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60-513: It is the best-preserved medieval royal residence in Portugal, being inhabited more or less continuously from at least the early 15th century to the late 19th century. It is a significant tourist attraction, and is part of the cultural landscape of Sintra, a designated UNESCO World Heritage Site . It was one of two castles at what is now Sintra in the Moorish Al-Andalus era that began with

120-467: A chapel, kitchens, quarters for the affairs of state, scribs, secretary and dispatches, along with this the palace had 26 rooms including: John I's son, Duarte I , was very fond of the palace and stayed long periods here. He left a written description of the palace that is very valuable in understanding the development and use of the building, and confirms that much of the palace built by his father has not changed much since its construction. Another sign of

180-408: A cultural group. Culture is the agent, the natural area is the medium, the cultural landscape is the result" Since Schlüter's first formal use of the term, and Sauer's effective promotion of the idea, the concept of 'cultural landscapes has been variously used, applied, debated, developed and refined within academia. In the 1950s, for instance, J.B. Jackson and his publication 'Landscape' influenced

240-625: A generation of particularly American scholars, including architectural historians Denise Scott Brown , and Gwendolyn Wright . By 1992, the World Heritage Committee elected to convene a meeting of the 'specialists' to advise and assist redraft the Committee's Operational Guidelines to include 'cultural landscapes' as an option for heritage listing properties that were neither purely natural nor purely cultural in form (i.e. 'mixed' heritage). The World Heritage Committee's adoption and use of

300-550: A severe case of claustrophobia , and he was never again comfortable living within a walled building. Consequently, he moved the royal court to an extensive complex of tents in the hills of Ajuda . The Project for the Royal Palace in Campo de Ourique was an ambitious palatial complex planned for the Campo de Ourique neighborhood of Lisbon, but later abandoned due to a lack of impetus from

360-516: A significant and continuous contribution to research into plant diversity and economic botany. "The 18th- and 19th-century cultural landscape of Dresden Elbe Valley ... features low meadows, and is crowned by the Pillnitz Palace and the centre of Dresden with its numerous monuments and parks from the 16th to 20th centuries. The landscape also features 19th- and 20th-century suburban villas and gardens and valuable natural features." This landscape

420-405: A source is by Arab geographer Al-Bakri . In the 12th century the village was conquered by King Afonso Henriques , who took the 'Sintra Palace' castle for his use. The blend of Gothic , Manueline , Moorish , and Mudéjar styles in the present palace is, however, mainly the result of building campaigns in the 15th and early 16th centuries. Nothing built during Moorish rule or during the reign of

480-569: A walled building ever again. Afterwards, Joseph moved his court into a series of tents. A new palace was built for him in Lisbon in the aftermath of the earthquake, but this was left uncompleted. Joseph died in 1777 and was succeeded by his eldest daughter, Queen Dona Maria I. Joseph was the third child of King John V of Portugal and his wife Maria Anna of Austria . He had an older brother Pedro, Prince of Brazil , an older sister Barbara and three younger brothers. When his brother Pedro died in 1714 at

540-428: Is a rich cultural landscape that bears exceptional testimony to millennia of human occupation." "The Lavaux vineyard landscape demonstrates in a highly visible way its evolution and development over almost a millennium, through the well preserved landscape and buildings that demonstrate a continuation and evolution of longstanding cultural traditions, specific to its locality." Kuk Early Agricultural Site ( Kuk Swamp )

600-540: Is a term used in the fields of geography , ecology , and heritage studies , to describe a symbiosis of human activity and environment. As defined by the World Heritage Committee , it is the "cultural properties [that] represent the combined works of nature and of man" and falls into three main categories: The concept of 'cultural landscapes' can be found in the European tradition of landscape painting . From

660-580: Is decorated in geometrically patterned Moorish latticework. Much of the palace dates from the times of John I , who sponsored a major building campaign starting around 1415. Most buildings surround the central courtyard – called the Ala Joanina (John's Wing) – date from this campaign, including the main building of the façade with the entrance arches and the mullioned windows in Manueline and Moorish styles called biforas . The building contains terraces,

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720-539: Is located in the western highlands of Papua New Guinea, at 1500m and covering 116ha. Kuk is one of the few places in the world where archaeological evidence suggests independent agricultural development, with the wetlands preserving archaeological evidence of agricultural practices stretch back 10000 years. "The West Lake Cultural Landscape of Hangzhou , comprising the West Lake and the hills surrounding its three sides, has inspired famous poets, scholars and artists since

780-468: Is regarded as a cultural landscape. In a sense this understanding is broader than the definition applied within UNESCO, including, as it does, almost the whole of the world's occupied surface, plus almost all the uses, ecologies, interactions, practices, beliefs, concepts, and traditions of people living within cultural landscapes. Following on this, geographer Xoán Paredes defines cultural landscape as: "...

