdoms—such as Chutia and Kachari kingdoms—in Assam utilised for legitimacy to various degrees, the Ahoms were able to use their alternate Lengdon-based legitimacy to establish their rule and effectively negotiate with the indigenous people; nevertheless the later Tungkhungia kings veered towards Saktism and the persecution of the shudra Mahantas and their laity that began during

15589-524: Was a great patron of literature and music. His reign is considered the golden era of Assamese manuscripts, many notable manuscripts were written one of which was the Hastividyarnava which received royal patronage. Foreign musicians were invited into his country to instruct his own and the Monarch became the author of a large collection of pious songs. Siba Singha erected numerous temples and gave away land for

15720-474: Was a stalemate—and Sarbananda agreed to a peace proposal. Sarbananda was given the title of Barsenapati and given autonomous command of the Bengmara region which came to be called the Matak rajya ; and both Sarbananda and his son Matibar who followed him as Barsenapati continued to pay annual tributes to the Ahom kingdom. The Moamaria rebellion thus ended with the creation of a near-independent Matak tract ruled by

15851-402: Was an attempt by Jayadhwaj Singha to facilitate trade with Chinese knowing person coming from the direction of Tibet. Rudra Singha is also said to have established an extensive trade with Tibet and to have encouraged intercourse with other nations although he strictly limited the extent to which foreigners were allowed into the country. Presumably, some of the coins of his reign were struck with

15982-472: Was between Sadiya and Gerelua river in the north bank of the Brahmaputra river and the Borgohain's territory was to the west up to the Burai river. They were given total command over the paiks that they controlled. These positions were generally filled from specific families. Princes who were eligible for the position of Swargadeo were not considered for these positions and vice versa. In the 1527, Suhungmung added

16113-436: Was during his reign that Hinduism became the predominant religion among Ahoms , and those who persisted in holding old tribal beliefs and customs came to be regarded as a separate degraded class. He made numerous temples and made large-number of land grants to Brahmanas, so that out of 48 copper plates recording land grants by all Ahom kings 19 of them belonged to him. He made an attempt to use Saktism as an counterforce against

16244-471: Was felt for the first time. A number of rebellions erupted purportedly against this influence but Sudangphaa was able to suppress them and solidify his rule. One of the rebels invited a military expedition from Mong Kwang (called Nara in the Buranjis, the successor state of Mong Mao to which the early Ahom kings used to send tribute) resulting in a clash in 1401—but Sudangphaa defeated the expedition and concluded

16375-507: Was given the title of 'Bar–Raja' on the advice of Pravatiya Gosain. Phuleswari melded too much with the religious affairs, she had caused the insult of the Shudra–Mahantas. After the death of Phuleswari, two other wives of Siva Singha were set on the position of 'Bar–Raja', namely Ambika and Sarbeswari. Siva Singha reign was peaceful, except an expedition sent against the Daflas, he had caused

16506-490: Was kept immune from the rebels. Purnananda Burhagohain erected a series of earthen rampart known to the rebels as Bibudhi garh, from here the royalist conducted the war-operations. The continuous set-back left the royalist camp demoralised The rebellion of Moamorias inspired people from different parts of the country to rise up against Ahom government as result of it brought breakdown of khel-system and it became effectively hard to recruit soldiers. The discontentment among

16637-498: Was made to establish a centralised administration by the rebel leaders. The captured region was locally administered with Harihar Tanti in the north bank of the Brahmaputra , Howha ruling Majuli , Sarbananada Singha ruling the Moran tracts from Bengmara (present-day Tinsukia ). Bharat was made the king. Coins were struck regularly in Bharat's and Sarbananda's names. Territory up to Ladoigarh

16768-474: Was on top of the Nilachal hill. Siva Singha accepted him as the royal priest and made a large number of land grants to temples and Brahmin priests. Siva Singha is said to have established such an elaborate system of espionage during his reign that he had accurate information of everything that was done or spoken in the kingdom. There was no war in his reign, except in January 1717 there was an expedition against

16899-454: Was particularly significant till the 16th century when under Suhungmung , the kingdom made large territorial expansions at the cost of the Chutiya and the Kachari kingdoms. At this initial stage the kingdom was still not fully sovereign. Sukaphaa sent his word of allegiance and tributes to Mong Mao , a practice that was continued by some of his successors till about the early 14th century when

17030-562: Was recaptured by the rebels. The affairs in Guwahati too degraded, and the Barkandazes renewed their depredations. Gaurinath retreated to Dichoi, to the strongholds of Purnananda Burhagohain , where he died soon. Following the death of Gaurinath, the Burhagohain became the de facto ruler of the Ahom state. He placed his own nominee to the Ahom throne, Kinaram . This experience and the military display by Thomas Welsh and his troops encouraged

17161-518: Was still used at the time of the British occupation . This contained a list of all occupied lands, except homesteads with their areas, and particularly of all rent free estates. It was recorded that in 1739, four Europeans, whose names appear to have been Bill, Godwin, Lister, and Mill, visited King Siva Singha at Rangpur . The king met them at the principal gate of the city where, it is said, they did him homage by falling prostrate at his feet. Siva Singha

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