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47-675: The term was coined in 1953 by the linguist Samuel Martin from the Greek ξένος ( xénos , 'foreign'); Martin called these borrowings "Sino-Xenic dialects". Limited borrowing from Chinese into Vietnamese and Korean occurred during the Han dynasty . During the Tang dynasty (618–907), Chinese writing, language and culture were imported wholesale into Vietnam, Korea and Japan. Scholars in those countries wrote in Literary Chinese and were thoroughly familiar with

94-615: A PhD in Japanese Linguistics under Bernard Bloch . He completed his dissertation on Japanese morphophonemics in 1950 (published as a monograph by the Linguistic Society of America the following year), and was immediately offered a position at Yale University, where he remained until his retirement in 1994. He was made professor of Far Eastern Linguistics in 1962, and chaired both the Department of East and South Asian Languages and

141-490: A detailed description of both 20th-century Korean and Middle Korean morphemes , making it a valuable tool for those researching the history and structure of the Korean language. In addition to his scholarly linguistic works, Martin was interested in the teaching of East Asian languages, and he wrote a number of elementary texts and dictionaries for beginners. According to a Merriam-Webster blog called Words We're Watching , Martin

188-534: A monograph on Japanese orthography in 1952, and in 1954 he was invited by Syngman Rhee , President of South Korea, to give his ideas on the orthographic reform of the Korean script , which were published in 1954 in various Korean newspapers. In 1954 he devised the Yale romanization system for transliterating Korean, which is extensively used by linguists. During this period he also made important contributions on Chinese, producing

235-509: A monograph on the phonemes of Ancient Chinese in 1953, and an important article on Mandarin phonology in 1957. During the 1960s Martin extended his linguistic talents to studies of the Dagur language (1961), and the Shodon dialect of Ryukyuan (1970). His most famous work from this period was a 1966 article, "Lexical evidence relating Korean to Japanese", that was based on a systematic application of

282-608: A result, there are several layers of Chinese loanwords in Vietnamese. The oldest loans, roughly 400 words dating from the Eastern Han , have been fully assimilated and are treated as native Vietnamese words. Sino-Vietnamese proper dates to the early Tang dynasty, when the spread of Chinese rime dictionaries and other literature resulted in the wholesale importation of the Chinese lexicon. Isolated Chinese words also began to enter Korean from

329-419: A similar series of clicks, Lun Bawang contrasts them with plain voiced and voicelesses like /p, b, b͡p/. There are languages with two sets of contrasting obstruents that are labelled /p t k f s x …/ vs. /b d ɡ v z ɣ …/ even though there is no involvement of voice (or voice onset time) in that contrast. That happens, for instance, in several Alemannic German dialects. Because voice is not involved, this

376-608: A similar three-way division, but the voicing contrast would later disappear in the tone split that affected several languages in the Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area , including Vietnamese and most Chinese varieties. Old Japanese had only a two-way contrast based on voicing, while Middle Korean had only one obstruent at each point of articulation. The Middle Chinese final consonants were semivowels (or glides ) /j/ and /w/, nasals /m/, /n/ and /ŋ/, and stops /p/, /t/ and /k/. Sino-Vietnamese and Sino-Korean preserve all

423-691: A sound is described as "half voiced" or "partially voiced", it is not always clear whether that means that the voicing is weak (low intensity) or if the voicing occurs during only part of the sound (short duration). In the case of English, it is the latter. Juǀʼhoansi and some of its neighboring languages are typologically unusual in having contrastive partially-voiced consonants. They have aspirate and ejective consonants, which are normally incompatible with voicing, in voiceless and voiced pairs. The consonants start out voiced but become voiceless partway through and allow normal aspiration or ejection. They are [b͡pʰ, d͡tʰ, d͡tsʰ, d͡tʃʰ, ɡ͡kʰ] and [d͡tsʼ, d͡tʃʼ] and

470-454: A superscript h . When the consonants come at the end of a syllable, however, what distinguishes them is quite different. Voiceless phonemes are typically unaspirated, glottalized and the closure itself may not even be released, making it sometimes difficult to hear the difference between, for example, light and like . However, auditory cues remain to distinguish between voiced and voiceless sounds, such as what has been described above, like

517-471: A variety of linguistic topics, notably Middle Korean . In 1994, Martin was awarded the Korean government's Presidential Medal of Honor for Distinguished Cultural Contributions . In the 1950s Martin worked on issues relating to Japanese and Korean orthography and romanizations. At this time he coined the term " Sino-Xenic " in creating a common nomenclature for Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary , Sino-Korean vocabulary and Sino-Japanese vocabulary . He published