840-534: Is the country's largest protected area (82 thousand hectares). A significant part of it is Biosphere Reserve and a quarter of its area enjoys international protection under the Ramsar Convention on the conservation of wetlands. The Matobo Hills area exhibits a profusion of distinctive rock landforms rising above the granite shield that covers much of Zimbabwe. The large boulders provide abundant natural shelters and have been associated with human occupation from

900-414: Is useful for the sustainable management and conservation of heritage. Adopting a cultural landscape perspective can interlink individual aspects of cultural heritage, such as historic buildings, regional material resources, and vernacular construction techniques, into a unified notion of identity and place. This can unify tangible and intangible heritage, expose risks within complex system dynamics, and draw

960-581: The Exchange of the Princesses . Mariana Victoria loved music and hunting, just like her husband, but she was also a serious woman who disapproved of Joseph's love affairs and did not hesitate to expose them to acquaintances. They had four daughters, all born before Joseph ascended the throne. Joseph succeeded to the Portuguese throne in 1750, when he was 36 years old, and almost immediately placed effective power in

1020-667: The Umayyad conquest of Hispania in the 8th century. The other, now known as the Castelo dos Mouros (Castle of the Moors), located atop a high hill overlooking modern Sintra, is now a romantic ruin. The castle now known as Sintra National Palace, located downhill from the Castelo dos Mouros , was the residence of the Islamic Moorish Taifa of Lisbon rulers of the region. The earliest mention in

1080-549: The Urlandschaft (transl. original landscape) or landscape that existed before major human induced changes and the Kulturlandschaft (transl. 'cultural landscape') a landscape created by human culture. The major task of geography was to trace the changes in these two landscapes. It was Carl O. Sauer , a human geographer , who was probably the most influential in promoting and developing the idea of cultural landscapes. Sauer

1140-465: The 16th century onwards, many European artists painted landscapes in favor of people, diminishing the people in their paintings to figures subsumed within broader, regionally specific landscapes. The word " landscape " itself combines "land" with a verb of Germanic origin, "scapjan/schaffen" to mean, literally, "shaped lands". Lands were then considered shaped by natural forces, and the unique details of such landshaffen (shaped lands) became themselves

1200-413: The 18th to 20th centuries. Kew Gardens is home to botanic collections (conserved plants, living plants, and documents) that are of global historical significance and continue to be used today, this includes a herbarium collection with over 8.5 million preserved plant and fungal specimens. The living collections within the gardens cover over 27000 taxa. Since their creation in 1759, the gardens have made

1260-402: The 1940s, it was restored by architect Raul Lino , who tried to return it to its former splendour by adding old furniture from other palaces and restoring the tile panels. It has been an important historical tourist attraction ever since. 38°47′52″N 9°23′27″W  /  38.79778°N 9.39083°W  / 38.79778; -9.39083 Cultural landscape Cultural landscape

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1320-491: The 9th century. It comprises numerous temples, pagodas, pavilions, gardens and ornamental trees, as well as causeways and artificial islands." Qhapaq Ñan is an extensive Inca communication, trade and defense network of roads covering 30,000  km. Constructed by the Incas over several centuries and partly based on pre-Inca infrastructure, this extraordinary network through one of the world's most extreme geographical terrains linked

1380-567: The Coats-of-Arms Room ( Sala dos Brasões ) (1515–1518), with a magnificent wooden coffered domed ceiling decorated with 72 coats-of-arms of the King and the main Portuguese noble families. The coat-of-arms of the Távora family was however removed after their conspiracy against King Joseph I . According to one source, "this new confidant style encompassed Gothic, Renaissance and Mudéjar influences which

1440-728: The Portuguese minister, the Marquis of Pombal, refused, and with the assistance of Count Lippe and the English General Burgoyne broke the offensive of the Spanish invading army. D'Aranda , the Spanish General, was forced to retreat in disgrace. With the utter failure of the Spanish war machine everywhere, all the hopes which Choiseul [French Foreign Minister] had placed on the Spanish alliance vanished. 'Had I known', he wrote, 'what I now know, I should have been very careful to cause to enter