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564-405: A winner emerged, and sometimes, the final choice differed between countries. The proportion of vocabulary of Chinese origin thus tends to be greater in technical, scientific, abstract or formal language or registers . For example, Sino-Japanese words account for about 35% of the words in entertainment magazines (where borrowings from English are common), over half the words in newspapers and 60% of

611-491: Is "widely credited" with coining the term " nibling " as a gender-neutral term for a nephew or niece, by analogy with the word "sibling" (though Merriam-Webster's lexicographers had been unable to verify this directly). Voice (phonetics) Voice or voicing is a term used in phonetics and phonology to characterize speech sounds (usually consonants ). Speech sounds can be described as either voiceless (otherwise known as unvoiced ) or voiced. The term, however,

658-421: Is explained as a contrast in tenseness , called a fortis and lenis contrast. There is a hypothesis that the contrast between fortis and lenis consonants is related to the contrast between voiceless and voiced consonants. That relation is based on sound perception as well as on sound production, where consonant voice, tenseness and length are only different manifestations of a common sound feature. Symbols to

705-476: Is not the primary distinctive feature between them. Still, the classification is used as a stand-in for phonological processes, such as vowel lengthening that occurs before voiced consonants but not before unvoiced consonants or vowel quality changes (the sound of the vowel) in some dialects of English that occur before unvoiced but not voiced consonants. Such processes allow English speakers to continue to perceive difference between voiced and voiceless consonants when

752-529: Is that the various borrowings are based on different local pronunciations at different periods. Nevertheless, it is common to treat the pronunciations as developments from the categories of the Middle Chinese rime dictionaries. Middle Chinese is recorded as having eight series of initial consonants, though it is likely that no single dialect distinguished them all. Stops and affricates could also be voiced , voiceless or voiceless aspirated . Early Vietnamese had

799-453: Is used to refer to two separate concepts: For example, voicing accounts for the difference between the pair of sounds associated with the English letters ⟨s⟩ and ⟨z⟩. The two sounds are transcribed as [s] and [z] to distinguish them from the English letters, which have several possible pronunciations, depending on the context. If one places the fingers on the voice box (i.e., the location of

846-487: The chữ Nôm script used for Vietnamese until the early 20th century, some Chinese characters could represent both a Sino-Vietnamese word and a native Vietnamese word with similar meaning or sound to the Chinese word, but would often be marked with a diacritic when the native reading was intended. However, in the Korean mixed script , Chinese characters ( hanja ) are only used for Sino-Korean words. The character-based Vietnamese and Korean scripts have since been replaced by

893-608: The Adam's apple in the upper throat), one can feel a vibration while [z] is pronounced but not with [s]. (For a more detailed, technical explanation, see modal voice and phonation .) In most European languages , with a notable exception being Icelandic , vowels and other sonorants (consonants such as m, n, l, and r) are modally voiced . Yidiny has no underlyingly voiceless consonants, only voiced ones. When used to classify speech sounds, voiced and unvoiced are merely labels used to group phones and phonemes together for

940-475: The Chinese classics , which they read aloud in systematic local approximations of Middle Chinese . With those pronunciations, Chinese words entered Vietnamese, Korean and Japanese in huge numbers. The plains of northern Vietnam were under Chinese control for most of the period from 111 BC to AD 938. After independence, the country adopted Literary Chinese as the language of administration and scholarship. As

987-557: The Old Japanese vowels i 1 and e 1 while grade III is represented by i 2 and e 2 . Vietnamese, Korean and Japanese scholars also later each adapted the Chinese script to write their languages, using Chinese characters both for borrowed and native vocabulary. Thus, in the Japanese script, Chinese characters may have both Sino-Japanese readings ( on'yomi ) and native readings ( kun'yomi ). Similarly, in

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1034-664: The Vietnamese alphabet and hangul respectively, although Korean does still use Hanja to an extent. Foreign pronunciations of these words inevitably only approximated the original Chinese, and many distinctions were lost. In particular, Korean and Japanese had far fewer consonants and much simpler syllables than Chinese, and they lacked tones . Even Vietnamese merged some Chinese initial consonants (for example, several different consonants were merged into t and th while ph corresponds to both p and f in Mandarin). A further complication

1081-462: The [z] phone since /z/ is frequently devoiced, even in fluent speech, especially at the end of an utterance. The sequence of phones for nods might be transcribed as [nɒts] or [nɒdz] , depending on the presence or strength of this devoicing. While the [z] phone has articulatory voicing, the [s] phone does not have it. What complicates the matter is that for English, consonant phonemes are classified as either voiced or voiceless even though it