1500-449: The Portuguese royal family and a prioritization of other reconstruction efforts. The capital was eventually rebuilt at great cost, and an equestrian statue of King Joseph still dominates the Praça do Comércio , Lisbon's main plaza. With Joseph's death on 24 February 1777, the throne passed to his daughter, Queen Dona Maria I, and his brother and son-in-law, King Dom Peter III. Pombal's iron rule

1560-527: The Reformer (Portuguese: o Reformador ), was King of Portugal from 31 July 1750 until his death in 1777. Among other activities, Joseph was devoted to hunting and the opera. His government was controlled by Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal . The third child and second son of King John V , Joseph became his father's heir as an infant when his older brother, Pedro, Prince of Brazil , died. In 1729 he married Infanta Mariana Victoria ,

1620-402: The Spanish army during the undeclared war of 1763-1777. The powerful Marquis of Pombal sought to overhaul all aspects of economic, social and colonial policy to make Portugal a more efficient contender with the other great powers of Europe, and thus enhance his own political stature. A supposed conspiracy of nobles aimed at murdering King Joseph and Pombal gave him the opportunity (some say

1680-409: The UNESCO committee also stated upon inscription, that the marine environment surrounding the archipelago should be considered for listing and the boundaries extended. The state party had not nominated this in their original application. In response to a report prepared by Greenpeace in 1998 which raised concerns on potential impacts to the site from oil exploration of the surrounding seabed, the boundary

1740-514: The World Heritage Committee, multiple specialists around the world, and nations to apply the concept of 'cultural landscapes', observed and concluded that: "Although the concept of landscape has been unhooked for some time from its original art associations ... there is still a dominant view of landscapes as an inscribed surface, akin to a map or a text, from which cultural meaning and social forms can simply be read." Within academia, any system of interaction between human activity and natural habitat

1800-614: The World Heritage List under the revised criteria describing cultural landscapes. The mountains at the heart of the park have cultural and religious significance for the Maori people and symbolize the spiritual links between this community and its environment. The park has active and extinct volcanoes, a diverse range of ecosystems and some spectacular landscapes." "This park, formerly called Uluru (Ayers Rock – Mount Olga) National Park, features spectacular geological formations that dominate

1860-407: The age of two, Joseph became heir apparent with the titles of Prince of Brazil and Duke of Braganza . On 19 January 1729, Joseph married Infanta Mariana Victoria of Spain , daughter of King Philip V of Spain and Elisabeth Farnese , and his elder sister Barbara married King Philip's son and heir, Ferdinand, Prince of Asturias (later King Ferdinand VI of Spain ). The ceremony became known as

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1920-421: The concept of 'cultural landscapes' has seen multiple specialists around the world, and many nations identifying 'cultural landscapes', assessing 'cultural landscapes', heritage listing 'cultural landscapes', managing 'cultural landscapes', and effectively making 'cultural landscapes' known and visible to the world, with very practical ramifications and challenges. A 2006 academic review of the combined efforts of

1980-422: The creation of a park blending local and exotic species of trees. Other fine dwellings, built along the same lines in the surrounding serra, created a unique combination of parks and gardens which influenced the development of landscape architecture throughout Europe". "The Ligurian coast between Cinque Terre and Portovenere is a cultural landscape of great scenic and cultural value. The layout and disposition of

2040-441: The development of a transitional Gothic - Renaissance art style, named Manueline , as well as a kind of revival of Islamic artistic influence ( Mudéjar ) reflected in the choice of polychromed ceramic tiles ( azulejos ) as a preferred decorative art form. King Manuel ordered the construction of the so-called Ala Manuelina (Manuel's Wing), to the right of the main façade, decorated with typical manueline windows. He also built

2100-464: The early Stone Age right through to early historical times, and intermittently since. They also feature an outstanding collection of rock paintings. The Matopo Hills continue to provide a strong focus for the local community, which still uses shrines and sacred places closely linked to traditional, social and economic activities. The Royal Botanic Gardens Kew ( Kew Gardens ), is a historic landscape garden which illustrates significant garden styles from

2160-544: The eldest daughter of Philip V of Spain . Joseph and Mariana Victoria had four daughters: Maria , Mariana , Doroteia , and Benedita . With the death of his father in 1750, Joseph became king of Portugal. His reign witnessed, among other things, a deadly earthquake in Lisbon in 1755 and a Spanish-French invasion of Portugal in 1762. The Lisbon earthquake allowed the Marquis of Pombal to consolidate power and also caused King Joseph to develop claustrophobia , refusing to live in