1128-546: The basic numerals , was borrowed over a range of periods from the Han (or earlier) to the Tang. Since the pioneering work of Bernhard Karlgren , these bodies of pronunciations have been used together with modern varieties of Chinese in attempts to reconstruct the sounds of Middle Chinese. They provide such broad and systematic coverage that the linguist Samuel Martin called them "Sino-Xenic dialects", treating them as parallel branches with

1175-453: The 1st century BC, but the main influx occurred in the 7th and 8th centuries after the unification of the peninsula by Silla . The flow of Chinese words into Korean became overwhelming after the establishment of civil service examinations in 958. Japanese has two well-preserved layers and a third that is also significant: In contrast, vocabulary of Chinese origin in Thai , including most of

1222-431: The Chinese upper and lower rising tone while the sắc and nặng tones reflect the upper and lower departing tone. Unlike northern Chinese varieties, Sino-Vietnamese places level-tone words with sonorant and glottal stop initials in the upper level ( ngang ) category. Large numbers of Chinese words were borrowed into Vietnamese, Korean and Japanese and still form a large and important part of their lexicons. In

1269-560: The Department of Linguistics. He also served as director of undergraduate studies in linguistics and director of graduate studies in East Asian languages and literatures. He was an executive fellow of Timothy Dwight College. After Martin retired from Yale University, he moved to near Vancouver, Washington , near where his wife Nancy Rendell Martin had grown up, and close to Portland, Oregon , where his daughter Norah Martin teaches philosophy. During his retirement, Martin continued research on

1316-492: The International Phonetic Alphabet have a notation for partial voicing and devoicing as well as for prevoicing : Partial voicing can mean light but continuous voicing, discontinuous voicing, or discontinuities in the degree of voicing. For example, ₍s̬₎ could be an [s] with (some) voicing in the middle and ₍z̥₎ could be [z] with (some) devoicing in the middle. Partial voicing can also be indicated in

1363-481: The Middle Chinese coda -ng yielded a nasalized vowel, which in combination with the preceding vowel has become a long vowel in modern Japanese. For example, Tōkyō 東京 , is Dōngjīng in Mandarin Chinese. Also, as Japanese cannot end words with consonants (except for moraic n ), borrowings of Middle Chinese words ending in a stop had a paragoge added so that, for example, Middle Chinese kwok ( 國 )

1410-575: The case of Japanese, the influx has led to changes in the phonological structure of the language. Old Japanese syllables had the form (C)V, with vowel sequences being avoided. To accommodate the Chinese loanwords, syllables were extended with glides as in myō , vowel sequences as in mei , geminate consonants and a final nasal, leading to the moraic structure of later Japanese. Voiced sounds ( b , d , z , g and r ) were now permitted in word-initial position, where they had previously been impossible. The influx of Chinese vocabulary contributed to

1457-404: The closure) and the duration of the closure and aspiration. English voiceless stops are generally aspirated at the beginning of a stressed syllable, and in the same context, their voiced counterparts are voiced only partway through. In more narrow phonetic transcription , the voiced symbols are maybe used only to represent the presence of articulatory voicing, and aspiration is represented with

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1504-491: The comparative method, and which advanced the hypothesis that Korean and Japanese are genetically related. He also published articles on subjects that had been very little studied until that time, such as sound symbolism in Korean (1962) and speech styles in Japan and Korea (1964). His monumental work, Reference Grammar of Japanese , was published in 1975, and together with his Japanese Language through Time (1987) are landmarks in

1551-408: The contrast is more complicated for English. The "voiced" sounds do not typically feature articulatory voicing throughout the sound. The difference between the unvoiced stop phonemes and the voiced stop phonemes is not just a matter of whether articulatory voicing is present or not. Rather, it includes when voicing starts (if at all), the presence of aspiration (airflow burst following the release of

1598-470: The development of Middle Korean tones, which are still present in some dialects. Sino-Korean words have also disrupted the native structure in which l does not occur in word-initial position, and words show vowel harmony . Chinese morphemes have been used extensively in all these languages to coin compound words for new concepts in a similar way to the use of Latin and Greek roots in English. Many new compounds, or new meanings for old phrases, were created in

1645-428: The devoicing of the former would otherwise make them sound identical to the latter. English has four pairs of fricative phonemes that can be divided into a table by place of articulation and voicing. The voiced fricatives can readily be felt to have voicing throughout the duration of the phone especially when they occur between vowels. However, in the class of consonants called stops , such as /p, t, k, b, d, ɡ/ ,