2220-539: The end of the Seven Years' War (5 May-24 November 1762). France and Spain sent an ultimatum in order to force Portugal to abandon its alliance with Great Britain and close her ports to British ships. King Joseph refused to submit and asked for British help since both Portugal and its army were in a very poor condition, mainly because of the great 1755 Lisbon earthquake . England sent a force of 7,104 men led by John Campbell, 4th Earl of Loudoun , and John Burgoyne , and also

2280-564: The end of the 18th century, Maria I redecorated and redivided the rooms of the Ala Manuelina. During the 19th century, Sintra became again a favourite spot for the kings and the Palace of Sintra was frequently inhabited. Queen Amélie of Orléans , in particular, was very fond of the palace and made several drawings of it. With the foundation of the Republic, in 1910, it became a national monument. In

2340-483: The environment modified by the human being in the course of time, the long-term combination between anthropic action on this environment and the physical constraints limiting or conditioning human activity. It is a geographical area – including natural and cultural resources – associated to historical evolution, which gives way to a recognizable landscape for a particular human group, up to the point of being identifiable as such by others." The concept of cultural landscape

2400-424: The exceptional military leader William, Count of Schaumburg-Lippe , which reformed the Portuguese army and led the allied army of 14–15,000 men in a victorious war. The Bourbon invaders first led by Nicolás de Carvajal, Marquis of Sarriá , and then by Pedro Pablo Abarca de Bolea, Count of Aranda , were thrice defeated by a combination of popular uprising, scorched earth strategy/famine and encircling movements by

2460-511: The first Portuguese kings survives. The earliest surviving part of the palace is the Royal Chapel, possibly built during the reign of Dinis I in the early 14th century. The palace chapel has a tiled floor with tiles in the apse laid to resemble a carpet. The walls are painted in patterned squares that look like tiles and depict the Holy Ghost descending in the form of a dove. The wooden ceiling

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2520-477: The focus of conservation from the protection of past fabric towards the management of future change. It can be a vehicle for people-centric approaches, which support local ownership and participation at cultural heritage sites. This paradigm aligns the management of the historic environment with contemporary attitudes to environmental management in general, which are also influenced by cultural landscape perspectives. Some universities now offer specialist degrees in

2580-461: The hands of Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo (in 1770, the king made him Marquis of Pombal ). Indeed, the history of Joseph's reign is really that of the Marquis of Pombal himself. The king's eldest daughter, Maria Francisca , became heir presumptive with the title of Princess of Brazil . One of the most difficult situations faced by the king was the Franco-Spanish invasion of Portugal, in

2640-459: The next, and the expression of sacred traditions and a delicate social balance, they have helped to create a landscape of great beauty that expresses the harmony between humankind and the environment." "In the 19th century Sintra became the first centre of European Romantic architecture. Ferdinand II turned a ruined monastery into a castle where this new sensitivity was displayed in the use of Gothic, Egyptian, Moorish and Renaissance elements and in

2700-470: The palace is that of the mentally unstable Afonso VI , who was deposed by his brother Peter II and forced to live without leaving the residence from 1676 until his death in 1683. The palace suffered damage after the 1755 Lisbon earthquake but was restored in the "old fashion", according to contemporary accounts. The biggest loss from the great earthquake was the tower over the Arab Room, which collapsed. At

2760-436: The preference for this palace is that Duarte's successor Afonso V was born (1432) and died (1481) in it. Afonso V's successor, John II , was acclaimed king of Portugal here. The other major building campaign that defined the structure and decoration of the palace was sponsored by Manuel I between 1497 and 1530, using the wealth engendered by the exploratory expeditions in this Age of Discoveries . The reign of this king saw

2820-692: The pretext) to neutralize the Távora family in the Távora affair and to expel the Jesuits in September 1759, thus gaining control of public education and a wealth of church lands and ushering Portugal into the Age of the Enlightenment . Joseph's reign is also noteworthy for the Lisbon earthquake , firestorm and tsunami of 1 November 1755, in which between 30,000 and 40,000 people died. The earthquake caused Joseph to develop

2880-448: The property should be listed for a cultural criterion (relating to traditional human settlement), stating that “the St. Kilda archipelago corresponds perfectly to the definition of a cultural and natural property whose value should be taken into consideration in an evaluation complementary to that of IUCN”, however this was not executed by UNESCO. IUCN commented in their initial evaluation, and