1692-524: The distinctions between final nasals and stops, like southern Chinese varieties such as Yue . Sino-Vietnamese has added allophonic distinctions to -ng and -k , based on whether the preceding vowel is front ( -nh , -ch ) or back ( -ng , -c ). Although Old Korean had a /t/ coda, words with the Middle Chinese coda /t/ have /l/ in Sino-Korean, reflecting a northern variety of Late Middle Chinese in which final /t/ had weakened to /r/. In go-on and kan-on ,

1739-418: The late 19th and early 20th centuries to name Western concepts and artifacts. The coinages, written in shared Chinese characters, have then been borrowed freely between languages. They have even been accepted into Chinese, a language usually resistant to loanwords, because their foreign origin was hidden by their written form. Often, different compounds for the same concept were in circulation for some time before

1786-480: The length of the preceding vowel. Other English sounds, the vowels and sonorants, are normally fully voiced. However, they may be devoiced in certain positions, especially after aspirated consonants, as in c o ffee , t r ee , and p l ay in which the voicing is delayed to the extent of missing the sonorant or vowel altogether. There are two variables to degrees of voicing: intensity (discussed under phonation ), and duration (discussed under voice onset time ). When

1833-466: The native Chinese dialects. The foreign pronunciations sometimes retain distinctions lost in all the modern Chinese varieties, as in the case of the chongniu distinction found in Middle Chinese rime dictionaries . Similarly, the distinction between grades III and IV made by the Late Middle Chinese rime tables has disappeared in most modern varieties, but in kan-on , grade IV is represented by

1880-429: The normal IPA with transcriptions like [ᵇb̥iˑ] and [ædᵈ̥] . The distinction between the articulatory use of voice and the phonological use rests on the distinction between phone (represented between square brackets) and phoneme (represented between slashes). The difference is best illustrated by a rough example. The English word nods is made up of a sequence of phonemes, represented symbolically as /nɒdz/ , or

1927-515: The purposes of classification. The International Phonetic Alphabet has distinct letters for many voiceless and voiced pairs of consonants (the obstruents ), such as [p b], [t d], [k ɡ], [q ɢ] . In addition, there is a diacritic for voicedness: ⟨ ◌̬ ⟩. Diacritics are typically used with letters for prototypically voiceless sounds. In Unicode , the symbols are encoded U+032C ◌̬ COMBINING CARON BELOW and U+0325 ◌̥ COMBINING RING BELOW . The extensions to

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1974-417: The sequence of /n/ , /ɒ/ , /d/ , and /z/ . Each symbol is an abstract representation of a phoneme. That awareness is an inherent part of speakers' mental grammar that allows them to recognise words. However, phonemes are not sounds in themselves. Rather, phonemes are, in a sense, converted to phones before being spoken. The /z/ phoneme, for instance, can actually be pronounced as either the [s] phone or

2021-413: The study of the grammar and history of the Japanese language. During the 1980s Martin concentrated his research activities on Middle Korean , making detailed analysis of numerous 15th and 16th century Korean texts, which he used as the basis for a database of Middle Korean linguistic structures and examples. This work formed the backbone of his monumental Reference Grammar of Korean (1993) which provides

2068-421: The tones of Middle Korean, but they have since been lost in all but a few dialects. By contrast, Sino-Vietnamese reflects the Chinese tones fairly faithfully, including the Late Middle Chinese split of each tone into two registers conditioned by voicing of the initial. The correspondence to the Chinese rising and departing tones is reversed from the earlier loans, so the Vietnamese hỏi and ngã tones reflect

2115-533: The words in science magazines. Samuel Martin (linguist) Samuel Elmo Martin (29 January 1924 – 28 November 2009) was an American linguist known for seminal work on the languages of East Asia, a professor at Yale University , and the author of many works on the Korean and Japanese languages. Martin was born in Pittsburg, Kansas on 29 January 1924, and grew up in Emporia, Kansas . During World War II he

2162-485: Was borrowed as koku . The later, less common Tōsō-on borrowings, however, reflect the reduction of final stops in Lower Yangtze Mandarin varieties to a glottal stop, reflected by Japanese /Q/. Middle Chinese had a three-way tonal contrast in syllables with vocalic or nasal endings. As Japanese lacks tones, Sino-Japanese borrowings preserve no trace of Chinese tones. Most Middle Chinese tones were preserved in

2209-513: Was trained as a Japanese Language Officer, and was stationed in Japan at the end of the war. After the war, he enrolled at the University of California, Berkeley , where he majored in Oriental Languages. He graduated in 1947, but stayed on at Berkeley to study for a master's degree in linguistics under Chao Yuen Ren , which he completed in 1949. He then went to Yale University to study for

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