2940-529: The regular Anglo-Portuguese troops, which like the militia, skilfully used the mountainous terrain to their advantage. The Spanish and French troops suffered staggering losses when they were driven out from Portugal and chased into Spain. As synthesized by historian Walter Dorn: … Effort of the Bourbon powers to set up the beginnings of a 'continental system' by sending a summons to Portugal to close her ports to British ships and exclude Englishmen from Brazil trade. But

3000-488: The small towns and the shaping of the surrounding landscape, overcoming the disadvantages of a steep, uneven terrain, encapsulate the continuous history of human settlement in this region over the past millennium." Hortobágy National Park is the largest continuous natural grassland in Europe, which means that it was not formed as a result of deforestation or river control. The first Hungarian national park (established in 1973), it

3060-453: The snow-capped peaks of the Andes – at an altitude of more than 6,000 m – to the coast, running through hot rainforests, fertile valleys, and absolute deserts. It reached its maximum expansion in the 15th century when it spread across the length and breadth of the Andes. The Qhapac Ñan, Andean Road System includes 273 component sites spread over more than 6,000  km that were selected to highlight

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3120-423: The social, political, architectural and engineering achievements of the network, along with its associated infrastructure for trade, accommodation, and storage, as well as sites of religious significance. Joseph I of Portugal Dom Joseph I ( Portuguese : José Francisco António Inácio Norberto Agostinho , Portuguese pronunciation: [ʒuˈzɛ] ; 6 June 1714 – 24 February 1777), known as

3180-474: The study of cultural landscapes, including, for instance, the Universities of Naples, St.-Étienne, and Stuttgart who offer a Master of Cultural Landscapes diploma. The World Heritage Committee has identified and listed a number of areas or properties as cultural landscapes of universal value to humankind, including the following: "In 1993 Tongariro National Park , became the first property to be inscribed on

3240-399: The subject of 'landscape' paintings. Geographer Otto Schlüter is credited with having first formally used “cultural landscape” as an academic term in the early 20th century. In 1908, Schlüter argued that by defining geography as a Landschaftskunde (landscape science) this would give geography a logical subject matter shared by no other discipline. He defined two forms of landscape:

3300-571: The vast red sandy plain of central Australia. Uluru, an immense monolith, and Kata Tjuta, the rock domes located west of Uluru, form part of the traditional belief system of one of the oldest human societies in the world. The traditional owners of Uluru-Kata Tjuta are the Anangu Aboriginal people." "For 2,000 years, the high rice fields of the Ifugao have followed the contours of the mountains. The fruit of knowledge handed down from one generation to

3360-542: The war a power which by its feebleness can only ruin and destroy France'. In South America, the war ended in a draw; the Portuguese took territory from Spain (most of the Rio Negro Valley ) and defeated a Spanish invasion of Mato Grosso , while Spain conquered Colónia do Sacramento and the vast territory of Rio Grande do Sul (1763). The Treaty of Paris (1763) restored the status quo ante bellum . The rich and huge territory of Rio Grande do Sul would be retaken from

3420-457: Was determined to stress the agency of culture as a force in shaping the visible features of the Earth's surface in delimited areas. Within his definition, the physical environment retains a central significance, as the medium with and through which human cultures act. His classic definition of a 'cultural landscape' reads as follows: "The cultural landscape is fashioned from a natural landscape by

3480-437: Was extended in 2004/5 and the property was additionally listed for a further natural criterion (relating to ecological processes). As part of the relisting process, it was re-nominated for two cultural criteria, recommended for listing by ICOMOS, and this time inscribed by UNESCO in 2005 and designated as an 'organically evolved relict cultural landscape'. "Overlaying the spectacular natural landscape and giving scale to it all,

3540-454: Was later named after the King – Manueline". King Manuel also redecorated most rooms with polychromed tiles specially made for him in Seville . These multicoloured azulejo tile panels bear Mudéjar motifs. In the following centuries the palace continued to be inhabited by kings from time to time, gaining new decoration in the form of paintings, tile panels and furniture. A sad story associated with

3600-570: Was struck from the World Heritage list in 2009, due to the construction of a four lane highway across the Elbe The archipelago of St Kilda in the Outer Hebrides of Scotland was originally inscribed as a natural heritage site in 1986 following recommendation by IUCN, due to its superlative natural features and habitats for rare and endangered species of birds. ICOMOS also recommended in 1986 that

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